Kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• compare the properties of liquids and solids with those of gases
• apply the kinetic molecular theory to describe liquids and solids
• describe the various intermolecular forces and factors that affect their strengths
• identify the types of intermolecular forces that may operate in a given
molecular substance
• rank substances according to strength of intermolecular forces;
• illustrate the intermolecular forces between molecules of a compound.
Shape and Volume of Liquids and Solids
The common and simple way by which the solid,
liquid, and gaseous phases of matter are distinguished is by Section Objective
comparison of their shapes and volumes. We recall the At the end of this
concepts that: section, you should be able to use
the kinetic molecular model to
1. Matter in the gas state has indefinite shape and explain the shape and volume of
volume. liquids and solids.
2. Matter in the liquid state has indefinite shape and
definite volume.
3. Matter in the solid state has definite shape and volume.

The basic assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) common to the three states of
matter are: they are composed of molecules though not all times for solids and these possess kinetic
energy.
The other assumptions are meant mainly to account for the properties of gases, particularly
those referring to the motion, the amount of kinematic energy, the distance, and the attraction
between the molecules or particles. However, comparison in terms of these assumptions shows the
similarities and differences of matter existing as gases, liquids, and solids.
Thus, the shape and volume of matter in the three states are explained as follows:
1. The shape and volume of gases are not definite because the molecules are widely separated,
have negligible attraction for one another, and are constantly moving rapidly in all
directions so they can fill any shape and size of container.
2. Liquid molecules are close enough to touch one another. They have attractive forces to
keep them together so that the total volume of a certain amount of them is definite. Since
they can still move, slipping and sliding over one another, the liquid continues to conform
to the shape of its container.

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 3. Solid particles are closely packed because of strong attractive forces among them. Their
low kinetic energies cause them to stay in fixed positions, resulting in definite shape and
volume. At the atomic level, however, vibrational motion of the molecules is observed.

Section Assessment
1. How do liquids and solids compare with gases in terms of attractive forces?
2. How are attractive forces related to the motion and the amount of kinetic energy of the
particles?

Intermolecular Forces

From the preceding section, we have noted that

the differences in properties of matter in the gas phase Section Objectives:
from those in the liquid and solid phases can be At the end of this section,
attributed to liquid and solid molecules having attractive you should be able to:
forces between them, while gas molecules have
1. Describe and
negligible or no attractions at all. differentiate the types of
We know that there are forces that hold intermolecular forces,
and
molecules together because gaseous substances 2. Predict the
condense to form liquids which in turn, form solids. intermolecular forces
possible for molecules.
Now let us look into these forces which are
called intermolecular forces, or sometimes, noncovalent
bonds.
Intermolecular forces include dipole-dipole forces, ion-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding,
and London dispersion forces. Collectively, these intermolecular forces are also known as van der
Waals forces, named after a Dutch chemist, Johannes Van Der Waal (1837-1923).
Van der Waals forces are fundamentally electrical in natures; that is, they result from the
attraction between centers of opposite charge in two molecules close to each other.
When two nonpolar molecules approach each other, the electron clouds in which the
positive nuclei are embedded repel each other. This distorts or polarizes each molecule that gives
rise to included dipoles and weak Van der Waals forces which momentarily exist between them.
The greater the number of atoms in a molecule, the more readily it is polarized. Hence, in general,
Van der Waals forces increase with increasing molecular weight.
In other words, Van der Waals attractive forces are formed when the molecules are close
enough such that one molecule produces varying electrical fields within itself as it is affected by

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the electrical fields of the adjacent molecules. Thus, the induced polarization of molecules
produced by the fluctuations of charges cause those close enough and properly oriented molecules
to attract each other.
The Van der Waals type of attraction between nonpolar groups is a nonspecific attractive
force between two molecules that are about 3 to 4 Angstrom apart. It is a weak interaction with a
bond energy of about 1 kcal/mol for a pair of atoms. It is considered weaker than electrostatic and
hydrogen bonds, but nonetheless, important.

Dipole-dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole interaction is the attraction of bond dipoles in different molecules. Bond
dipoles arise from the unequal sharing of electrons by covalently bonded atoms. The tendency of
dipoles to be perfectly oriented with respect to one another is observed to be effective at reasonably
larger distances than Van der Waals forces.
The following are illustrations of the manner by which dipole-dipole forces act.

Figure 1.1. Dipole-dipole Attraction Figure 1.2. HCl Dipole

Another representation of dipole-dipole interaction between HCl molecules is:

( The solid lines represent covalent bonds; the dotted lines are dipole-dipole forces.)
For water molecules, the dipole-dipole interaction is represented as:

In which the hydrogens from the + end and the O forms the -end of the water dipole.
Ion -Dipole Forces
These forces exist when polar molecules are attracted to ions. The positive pole is attracted
to a negative ion (anion), while the negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).

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 Ion-dipole interactions are involved in solution processes like in the case of sodium
chloride dissolving in water. When, for example, sodium chloride crystal is placed in water, the
polar ends of the water molecules exert attractive forces on the surface ions of the crystal (Oδ- ends
attracts Na+ ions as shown in Figure 1.5. (A); Hδ+ ends attracts Cl- ions as shown in Figure 1.5.(B)
and pull them away from each other, preventing them from rejoining as each ion is surrounded by
water molecules.

London Dispersion Forces (LDF) or London Forces, or simply Dispersion Forces

LDF, also called London Forces or simply dispersion forces, are weak attractions that are
used to explain the attraction between nonpolar molecules as it is apparent that even nonpolar
molecules can have dipoles for short periods of time. Dispersion forces increase with increasing
molecular mass and decrease with increasing distances between the molecules. This explains why
the boiling and melting points of homologous nonpolar molecules (e.g., straight-chain
hydrocarbons) increase regularly with increasing mass.
Although dispersion forces are only one type of van der Waals forces, some books use the
term van der Waals forces exclusively for dispersion forces.

Hydrogen Bond or Hydrogen Bridge

The hydrogen bond is a weak bond formed when a hydrogen with partial positive charge
(a hydrogen bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom) is close to an atom in a molecule with
lone pairs of electrons or with excess electronic charge (negative). It is formed as a result of weak
electrostatic interaction between the partially positive hydrogen and the negative group or lone
pair of electrons.
It is a weak type of electrostatic attraction (2 to 10kcal/mol). The strength of the H bond is
influenced by the electronegativity of the atom to which it is bonded.
The H bond can be looked upon as bridge between twoo highly electronegative atoms,
either F, O, or N, with the latter being covalently bonded to other hydrogens.
Examples of H bonds are shown below. In set A, H bonds are between molecules; Set B,
the bonds are between different molecules.

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 Note: Compounds that have significant
hydrogen bonding ability are those that
contain hydrogen covalently bonded to
F, O, or N.

These intermolecular forces are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds, but their
importance cannot be underestimated. They are responsible for determining whether a molecular
compound is a gas, a liquid, or a solid at a given temperature. They also account for the differences
in some physical properties of matter in the different phases.

Reference:

General Chemistry 2 (First Edition)

Authors:
Luciana V. Ilao
Betty M. Lontoc
Edwehna Ellinore S. Paderna-Gayon
Coordinator:
Josefina Gironella-Belen

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