The Integumentary System

The integument is the outer covering of the body, a protective wrapping that includes the skin and all structures derived
from or associated with skin, such as hair, setae, scales, feathers, and horns.

 Mechanical protection

 Moisture proofing

 Important regulatory functions

 Respiratory functions

 Sensory functions

 Excretory functions

A. Survey of the different animal integuments

Invertebrate Integuments

• Many protozoa have only the cell or plasma membrane for external coverings

• Others, such as Paramecium, have developed a protective pellicle.

• Rotifers have cuticles that are thin and support the body.

• In Cnidarians like Hydra the epidermis is only few cell layers thick.
• Cnidarians like corals have mucous glands that secrete calcium carbonate.

• The outer covering of parasitic flukes and take worms is a complex syncytuim called tegument.

 The molluscan epidermis is delicate and soft and contains mucous glands, some of which secrete the calcium
carbonate of the shell.

 Cephalopod molluscs have developed a more complex integument, consisting of cuticle, epidermis, layer of
reflecting cells (iridocytes), and thicker layer of connective tissue.
• Cuticles

• Arachnids and Insects cuticles are thick and rigid and support the body. Such cuticles consist of chitin
and protein in rigid plates that a flexible membrane links together.

• Molting

• Disadvantages of Cuticles are that animals have difficulty to grow within them. So Arthropods undergo
molting.

• Molting

• Epidermis - (more precisely called hypodermis ), which secretes a complex cuticle of two zones in arthropod
integument.

• Procuticle – (the thicker inner zone) is composed of protein and chitin (a polysaccharide) laid down in
layers (lamellae).

• Epicuticle - is a nonchitinous complex of proteins and lipids that provides a protective moisture-proofing
barrier to the integument.

• Calcification – stiffening of cuticle by the deposition of calcium carbonate in the outer layers of the procuticle in
decapod crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters.

• Sclerotization – the formation of a resistant and insoluble protein, sclerotin in insects. It is when protein
molecules bond together with stabilizing cross-linkages within and between adjacent lamellae of the procuticle.
A. Survey of the different animal integuments

Vertebrate Integuments

The basic plan of the vertebrate integument includes:

• Epidermis – a thin, outer stratified epithelial layer, derived from ectoderm.

• Dermis – or true skin, is an inner, thicker layer, which is of mesodermal origin.

Slime Glands

• Many glandular cuticles, but one secretes a protective cuticle.

• Hagfishes: slime glands which produce copious amounts of slime that covers the body surface.

• Slime functions: protection from parasites and prey capture.

Denticles

• Cartilaginous Fish - Sharks and Rays

• Multilayered and contains mucous and sensory cells.

• Dermis: placoid scales called denticles (“little teeth”)

• Denticles: contain blood vessels and nerves

• New denticles are produced to maintain enough of these protective layers. Once they reach maturity,
they do not grow, but wear down and are lost.
 • Sandpaper texture

Mucous Glands of Amphibians

• Throughout evolution, amphibians started developing more keratin which also functions in protecting the cells,
especially the nucleus from UV light.

• The mucous glands help prevent desiccation, aid in gas exchange, and make the body slimy, which is
advantageous when trying to escape predators.

• Poisonous glands produce fluid that can be unpleasant in taste and toxic.

Reptiles

• Stratum corneum - outer layer of the epidermis, it is thick, lacks glands, and is modified into keratinized scales /
scutes (thick scales), beaks in turtles, rattles on snakes, and claws, plaques, and spiny crests on others.

• Thick, keratinized layer, functions in protection, slows down dehydration, and resists abrasions.

• Ecdysis – molting process in reptiles

Chromatophores

• Dermal in origin

• Functions: cryptic coloration, mimicry, and aposematic coloration (warning coloration).

• Color and color change can also occur during sexual recognition as well as when the animal is trying to
thermoregulate.

Preen Glands of Birds

• Uropygial or preen gland functions in oil production and is located in the back, near the base of the tail.
 • Preen gland secretion of some birds have shown to be antimicrobial and may function in improving the health of
the feathers, the bill, and the scales of the legs and feet.

Feathers (plumage) of Birds

• Most complex of the vertebrate stratum corneum.

• Primary functions:

1. Form the flight surfaces that provide lift and aid steering.

2. Prevent excessive heat loss by allowing the endothermic maintenance of high metabolic rates.

3. Roles in courtship, incubation, and waterproofing.

Feathers (plumage) of Birds

Types:

Pennaceous feathers

• Flattened and tightly closed to promote aerodynamics.

 -Prominent shaft (rachis): barbs branch off
 -Barbules branch off the barbs and overlap one another.
 -Hamuli (tiny hooks) interlock with grooves from nearby barbules to keep the feather firm and smooth.

Flight feathers: line the tip and trailing edge of the wing and are asymmetrical

Contour feathers: symmetrical, line the body and cover the base of the flight feathers.

Feathers (plumage) of Birds

Types:

Plumulaceous feathers
- Down feathers

- Barbs and barbules do not interlock and they give the feather a wispy appearance.

- Provide insulation and lie below contour feathers.

Claws, Beaks, Nails, Horns

- Rise from the combination of epidermal keratinized and dermal components.

- Structures are the same, with a central bony core, covered by a vascularized nutritive layer of the dermis and an
outer epithelial layer.

B. The Human Skin and its Derivatives

Integumentary system is composed of the skin and accessory structures (hair, hair follicles, nails, glands & nerves)

• Functions of the integumentary system

• Protects the other body systems from injury and infection

• Helps the body maintain homeostasis by regulating temperature, retaining body fluids, and eliminating
wastes

• Insulates and cushions deeper organs

Skin Layers

Epidermis

- The outermost layer of the skin.

Keratinocytes (90% of the cells) produce keratin which is a tough fibrous protein that provides protection.

Melanocytes which produce the pigment melanin that protects against damage by ultraviolet radiation.
Langerhans cells involved in immune responses, arise from red bone marrow

Merkel cells which function in the sensation of touch along with the adjacent tactile discs .

• stratum corneum -composed of many sublayers of flat, dead keratinocytes called corneocytes or squames that
are continuously shed and replaced by cells from deeper strata; constant friction can stimulate formation of a
callus.

• stratum lucidum - thin, flattened layer of dead cells. is present only in thick skin (the skin of the fingertips,
palms, and soles).

• stratum granulosum - rectangular-shaped cells that become increasingly flattened as they move to the surface
of the epidermis. Includes keratohyalin and lamellar granules.

• stratum spinosum - polyhedral-shaped cells that flatten as they get closer to the stratum granulosum. 8-10
layers of keratinocytes.

• stratum basale  or stratum germinativum - consists of basal cells that produce new skin cells., where continuous
cell division occurs which produces all the other layers.

Skin Layers

DERMIS
- composed of connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers.

- contains specialized cells that help regulate temperature, fight infection, store water, supply blood and nutrients to the
skin, and detection of sensations and give strength and flexibility to the skin.

• Elastin - generated from dermal fibroblasts, this rubbery protein provides elasticity and helps to make the skin
stretchable.

• Hair bulb- forms the base of the hair follicle

• Collagen - generated from dermal fibroblasts, this tough structural protein holds muscles and organs in place
and gives strength and form to body tissues.

• Sensory receptors - nerve endings that transmit sensations such as touch, pain, and heat intensity to the brain.

• Hair follicles - tube-shaped cavities that enclose the hair root and provide nourishment to the hair.

• Sweat glands - regulate body temperature by transporting water to the skin's surface where it can evaporate to
cool down the skin.

• Blood vessels - transport oxygen and nutrients to the skin and remove waste products. These vessels also
transport vitamin D from the skin to the body.

• Lymph vessels- supply lymph (milky fluid containing white blood cells of the immune system) to skin tissue to
fight microbes.

• Sebaceous (oil) glands - secret oil that helps to waterproof the skin and protect against microbe build-up. They
are attached to hair follicles.

• Nerve- provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of
the axons to peripheral organs.

• Arrector pili muscles - are small muscles attached to hair follicles. Contraction of these muscles causes the hairs
to stand on end, known colloquially as goose bumps. 

Hypodermis
 • Composed of fat and loose connective tissue, this layer of the skin insulates the body and cushions and protects
internal organs and bones from injury.

• - The hypodermis also connects skin to underlying tissues through collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers that
extend from the dermis.

• A major component of the hypodermis is a type of specialized connective tissue called adipose tissue that stores
excess energy as fat. Areas of the body in which the hypodermis is most thick include the buttocks, palms, and
soles of the feet.

Accessory Structures
Hair and Hair Follicles

• Composed of keratin and proteins; also dead epidermal cells.

• Hair serves to block foreign particles from entering the body through structures such as the nose and eyes.

• Arise from the epidermis

Hair and Hair Follicles

• The hair follicle is the root with its covering

• Anagen: growing follicle

• Catagen: signals the end of the active growth of a hair.

• Telogen: resting follicle

• Growth:

• Lanugo: fetal hair and lost at birth

• Puberty: coarse hair; grows ½” per month

Nails

• Tightly packed, keratinized cells

• A specialized structure of the epidermis.

Glands

• Function is to help regulate the body temperature and excrete body wastes
 • Four types of glands in the skin (exocrine)

• Sebaceous glands (oil)

• Sudoriferous glands (sweat)

• Ceruminous glands (wax)

• Mammary (milk) glands

Sebaceous (Oil) glands

Secretory in dermis- open into hair shafts

Sebum- combination of cholesterol, proteins, fats, and salts

Keeps hair/skin soft and pliable

Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi

Sudoriferous (sweat) glands

• Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis

Apocrine glands- secrete at hair follicle and active at puberty

• lie deeper in the dermis, sometimes even reaching the hypodermis

 • apocrine sweat includes organic compounds that make the sweat thicker and subject to bacterial decomposition
and subsequent smell
• In dermis with ducts that open into hair follicles
• -Axilla (underarm)
• Perianal (near the anal area)
• Areole, (nipple)
• Periumbilical (around the belly button),

Eccrine glands

• Most areas of the body

• In dermis with ducts to surface
• Regulates body temp w/ perspiration
• produces a hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation

Sudoriferous (sweat) glands

• Some sweat glands produce pheromones.
• Pheromones: chemical that an animal secretes and that communicates with other members of the same
species to elicit certain behavioral responses.
Scent or musk glands:
• Located around the face, feet, or anus
• Secrete pheromones
• Function: defense, species recognition, sex, and territorial behavior
The release of this sweat is under both nervous and hormonal control, and plays a role in the poorly understood
human pheromone response

Ceruminous glands (wax)

 • Modified sweat glands
• Located in auditory canal
• Cerumen- contains secretions of oil and wax glands; barrier for entrance of foreign bodies

Mammary (milk) glands

• Responsible for lactation, or the production of milk.

• After childbirth, progesterone levels decrease and the levels of prolactin remain raised. This signals the
mammary glands to begin lactating.

C. Abnormalities and Disorders

Fungal Skin Infection

Ringworm is a fungal skin infection that causes a red, circular, itchy rash. Ringworm is officially known as tinea or
dermatophytosis. It is referred to by other names depending on the part of the body that is affected. For example,
fungal infection of the feet is athlete's foot or tinea pedia. In the groin area, it is tinea cruris (jock itch).

Hand tinea manus

Nails tinea unguium

Feet Tinea pedis

Scalp Tinea capitis

Feet

Tinea pedis

Scalp Tinea capitis

Bacterial Skin Infection

Cellulitis is a common infection of the skin and the soft tissues underneath the skin. Cellulitis is a potentially serious
bacterial skin infection that is most commonly caused by the Staphylococcus (staph) or Streptococcus (strep) bacteria,
although other types of bacteria can also cause it.

• Redness 
• Warmth 

• Pain and Tenderness 

• Swelling 

Congenital Skin Disorders

Cold Urticaria

• also properly known as familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome, FCAS, is an autosomal dominant condition
characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, fever/chills and arthralgias[4] elicited by exposure to cold - sometimes
temperatures below 22 °C

• The hives are a histamine reaction in response to cold stimuli, including a drastic drop in temperature, cold air,
and cold water. There are many causes for cold hives, most are idiopathic.

• Risk factors:

• Cold weather

• Sweat

• Air conditioning

• Cold food

• Restricted blood flow

Skeletal System

Invertebrate Skeletal System

o are those animals that do not have backbone

o the support system of invertebrates involves the use of external skeletal system and body fluids for their
support.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

Are found primarily in soft-bodied invertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic

Locomotion in earthworms

- involves a fluid-filled central cavity and surrounding circular & longitudinal muscles

- wave of circular followed by longitudinal muscle contractions move fluid down body

- produces forward movement

Locomotion in aquatic invertebrates

-occurs by fluid ejections or jetting

- Jellyfish produce regular pulsations in bell

-squeezing some of water contained beneath it

- Squids fill mantle cavity with sea water

 -Muscular contractions expel water forcefully through the siphon, and the animal shoots backward

Exoskeleton

Surrounds the body as a rigid hard case

- composed of chitin in arthropods

An exoskeleton provides protection for internal organs and a site for muscle attachment

- however, it must be periodically shed, in order for the animal to grow

- it also limit body size

Are rigid internal skeletons that form the body’s framework and offer surfaces for muscle attachment

- Echinoderms have calcite skeletons, that are made of calcium carbonate

-Bone, on the other hand, is made of calcium phosphate

Vertebrate endoskeletons have bone and/or cartilage

- Bone is much stronger that cartilage, and much less flexible

Unlike chitin, bone and cartilage are living tissues’

- they can change and remodel in response to injury or physical stress

Vertebrate Skeletal System

o adult skeleton is usually formed of bone or cartilage- living substances that grow with the animal

o the internal position of bones and their central position in limbs provide firm support for small and large animals
Subdivisions of Skeletal Anatomy

Subdivisions of Skeletal Anatomy

● AXIAL SKELETON

Skull

o most complex part of the skeleton

o consists of facial and cranial bones

o most bones are paired, not all bones joined at sutures

 Vertebral column

o main axis of the body

o flexible rather than rigid

o permits forward, backward and some sideways movement

o Divided into 5 regions:

cervical

thoracic

lumbar

sacral

coccygeal
Rib Cage

o ribs is most joined to sternum by

costal cartilages

o true ribs ( 7 pairs)

o false ribs (5 pairs)

include floating ribs (2 pairs)

Pectoral Girdle

Scapula & clavicle

o only attached to trunk by 1 joint (between sternum and clavicle)

Scapula
o Is very moveable

o acts as almost a 4th segment of limb

o rides freely and is attached by muscles and tendons to ribs but not by bone to bone joint

o flat areas of scapula are used as origins for arm muscles and trunk muscles

Clavicle

o the most frequently broken bone in the body, sometimes even during birth

Pelvic Girdle

o forms large basin of bone – receptacle for many internal organs

o origin of thigh muscle and trunk muscles

o rigid connection to axial skeleton; strength, not flexibility

o large flaring portion = false pelvis

o smaller actual opening = true pelvis

o pelvis consists of a pair of innominate bones (=os coxae) that articulate with sacrum

o In women before birth, it softens to allow expansion of birth canal

o as bipedal animals, the pelvis must support most of the body weight

o viscera bear down on pelvic floor

o Pelvis is funnel shaped; yet must remain large enough for the birth canal

o Pelvis is the easiest part of the skeleton to distinguish between sexes

Upper Arm

o humerus: longest and largest bone of arm

o loosely articulates with scapula by head- glenoid cavity

o large processes of scapula, acromium and coracoid

o have muscles which help to hold in place

Forearm

o very mobile; adds to flexibility of hand

o consists of two bones: radius & ulna

o they are attached along their length by intersosseus membrane

Ulna

o main forearm bone

o firmly joined to humerous at elbow

o large process = olecranon process, extends behind elbow joint

o acts as lever for muscles that extends forearm

Radius

o more moveable of two

o can revolve around ulna to twist lower arm and hand

Upper leg (thigh)

o made up of single bone= femur; largest bone in the body

o head fits in large deep socket= acetabulum of pelvis great strength, less flexibility than humerous

Kneecap (patella)

o a sesamoid bone – bones found where tension or pressure exists

o eg. thumb and large toe

o in tendons at knee joint; does not articulate directly with any other bone

o Acts as kind of a bearing – allows tendon to slide smoothly across knee joint

o if patella is lost through accident or injury get ~30% loss of mobility and strength due to > friction

Lower leg

o consists of two bones: tibia and fibula

Tibia (shinbone)

o main bone, articulates with both femur and foot

o more strength, less mobility

Fibula

o small, offers extra support for lower leg & foot

Functions of Skeletal System

Support

- strong and relatively light; 20% body weight

Movement

- Framework on which muscles act

- Act as levers and pivots

Protection

- brain, lungs, heart, reproductive system

Mineral storage (electrolyte balance)

- 99% of body’s calcium is in bone tissue

(1200-1400g vs. < 1.5g in blood, rest in cells)

Also stores phosphate

Hemopoiesis

- Blood cell formation

Detoxification

- Bone tissue removes heavy metals and other foreign materials from blood

- Can later release these materials more slowly for excretion but this can also have bad consequences

Shape of Bones

Long

- Cylindrical, longer than wide rigid levers for muscle actions e.g crowbars

(e.g. arms, legs, fingers, toes)

Short

- Length nearly equal width

- limited motion, gliding if any

(e.g. carpals, tarsals, patella)

 Shape of Bones

Flat

- Thin sheets of bone tissue enclose and protect organs

- Broad surfaces for muscle attachments

(e.g. sternum, ribs, most skull bones, scapula, os coxa)

Irregular

- Elaborate shapes different from above

(e.g. vertebrae, sphenoid, ethmoid)

Flat bone Irregular Bone

● Bone Structure

SPONGY

Loosely organized bone tissue

COMPACT

closely packed bone tissue

● Cartilage
Resembles bone:

large amount of matrix

lots of collagen fibers

Differs:

Firm flexible gel is not calcified (hardened)

No haversian canal system

No direct blood supply

 nutrients and O2 by diffusion

all bone starts out as cartilage in bone the matrix is hardened (ossified) by calcification (or mineralization)

Microscopic structure of cartilage :

Chondrocytes in lacunae

● Kinds of Cartilage :

● Hyaline – most common

eg. Covers articular surfaces of joints, costal cartilage of ribs, rings of tracheae, nose

● Fibrous – mostly collagen fibers

eg. Discs between vertebrae, pubic symphysis

● Elastic – also has elastic fibers

eg. External ear, eustacean tube

● Articulations

- Joints between bones

 - Hold bones together while usually allowing some movement.

can be classified by:

1.Degree of movement

2. Structure of the joints

Degree of movement

● Synarthroses – Immoveable

● Amphiarthroses – Slightly moveable

● Diathroses – freely moveable

Structure of the joints

● Fibrous Joints – articular surface of both bones

- joined by fibrous connective tissue

● Cartilaginous Joints – articular surface joined by some kind of cartilage

● Synovial joints – articulation is surrounded by joints capsule and synovial membrane.

3 major kinds of joints

1. Immoveable – fibrous

2. Slightly moveable – cartilaginous

3. Freely moveable - synovial

4. es of Gait

Hemiplagic Gait
 Hemiplegic Gait

o gait in which the leg is stiff, without flexion at knee and ankle and with each step is rotated away from the body,
then towards it forming a semicircle.

o can be caused by different medical conditions including congenital causes, trauma, tumors or stroke.

o Weakness of one entire side of the body

Diplegic Gait

Diplegic Gait
o a form of cerebral palsy marked by tense muscles and spasms.

o leg muscles in particular tend to be extremely tight and over time, this causes joints to stiffen, reducing the rate
of motion.

o also known as spastic diplegia

Neuropathic Gait

o abnormality characterized by foot drop due to loss of dorsiflexion. The foot hangs with the toes pointing down,
causing the toes to scape the ground while walking, requiring someone to lift the leg higher than normal when
walking.

o also known as steppage gait

o a deviation from normal walking

Myopathic Gait

o also known as the waddling gait

o Due to the weakness of the proximal muscles of the pelvic girdle.

o The patient uses circumduction to compensate for gluteal weakness.

 o characterized by wide-based steps, swaying or rolling from one side to side, toe-walking, symmetricalness and
due to myopathy and other neuromuscular disorders.

Sensory Gait

o is both a symptom and a sign in neurology.

o It is a form of ataxia (loss of coordination) caused not by cerebellar dysfunction but by loss of sensory input into
the control movement.

o leads to a lack of muscle movement coordination

Abnormalities and Disorders

 Fracture

Fractures

o repairs more slowly than skin; up to 6 months

o usually a result of a trauma

o a fracture can be the result of an acquired disease of bone, such as osteoporosis, or of abnormal formation of
bone in a congenital disease of bone, such as osteogenesis imperfecta

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis

o most common age change is degeneration of joints

o wear and tear arthritis

o rarely occurs before age 40; affects 85% of those over 70 as joints age get gradual softening and loss of articular
cartilage

o as cartilage becomes roughened by wear, joint movements may be accompanied by crunching or cracking
sounds
Osteoarthritis

o affects especially fingers, invertebral joints, hips and knees

o inflammation of bursal sacs around joints

o usually caused by blow and friction

Polydactyly and Syndactyly

-too many or too few fingers and toes

● 3 types of polydactyly

-Ulnar or Postaxial polydactyly (side of the a little finger)

-Radial or Preaxial polydactyly (thumb)

-Central polydactyly (middle, ring, pointer finger)

The Pectoral Girdle

The pectoral girdle bones provide the points of attachment of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. The human pectoral girdle consists of
the clavicle (or collarbone) in the anterior, and the scapula (or shoulder blades) in the posterior (Figure 2).

Figure 2. (a) The pectoral girdle in primates consists of the clavicles and scapulae. (b) The posterior view reveals the spine of the scapula to which muscle attaches.

The clavicles are S-shaped bones that position the arms on the body. The clavicles lie horizontally across the front of the thorax (chest) just
above the first rib. These bones are fairly fragile and are susceptible to fractures. For example, a fall with the arms outstretched causes the
force to be transmitted to the clavicles, which can break if the force is excessive. The clavicle articulates with the sternum and the scapula.

The scapulae are flat, triangular bones that are located at the back of the pectoral girdle. They support the muscles crossing the shoulder
joint. A ridge, called the spine, runs across the back of the scapula and can easily be felt through the skin (Figure 2). The spine of the scapula
is a good example of a bony protrusion that facilitates a broad area of attachment for muscles to bone.

The Upper Limb

Figure 3. The upper limb consists of the humerus of the upper arm, the radius and ulna of the forearm, eight bones of the carpus, five bones of the metacarpus, and 14 bones of
the phalanges.

The upper limb contains 30 bones in three regions: the arm (shoulder to elbow), the forearm (ulna and radius), and the wrist and hand
(Figure 3).

An articulation is any place at which two bones are joined. The humerusis the largest and longest bone of the upper limb and the only bone
of the arm. It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the forearm at the elbow. The forearm extends from the elbow to the
wrist and consists of two bones: the ulna and the radius. The radius is located along the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm and articulates
with the humerus at the elbow. The ulna is located on the medial aspect (pinky-finger side) of the forearm. It is longer than the radius. The
ulna articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The radius and ulna also articulate with the carpal bones and with each other, which in
vertebrates enables a variable degree of rotation of the carpus with respect to the long axis of the limb. The hand includes the eight bones
of the carpus (wrist), the five bones of the metacarpus(palm), and the 14 bones of the phalanges(digits). Each digit consists of three
phalanges, except for the thumb, when present, which has only two.

The Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton. Because it is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and for
locomotion, the pelvic girdle is securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It also has deep sockets with robust ligaments to
securely attach the femur to the body. The pelvic girdle is further strengthened by two large hip bones. In adults, the hip bones, or coxal
bones, are formed by the fusion of three pairs of bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body
at a joint called the pubic symphysis and with the bones of the sacrum at the posterior of the body.

The female pelvis is slightly different from the male pelvis. Over generations of evolution, females with a wider pubic angle and larger
diameter pelvic canal reproduced more successfully. Therefore, their offspring also had pelvic anatomy that enabled successful childbirth
(Figure 4).

Figure 4. To adapt to reproductive fitness, the (a) female pelvis is lighter, wider, shallower, and has a broader angle between the pubic bones than (b) the male pelvis.

The Lower Limb

Figure 5. The lower limb consists of the thigh (femur), kneecap (patella), leg (tibia and fibula), ankle (tarsals), and foot (metatarsals and phalanges) bones.

The lower limb consists of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. The bones of the lower limb are the femur (thigh bone), patella (kneecap), tibia
and fibula (bones of the leg), tarsals (bones of the ankle), and metatarsals and phalanges (bones of the foot) (Figure 5). The bones of the
lower limbs are thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs because of the need to support the entire weight of the body and
the resulting forces from locomotion. In addition to evolutionary fitness, the bones of an individual will respond to forces exerted upon
them.

The femur, or thighbone, is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. The femur and pelvis form the hip joint at the proximal
end. At the distal end, the femur, tibia, and patella form the knee joint. The patella, or kneecap, is a triangular bone that lies anterior to the
knee joint. The patella is embedded in the tendon of the femoral extensors (quadriceps). It improves knee extension by reducing friction.
The tibia, or shinbone, is a large bone of the leg that is located directly below the knee. The tibia articulates with the femur at its proximal
end, with the fibula and the tarsal bones at its distal end. It is the second largest bone in the human body and is responsible for transmitting
the weight of the body from the femur to the foot. The fibula, or calf bone, parallels and articulates with the tibia. It does not articulate
with the femur and does not bear weight. The fibula acts as a site for muscle attachment and forms the lateral part of the ankle joint.

The tarsals are the seven bones of the ankle. The ankle transmits the weight of the body from the tibia and the fibula to the foot.

The metatarsals are the five bones of the foot. The phalanges are the 14 bones of the toes. Each toe consists of three phalanges, except for
the big toe that has only two.