CHAPTER 8

Evaporation

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.lA Purpose
In Section 4.8 we discussed the case of heat transfer to a boiling liquid. An important
instance of this type of heat transfer occurs quite often in the process industries and is
given the general name evaporatiorl. In evaporation the vapor from a boiling liquid
solution is removed and a more concentrated solution remains. In the majority of cases
the unit operation evaporation refers to the removal of water from an aqueous solution.
Typical examples of evaporation are concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar,
sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk, and orange juice. In these cases
the concentrated solution is the desired product and the evaporated water is normally
discarded. In a few cases, water, which has a small amount of minerals, is evaporated to
give a solids-free water which is used as boiler feed, for special chemical processes, or for
other purposes, Evaporation processes to evaporate seawater to provide drinking water
have been developed and used. In some cases, the primary purpose of evaporation is to
concentrate the solution so that upon cooling, salt crystals will form and be separated.
This special evaporation process, termed crystallization, is discussed in Chapter 12.

8.1 B Processing Factors

The physical and che'mical properties of the solution being concentrated and of the vapor
being removed have a great effect on the type of evaporator used and on the pressure and
temperature of the process. Some of these properties which affect the processing methods
are discussed next.

f. Concentrotion ill [he liquid. Usually, the liquid feed to an evaporator is relatively
dilute, so its viscosity is low, similar to water, and relatively high heat-transfer coefficients
are obtained. As evaporation proceeds, the solution may become very concentrated and
quite viscous, causing the heat-transfer coefficient to drop markedly. Adequate circu-
lation and/or turbulence must be present to keep the coefficient from becoming too low.

489
2. Solubility. As solutions are heated and concentration of the solute or salt increases,
the solubility limit of the material in solution may be exceeded and crystals may form.
This may limit the maximum concentration in solution which can be obtained by
evaporation. In Fig. 8.1-1 some solubilities of typical salts in water are shown as a
function of temperature. In most cases the solubility of the salt increases with temper-
ature. This means that when a hot concentrated solution from an evaporator is cooled to
room temperature, crystallization may occur.

3. Temperature sensitivity of materials. Many products, especially food and other bio-
logical materials, may be temperature-sensitive and degrade at higher temperatures or
after prolonged heating. Such products are pharmaceutical products; food products such
as milk, orange juice, and vegetable extracts; and fine organic chemicals. The amount of
degradation is a function of the temperature and the length of time.

4. Foaming or frothing. In some cases materials composed of caustic solutions, food

solutions such as skim milk, and some fatty acid solutions form a foam or froth during
boiling. This foam accompanies the vapor coming out of the evaporator and entrainment
losses occur.

5. Pressure and temperature. The boiling point of the solution is related to the pressure
of the system. The higher the operating pressure of the evaporator, the higher the
temperature at boiling. Also, as the concentration of the dissolved material in solution
increases by evaporation, the temperature of boiling may rise. This phenomenon is cal1ed
boiling-point rise or elevation and is discussed in Section 8.4. To keep the temperatures
low in heat-sensitive materials, it is often necessary to operate under 1 atm pressure, i.e.,
under vacuum.

6. Scale deposition and materials of f:Onstnlction. Som'e solutions deposit solid materials
called scale on the heating surfaces. These could be formed by decomposition products or
solubility decreases. The result is that the overal1 heat-transfer coefficient decreases and
the evaporator must eventually be cleaned. The materials of construction of the evapor-
ator are important to minimize corrosion.

100
KN0 3 /
~
...
....
..... '"
'"
~
<!)

75 \! KCl

l
til
OIl
OIl ..'« / Na'2 S0 4
..'« 0 ,

'----.-/
.....>-.
0
50
/
/..
----- ---
::::
.0
--~
2
a
CI)
25
/
/
--r
K 2 S0 4
50 100
Temperature (OC)

FIGURE 8.1-1. SolubiliCy curves for some typical sales in water.

490 Chap. 8 Evapor(l/ioll

8.2 TYPES OF EV APORA TION EQUIPMENT
AND OPERATION METHODS

8.2A General Types of Evapmators

In evaporation, heat is added to a solution to vaporize the solvent, which is usually
water. The heat is generally provided by the condensation of a vapor such as steam on
one side of a metal surface with the evaporating liquid on the other side. The type of
equipment used depends primarily on the configuration of the heat-transfer surface and
on the means employed to provide agitation or circulation of the liquid. These general
types are discussed below.

I. Open kettle or pan. The simplest form of evaporator consists of an open pan or kettle
in which the liquid is boiled. The heat is supplied by condensation of steam in a jacket or
in coils immersed in the liquid. In some cases the kettle is direct-fired. These evaporators
are inexpensive and simple to operate, but the heat economy is poor. In some cases,
paddles or scrapers for agitation are used.

2. Horizontal-tube natura/ circulation evaporator. The horizontal-tube natural circu-

lation evaporator is shown in Fig. 8.2-la. The horizontal bundle of heating tubes is
similar to the bundle of tubes in a heat exchanger. The s team enters into the tubes, where
it condenses. The steam condensate leaves at the other end of the tubes. The boiling-
liquid solution covers the tubes. The vapor leaves the liquid surface, often goes through
some deentraining device such as a bame to prevent carryover of liquid droplets, and
leaves out the top. This type is relatively cheap and is used for nonviscous liquids having
high heat-transfer coefficients and liquids that do not deposit scale. Since liquid circu-
lation is poor, they are unsuitable for viscous liquids. In almost all cases, this evaporator
and the types discussed below are operated continuously, where the feed enters at a
constant rate and the concentrate leaves at a constant rate.

3. Vertical-lype natural circu/arion evaporato!. In this type of evaporator, vertical

rather than horizontal tubes are used, and the liquid is inside the tubes and the steam
condenses outside the tubes. Because of boiling and decreases in density, the liquid rises
in the tubes by natural circulation as shown in Fig. 8.2-1b and flows downward through
a large central open space or downcomer. This natural circulation increases the heat-
transfer coefficient. It is not used with viscous liquids. This type is often called the
short-tube evaporator. A variation of this is the basket type, where vertical tubes are used,
but the heating element is held suspended in the body so there is an annular open space
as the downcomer. The basket type differs from the vertical natural circulation evapor-
ator, which has a central instead of annular open space as the downcomer. This type is
widely used in the sugar, salt, and caustic soda industries.

4. Long-tube vertical-type evaporator. Since the heat-transfer coefficient on the steam

side is very high compared to that on the evaporating liquid side, high liquid velocities
are desirable. In a long-tube vertical-type evaporator shown in Fig. 8.2-1 c, the liquid is
inside the tubes. The tubes are 3 to 10 m long and the formation of vapor bubbles inside
the tubes causes a pumping action giving quite high liquid velocities. Generally, the
liquid passes through the tubes only once and is not recirculated. Contact times can be
quite low in this type. In some cases, as when the ratio of feed to evaporation rate is low,
natural recirculation of the product through the evaporator is done by adding a large
pipe connection between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. This is widely used
for producing condensed milk.

Sec. 8.2 Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operation Methods 491

 5. Falling-film-type evaporator. A variation of the long-tube type is the falling-film
evaporator, wherein the liquid is fed to the top of the tubes and flows down the walls as a
thin film. Vapor-liquid separation usually takes place at the bottom. This type is widely
used for concemrating heat-sensitive materials such as orange juice and other fruit juices,
because the holdup time is very small (5 to 10 s or more) and the heat-transfer coefficients
are high

6. Forced-circulation-type evaporator. The liquid-film heat-transfer coefficient can be

increased by pumping to cause forced circulation of the liquid inside the tubes. This
could be done in the long-tube vertical type in Fig. 8.2-1c by adding a pipe connection
with a pump between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. However, usually in a
forced-circulation type, the vertical tubes are shorter than in the long-tube type, and this

tvapor tvapor

~ffi~~~
feed- feed _ _
-steam

-;;;~

condensate
concentrate
~
concentrate
(a) (b)

r apor

stearn ----+-

condensate

condensate - 0 - -
t
concentrate
t (d)
feed
(c)

FIGURE 8.2-1. Different types oj evaporators: (a) horizontal-lube type, (b) vertical-
wbe lype, (e) long-tube vertical type, {d)Joreed-cirC!1lation eype.

492 Chap. 8 Evaporation

 type is shown in Fig. 8.2-1d. Also, in other cases a separate and external horizontal heat
exchanger is used. This type is very useful for viscous liquids.

7. Agitated-film evaporator. In an evaporator the main resistance to heat transfer is on

the liquid side. One way to increase turbulence in this film, and hence the heat-transfer
coefficient, is by actual mechanical agitation of this liquid film. This is done in a modified
falling-film evaporator with only a single large jacketed tube containing an internal
agitator. Liquid enters at the top of the tube and as it flows downward, it is spread out
into a turbulent film by the veitical agitator blades. The concentrated solution leaves at
the bottom .and vapor leaves through a separator and out the top. This type of evapor-
ator is very useful with highly viscous materials, since the heat-transfer coefficient is
greater than in forced-circulation evaporators. It is used with heat-sensitive viscous
materials such as rubber latex, gelatin, antibiotics, and fruit juices. However, it has a high
cost and small capacity. For interested readers, Perry and Green (P2) give more
detailed discussions and descriptions of evaporation equipment.

8. Open-pan solar evaporator. A very old but yet still used process is solar evaporation
in open pans. Salt water is put in shallow open pans or troughs and allowed to evaporate
slowly in the sun to crystallize the salt.

8.2B Metbods of Operation of Evaporators

1. Single-effect evaporators. A simplified diagram of a single-stage or single-effect evap-

orator is given in Fig. 8.2-2. The feed enters at TF K and saturated steam at Ts enters the
heat-exchange section. Condensed steam leaves as condensate or drips. Since the solu-
tion in the evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed, the concentrated product and
the solution in the evaporator have the same composition and temperature T 1 , which is
the boiling point of the solution. The temperature of the vapor is also T1 , since it is in
equilibrium with the boiling solution. The pressure is PI' which is the vapor pressure of
the solution at T 1•
If the solution to be evaporated is assumed to be dilute and like water, then 1 kg of
steam condensing will evaporate approximately 1 kg of vapor. This will hold if the feed
entering has a temperature TF near the boiling point.
The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the calculation of the
rate of heat transfer in an evaporator. The general equation can be written

(8.2-1)

e
rva_p,-o_r_ _T_l-.- to condenser

feed, Tp heat-exchange tubes

steam, Ts
condensate
Tl
' - - - - - - - concentrated product
F1GURE 8.2-2. Simplified diagram of sillgle-ejfecr evaporator.

Sec. 8.2 Types of Evaporalion Equipment ami Operatioll Methods 493

where q is the rate of heat transfer in W (btu/h), U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient
in W/m 2 . K (btujh· ft2. OF), A is the heat-transfer area in m 2 (ft2), 1S is the temperature of
the condensing steam in K ("F), and Tl is the boiling point of the liquid in KeF).
Single-effect evaporators are often used when the required capacity of operation is
relatively small and/or the cost of steam is relatively cheap compared to the evaporator
cost. However, for large-capacity operation, using more than one effect will markedly
reduce steam costs.

2. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators. A single-effect evaporator as shown in Fig.

8.2-2 is wasteful of energy since the latent heat of the vapor leaving is not used but is
discarded. However, much of this latent heat can be recovered and reused by employing
multiple-effect evaporators. A simplified diagram of a forward-feed triple-effect evapo-
ration system is shown in Fig. 8.2-3.
If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point at the pressure in the first effect,
1 kg of steam will evaporate almost 1 kg of water. The first effect operates at a
high-enough temperature so that the evaporated water serves as the heating medium to
the second effect. Here, again, almost another kg of water is evaporated, which can be
used as the heating medium to the third effect. As a very rough approximation, almost
3 kg of water will be evaporated fo r 1 kg of steam for a three-effect evaporator. Hence, the
steam economy, which is kg vapor evaporatedjkg steam used, is increased. This also
approximately holds for a number of effects over three. However, this increased steam
economy of a multiple-effect evaporator is gained at the expense of the original first cost
of these evaporators.
In forward-feed operation as shown in Fig. 8.2-3, the fresh feed is added to the first
effect and flows to the next in the same direction as the vapor flow. This method of
operation is used when the feed is hot or when the final concentrated product might be
damaged at high temperatures. The boiling temperatures decrease from effect to effect.
This means that if the first effect is at P 1 1 atm abs pressure, the last effect will be under
vacuum at a pressure P 3'

3. Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators. In the backward-feed operation shown in

Fig. 8.2-4 for a triple-effect evaporator, the fresh feed enters the last and coldest effect and
continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect. This method of reverse
feed is advantageous when the fresh feed is cold, since a smaller amount of liquid must be
heated to the higher temperatures in the second and first effects. However, liquid pumps

vapor T j vapor T2 vapor T 3 to vacuum

condenser

feed, TF (l) (2)

steam, Ts
condensate

coiic:en trate concentrate concentrated

from first from second product
effect effect

FIGURE 8.2-3. Simplified diagram oJJorward-Jeed triple-effect evaporator.

494 Chap. 8 Evaporalion

 vapor vapor vapor

(1) (2) (3)

feed

steam

concentrated
product

FIGURE 8.2-4. Simplified diagram of backward-feed triple-effect evaporator.

are used in each effect, since the flow is from low to high pressure. This method is also
used when the concentrated product is higq}y viscous. The high temperatures in the early
effects reduce the viscosity and give reasonable heat-transfer coefficients.

4. Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators. Parallel feed in multiple-effect evaporators

involves the adding of fresh feed and the withdrawal of concentrated product from each
effect. The vapor from each effect is still used to heat the next effect. This method of
operation is mainly used when the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals are the
product, as in the evaporation of brine to make salt.

8.3 OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

IN EV APORA TORS

The overall heat-transfer coefficient U in an evaporator is composed of the steam-side

condensing coelTicient, which has a value of about 5700 W/m 2 . K (1000 btu/h· ft2. OF);
the metal wa1l, which has a high thermal conductivity and usually has a negligible
resistance; the resistance of the scale on the liquid side; and the liquid film coelTicient,
which is usually inside the tubes.
The steam-side condensing coefficient outside the tubes can be estimated using Eqs.
(4.8-20H4.8-26). The resistance due to scale formation usually cannot be predicted.
Increasing the velocity of the liquid in the tubes greatly decreases the rate of scale
formation. This is one important advantage of forced-circulation evaporators. The scale
can be salts, such as calcium sulfate and sodium sulfate, which decrease in solubility with
an increase in temperature and hence tend to deposit on the hot tubes.
For forced-circulation evaporators the coefficient h inside the tubes can be predicted
if there is little or no vaporization inside the tube. The liquid hydrostatic head in the
tubes prevents most boiling in the tubes. The standard equations for predicting the h
value of liquids inside tubes can be used. Velocities used often range from 2 to 5 m/s (7 to
15 ft/s). The heat-transfer coefficient can be predicted from Eq. (4.5-8), but using a
constant of 0.028 instead of 0.027 (B 1). If there is some or appreciable boiling in part or
all of the tubes, the use of the equation assuming no boiling will give conservative safe
res ults (P 1).
For long-tube vertical natural circulation evaporators the heat-transfer coelTicient is
more dilTicult to predict, since there is a nonboiling zone in the bottom of the tubes and a
boiling zone in the top. The length of the nonboiling zone depends on the heat transfer in
the two zones and the pressure drop in the boiling two-phase zone. The film heat-transfer

Sec. 83 Overall Ilea t-Trans/e r Coefficients in Evaporators 495

 TABLE 8.3-1. Typical Heat-Transfer Coefficients for Various Evaporators*
(B3. B4. LI. P2)

Overall U

Type of Evaporator Btu./h ·ft2 . of

Short-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500

Horizontal-tube, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500
Long-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-4000 200-700
Long-tube vertical, forced circulation 2300-11000 400-2000
Agitated film 680-2300 120-400

• Generally, non viscous liquids ha ve the higher coefficients and viscous liquids the lower coefficients
in the ranges given.

coet1icient in the nonboiling zone can be estimated using Eq. (4.5-8) with a constant of
0.028. For the boiling two-phase zone, a number of equations are given by Perry and
Green (P2).
For short-tube vertical evaporators the heat-transfer coefficients can be estimated
by using the same methods as for the long-tube vertical natural circulation evaporators.
Horizontal-tube evaporators have heat-transfer coefficients of the same order of mag-
nitude as the short-tube vertical evaporators:
For the agitated-film evaporator, the heat-transfer coefficient may be estimated
using Eq. (4.13-4) for a scraped surface heat exchanger.
The methods given above are useful for actual evaporator design and/or for evalu-
ating the effects of changes in operating conditions on the coet1icients. In making
preliminary designs or cost estimates, it is helpful to ha ve available overall heat-transfer
coefficients usually encountered in commercial practice. Some preliminary values and
ranges of values for various types of evaporators are given in Table 8.3-1.

8.4 CALCULATION METHODS FOR

SINGLE-EFFECT EV APORATOll.5

8.4A Heat and Material Balances for Evap<>rators

The basic equation for solving for the capacity of a single-effect evaporator is Eq. (8.2-1),
which can be written as
q UA 6.T (8.4-1)

where 6. T K CF) is the difference in temperature between the condensing steam and the
. _ boiling liquid in theevaporator, In order to solve Eq. (8.4-1) the value of q in W (btu/h)
must be determined by making a heat and material balance on the evaporator shown in
Fig. 8.4-1. The feed to the evaporator is F kg/h(lb.,jh) having a solids content OfXF mass
fraction, temperature TF , and enthalpy hF J/kg (btu/Ibm). Coming out as a liquid is the
concentrated liquid L kgJh (Ibmlh) having a solids content of XL' temperature T 1 , and
enthalpy h L • The vapor V kgJh (Ib.,jh) is given ofT as pure solvent having a solids content
of Yv = 0, temperature T 1 , and enthalpy fI v. Saturated steam entering is S kgJh (lb.Jh)
and has a temperature of Ts and enthalpy of H s' The condensed s team lea ving of S kgJh
is assumed usually to be at Ts , the saturation temperature, with an enthalpy ofh s . This

496 Chap. 8 Evaporation

means that the steam gives off only its latent heat, which is A., where

A. = Hs hs (8.4-2)
Since the vapor V is in equilibrium with the liquid L, the temperatures of vapor and
liquid are the same. Also, the pressure PI is the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid of
composition XL at its boiling point T1 • (This assumes no boiling-point rise.)
For the material balance since we are at steady state, the rate of mass in rate of
mass out. Then, for a total balance,

(8.4-3)
For a balance on the solute (solids) alone,

FXF = LXL (8.4-4)

For the heat balance, since the total heat entering = total heat leaving,
heat in feed + heat in steam
= heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor + heat in condensed steam (8.4-5)
This assumes no heat lost by radiation or convection. Substituting into Eq. (8.4-5),
. FhF + SHs LhL + VHy + Shs (8.4-6)
Substituting Eq. (8.4-2) into (8.4-6),

FhF+SA=Lh L + VHv (8.4-7)

The heat q transferred in the evaporator is then
q = S(Hs hs ) = SA. (8.4-8)
In Eq. (8.4-7) the latent heat A. of steam at the saturation temperature Ts can be
obtained from the steam tables in Appendix A.2. However, the enthalpies of the feed and
products are often not available. These enthalpy--concentration data are available for
only a few substances in solution. Hence, some approximations are made in order to
make a heat balance. These are as follows.
1. It can be demonstrated as an approximation that the latent heat of evaporation of
I kg mass of the water from an aqueous solution can be obtained from the steam
tables using,the temperature of the boiling solution 1'. (exposed surface temperature)
rather than the equilibrium temperature for pure water at PI'
2. If the heat capacities c pF of the liquid feed and CpL of the product are known, they can
be used to calculate the enthalpies. (This neglects heats of dilution, which in most
cases are not known.)

FIGURE 8.4-1. Heat and mass balance for vapor V

single-effect evaporator.
feed F

condensate S
Ts,h s

concentrated liq uid L

T1,xL,hL

Sec. 8.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators 497

 EXAMPLE 8.4-1. Heat-Transfer Area in Single-Effect Evaporator
A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg/h of a LO wt %
salt solution entering at 31 LO K (37.8°C) to a final concentration of
1.5 wt %. The vapor space of the evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm abs)
and the steam supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa. The overall coefficient
U = 1704 W/m2 . K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product and
the heat-transfer area required. Assume that, since it is dilute, the solution
has the same boiling point as water.
Solution: The flow diagram is the same as that in Fig. 8.4-1. For the
material balance, substituting into Eq. (8.4-3),
F=L+ V (8.4-3)
9072 L + V
Substituting into Eq. (8.4-4) and solving,
FXF = LXL (8.4-4)
9072(0.01) L(0.015)
L = 6048 kg/h of liquid
Substituting into Eq. (8.4-3) and solving, "
V = 3024 kg/h of vapor
The heat capacity of the feed is assumed to be c pF = 4.14 kJ/kg' K.
(Often, for feeds of inorganic salts in water, the c p can be assumed approxi-
mately as that of water alone.) To make a heat balance using Eq. (8.4-7), it is
convenient to select the boiling point of the dilute solution in the evapo-
rator, which is assumed to be that of water at 101.32 kPa, ~ = 373.2 K
(100°C), as the datum temperature. Then JIv is simply the latent heat of
water at 373.2 K, which from the steam tables in Appendix A.2 is 2257 kJ/kg
(970.3 btu/Ibm). The latent heat ). of the steam at 143.3 kPa [saturation
temperature 1S = 383.2 K (230°F)] is 2230 kJ/kg (958.8 btuflb,J.
The enthalpy of the feed can be calculated from
(8.4-9)
Substituting into Eq. (S.4-7) with ilL = 0, since it is at the datum of 373.2 K,
9072(4.14)(311.0 373.2) + 5(2230) = 6048(0) + 3024{2257)
S = 4108 kg steamjh
The heat q transferred through the heating surface area A is, from Eq.
(8.4-S),
q = 5(l) (8.4-8)
q = 4108(2230)(I000j36QO) = 2544000 W
Substituting into Eq. (8.4-1), wherell T = IS - T 1,
q = 2544 000 = UA II T = 1704(AX383.2 373.2)
Solving, A = 149.3 m 2 •

8AB Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation

J. Effect offeed temperature. The inlet temperature of the feed has a large effect on the
operation of the evaporator. In Example S.4-1 the feed entering was at a cold temper-

498 Chap. 8 Evaporation

ature of 311.0 K compared to the boiling temperature of 373.2 K. About i of the steam
used for heating was used to heat the cold feed to the boiling point. Hence, only about
:i of the steam was left for vaporization of the feed. If the feed is under pressure and enters
the evaporator at a temperature above the boiling point in the evaporator, additional
vaporization is obtained by the flashing of part of the entering hot feed. Preheating the
feed can reduce the size of evaporator heat-transfer area needed.

2. Effect of pressure. In Example 8.4-1 the pressure of 101.32 kPa abs was used in the
vapor space of the evaporator. This set the boiling point of the solution at 373.2 K and
gave a 6. T for use in Eq. (8.4- 1) of 383.2 373.2, or 10K. In many cases a larger 6. T is
desirable, since, as the 6. T increases, the heating-surface area A and cost of evaporator
decrease. To reduce the pressure below 101.32 kPa, Le., to be under vacuum, a condenser
and vacuum pump can be used. For example, if the pressure were reduced to 41A kPa,
the boiling point of water would be 349.9 K and the new 6. T would be 383.2 349.9, or
33.3 K. A large decrease in heating-surface area would be obtained.

3. Effect of steam pressure. Using higher pressure, saturated steam increases the 6. T,
which decreases the size and cost of the evaporator. However, high-pressure steam .is
more costly and also is often more valuable as a source of power elsewhere. Hence,
overall economic balances are really needed to determine the optimum steam pressures.

SAC Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions

In the majority of cases in evaporation the solutions are not such dilute solutions as
those considered in Example 8.4-1. In most cases, the thermal properties of the solution
being evaporated may differ considerably from those of water. The concentrations of the
solutions are high enough so that the heat capacity and boiling point are quite different
from that of water. .
For strong solutions of dissolved solutes the boiling-point rise due to the solutes in
the solution usually cannot be predicted. However, a useful empirical law known as
Diihring's rule can be used. In this rule a straight line is obtained if the boiling point ofa
solution in °C or OF is plotted against the boiling point of pure water at the same pressure
for a given concentration at different pressures. A different straight line is obtained for
each given concentration. In 8.4-2 such a Diihring line chart is given for solutions of
sodium hydroxide in water. It is necessary to know the boiling point of a given solution
at only two pressures to determine a line.

EXAMPLE 8.4-1. Use of Diihring Chart for Boiling-Point Rise

As an example of use of the chart, the pressure in an evaporator is given as
25.6 kPa (3.72 psia) and a solution of 30% NaOH is being boiled. Determine
the boiling temperature of the NaOH solution and the boiling-point rise
BPR of the
.. . solution over that of water at the same pressure.
Solution: From the steam tables in Appendix A.2, the boiling point of
water at 25.6 kPa is 65.6°C. From Fig. 8.4-2 for 65.6°C (l50°F) and 30%
NaOH, the boiling point of the NaOH solution is 79SC (l75°F). The
boiling-point rise is 79.5 - 65.6 13.9°C (25°F).

In Perry and Green (P2) a chart is given to estimate the boiling-point rise of a large
number of common aqueous solutions used in chemical and biological processes. In
addition to the common salts and solutes, such as NaNO] , NaOH, NaCI, and H 2 S0 4 ,
the biological solutes sucrose, citric acid, kraft solution, and glycerol are g.iven. These

Sec. 8.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators 499

 Boiling point of water (0C)
o 25 50 75 100 125

125
G
°
"-'
s::::
.9
......
-+-+-t--if-t-+-"--i-.:r- 100
oen ;:l

<U
"0
'xo
75 ....
"0
>.
.s::::
E
;:t
:.ao
en
'-' , '-'
o : o
, I

25

50 100 150 200 250 300

Boiling point of water (F)
FIGURE 8.4-2. Diihring linesfor aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide.

biological solutes have quite small boiling-point-rise values compared to those of

common salts.

8.40 Enthalpy-Concentration Charts of Solutions

If the heat of solution of the aqueous solution being concentrated in the evaporator is
large, neglecting it could cause errors in the heat balances. This heat-of-solution
phenomenon can be explained as follows. If pellets of NaOH are dissolved in a given
amount of water, it is found that a considerable temperature rise occurs; i.e., heat is
evolved, called heat oj solution. The amount of heat evolved depends on the type of
substance and on the amount of water used. Also, if a strong solution of NaOH is diluted
to a lower concentration, heat is liberated. Conversely, if a solution is concentrated from
a low to a high concentration, heat must be added.
In Fig. 8.4-3 an enthalpy-concentration chart for NaOH is given (MI) where the
enthalpy is in kJ/kg (btu/Ibm) solution, temperature in °C (OF), and concentration in
weight fraction NaOH in solution. Such enthalpy-concentration charts are usually not
made for solutions having negligible heats of solution, since the heat capacities can be

500 Chap. 8 Evaporation

easily used to calculate enthalpies. Also, such charts are available for only a few
solutions.
The enthalpy of the liquid water in Fig. 8.4-3 is referred to the same datum or
reference state as in the steam tables, i.e., liquid water at DoC (273 K). This means that
enthalpies from the figure can be used with those in the steam tables. In Eq. (8.4-7) values
for hF and hL can be taken from Fig. 8.4-3 and values for A and H y from the steam tables.
The uses of Fig. 8.4-3 will be best understood in the following example.

EXAMPLE 8.4-3. Evaporation of an NaO H Solution

An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kgfh (10000 Ib.Jh) of a 20%
solution of NaOH in water entering at 60°C (140°F) to a product of 50%
solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4 kPa (25 psia) and
the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 11.7 kPa (1.7 psia). The
overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1560 W 1m2. K (275 btu/h' ft2 . OF). Calcu-
late the steam used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam used, and
the heating surface area in m 2 •
Solution:. The process flow diagram and nomenclature are the same as
given in Fig. 8.4-1. The given variables are F 4536 kgfh, x F 0.20 wt
fraction, TF 60°C, PI 11.7 kPa, steam pressure 172.4 kPa, and XL =
0.50 wt fraction. For the overall material balance, substituting into Eq.
(8.4-3),

F = 4536 L + V (8.4-3)

600

r-.
i::
500
~g
:::J
"0
'"
.....,
..;.:
'-../

300 >.
..c:
P<
-;
..c:
+-'
i::
200 p:.:j

100

Concentration (wt fraction NaOH)

FIGURE 8.4-3. Enchaipy-concencracion chartJor the system NaOH-water. [ReJerence
slate: liquid water at O°C (273 K) or 32°F.] [From W. L. McCabe,
Trans. A.l.Ch.E., 31, ! 29 (/935). With permission.]

Sec. 8.4 Calculation Methods Jar Single-Effect Evaporators 501

 Substituting into Eq. (8.4-4) and solving (8.4-3) and (8.4-4) simultaneously,
(8.4-4)
4536(0.20) = L(0.50)
L = 1814 kg/h V 2722 kg/h
To determine the boiling point Tl of the 50% concentrated solution, we
first obtain the boiling point of pure water at 11.7 kPa from the steam tables,
Appendix A.2, as 48.9°C (120°F). From the Diihring chart, Fig. 8.4-2, for a
boiling point of water of 48.9°C and 50% NaOH, the boiling point of the
solution is Tl = 89SC (l93°F). Hence,
boiling-point rise = TI 48.9 = 89.5 - 48.9 40.6°C (73°F)
From the enthalpy-concentration chart (Fig. 8.4-3), for 20% NaOH at
60°C (l40°F), h, = 214 kJ/kg (92 btu/Ibm). For 50% NaOH at 89SC
(193°F), hL = 505 kJ/kg (217 btuflb m).
For the superheated vapor V at 89.5°C (193°F) and 11.7 kPa [super-
heated 40.6°C (73°F) since the boiling point of water is 48.9°C (l20°F) at
11.7 kPa], from the steam tables, H v 2667 kJ/kg (1147 btu/Ibm). An
alternative method to use to calculate the H v is to first obtain the enthalpy
of saturated vapor at 48.9°C (120°F) and 11.7 kPa of 2590 kJ /kg (1113.5
btu/Ibm)' Then using a heat capacity of 1.884 kJ/kg' K for superheated
steam with the superheat of (89.5 48.9tC (89.5 - 48.9) K,
H v = 2590 + 1.884(89.5 - 48.9) = 2667 kJ/kg
For the saturated steam at 172.4 kPa, the saturation temperature from
the steam tables is 115.6°C (240°F) and the latent heat is). 2214 kJ/kg
(952 btu/Ibm).
Substituting into Eq. (8.4-7) and solving for S,
Fil, + S;. = LhL + VHv (8.4-7)
4535(214) + S(2214) = 1814(505) + 2722(2667)
S 3255 kg steam/h
Substituting into Eq. (S.4-S),
1
q S), = 3255{2214{36 00) = 2002 kW

Substituting into Eq. (SA-I) and solving,

2002(1000) = 1560(A)(115.6 89.5)
Hence, A 49.2 m 2 . Also, steam economy 2722/3255 0.836.

8.5 CALCULATION METHODS FOR MULTIPLE-EFFECT

EVAPORATORS

8.5A Introduction
In evaporation of solutions in a single-effect evaporator, a major cost is the cost of the
steam used to evaporate the water. A single-effect evaporator is wasteful of steam costs,

502 Chap. 8 Evaporation

since the latent heat of the vapor leaving the evaporator is usually not used. However, to
reduce this cost, multiple-effect evaporators are used which recover the latent heat of the
vapor leaving and reuse it.
A three-effect evaporator, discussed briefly in Section S.2B, is shown in Fig. 8.2-3. In
this system each effect in itself acts as a single-effect evaporator. In the first effect raw
steam is used as the heating medium to this first effect, which is boiling at temperature Tl
and pressure Pt. The vapor removed from the first effect is used as the heating medium,
condensing in the second effect and vaporizing water at temperature T2 and pressure P z
in this effect. To transfer heat from the condensing vapor to the boiling liquid in this
second effect, the boiling temperature T2 must be less than the condensing temperature.
This means that the pressure P 2 in the second effect is lower than PI in the first effect. In
a similar manner, vapor from the second effect is condensed in heating the third effect.
Hence, pressure p) is less than P 2' If the first effect is operating at 1 atm abs pressure, the
second and third effects will be under vacuum.
In the first effect, raw dilute feed is added and it is partly concentrated. Then this
partly concentrated liquid (Fig. 8.2-3) flows to the second evaporator in series, where it is
further concentrated. This liquid from the second effect flows to the third effect for final
concentration.
When a multiple-effect evaporator is at steady-state operation, the flow rates and
rate of evaporation in each effect are constant. The pressures, temperatures. and internal
flow rates are automatically kept constant by the steady-state operation of the process
itself. To change the concentration in the final effect, the feed rate to the first effect must
be changed. The overall material balance made over the whole system and over each
evaporator itself must be satisfied. If the final solution is too concentrated, the feed rate is
increased, and vice versa. Then the final solution will reach a new steady state at the
desired concentration.

8.5B Temperature Drops and Capacity

of Multiple-Effect Evaporators

1. Temperature drops in multiple-efFect evaporators. The amount of heat transferred per

hour in the first effect of a triple-effect evaporator with forward feed as in Fig. 8.2-3 will
be
(8.5-1)

where 6. TI is the difference between the condensing steam and the boiling point of the
liquid. IS - Tlo Assuming that the solutions have no boiling-point rise and no heat of
solution and neglecting the sensible heat necessary to heat the feed to the boiling point,
approximately all the latent heat of the condensing stearn appears as latent heat in the
vapor. This vapor then condenses in the second effect, giving up approximately the same
amount or heat.
(8.5-2)

This same reasoning holds for q). Then since ql qz q), then, approximately,

U1A1llT1 U 2 A2111; U)A36. T3 (8.5-3)

Usually. in commercial practice the areas in all effects are equal and
q
(8.5-4)
A

Sec. 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators 503

Hence, the temperature drops ~ T in a multiple-effect evaporator are approximately
inversely proportional to the values of U. Calling'L I1T as follows for no boiling-point
rise,

(8.5-5)

Note that ~ T\ °C 11 T\ K, ~ T2 °C 11 T2 K, and so on. Since ~ 7J. is proportional to

IjU\, then

(8.5-6)

Similar equations can be written for 11 Tz and 11 T).

2. Capacity of multiple-effect evaporators. A rough estimate of the capacity of a three-

effect evaporator compared to a single effect can be obtained by adding the value of q for
each evaporator.

(8.5-7)
If we make the assumption that the value of U is the same in each effect and the values of
A are equal, Eq. (8.5-7) becomes

(8.5-8)

where ~ T = L ~ T = 11 T\ + ~ Tz + ~ T3 = Ts T) .
If a single-effect evaporator is used with the same area A, the same value of U, and
the same total temperature drop ~ T, then
q = UA ~T (8.5-9)
This, of course, gives the same capacity as for the multiple-effect evaporators, Hence, the
increase in steam economy obtained by using multiple-effect evaporators is obtained at
the expense of reduced capaci ty,

8.5C Calculations for Multiple-Effect Evaporators

[n doing calculations for a multiple-effect evaporator system, the values to be obtained
are usually the area of the heating surface in each effect, the kg of steam per hour to be
supplied, and the amount of vapor leaving each effect, especially the last effect. The given
or known values are usually as follows: (\) steam pressure to first effect, (2) final pressure
in vapor space of the last effect, (3) feed conditions and flow to first effect, (4) the final
concentration in the liquid leaving the last effect, (5) physical properties such as en-
thalpies andjor heat capacities of the liquid and vapors, and (6) the overall heat-transfer
coefficients in each effect. Usually, the areas of each effect are assumed equal.
The calculations are done using material balances, heat balances, and the capacity
equations q = U A ~ T for each effect. A convenient way to solve these equations is by
trial and error. The basic steps to follow are given as follows for a triple-effect evaporator.

85D Step-by-Step Calculation Methods

for Triple-Effect Evaporators
l. From the known outlet concentration and pressure in the last effect, determine the
boiling point in the last effect. (If a boiling-point rise is present, this can be determined
from a Duhring line plot.)

51)4 Chap. 8 Evaporalion

2. Determine the total amount of vapor evaporated by an overall material bala~ce. For
this first trial apportion this total amount of vapor among the three effects. (Usually,
equal vapor produced in each effect, so that VI = V2 = V3 is assumed for the first trial.)
Make a total material balance on effects 1, 2, and 3 to obtain L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 • Then
calculate the .solids concentration in each effect by a solids balance on each effect.
3. Using Eq. (8.5-6), estimate t,he temperature drops tl T1 , t'1 T z , and t'1 T3 in the three
effects: Any effect that has an extra heating load, such as a cold feed, requires a
proportionately larger t'1 T. Then calculate the boiling point in each effect.
[If a boiling-point rise (BPR) in °C is present, estimate the pressure in effects 1
and 2 and determine the BPR in each of the three effects. Only a crude pressure
estimate is needed since BPR is almost independent of pressure. Then the I tl T
available for heat transfer without the superheat is obtained by subtracting the sum of
aU three BPRs from the overall t'1 T of Ts T3 (saturation). Using Eq. (8.5-6), estimate
t'1 T 1 , t'1 T z , and tl T3 . Then calculate the boiling point in each effect.]
4. Using heat and material balances in each effect, calculate the amount vaporized and
the flows of liquid in each effect. If the amounts vaporized differ appreciably from
those assumed in step 2, then steps 2, 3, and 4 can be repeated using the amounts of
evaporation just calculated. (In step 2 only the solids balance is repeated.)
5. Calculate the value of q transferred in each effect. Using the rate equation qUA t'1 T
for each effect, calculate the areas A I' A 2' and A 3' Then calculate t he a verage value
Am by

(8.5-10)

If these areas are reasonably close to each other, the calculations are complete and a
second trial is not needed. If these areas are not nearly eq ual, a second trial should be
performed as follows.
6. To start trial 2, use the new values of L 1, L 2 , L 3 , VI' V2 , and V3 calculated by the heat
balances in step 4 and calculate the new solids concentrations in each effect by a solids
balance on each effect.
7. Obtain new values of tl T 1 , t'1 T~, and t'1 T~ from

(8.5-11)

The sum t'1 Tl + t'1 T~ + t'1 T~ must equal the original I

t'1 T. If not, proportionately
readjust all t'1 T values so that this is so. Then calculate the boiling point in each effect.
[If a boiling point rise is present, then using the new concentrations from step 6,
determine the new BPRs in the th ree effects. This gives a new val ue of L t'1 T available
for heat transfer by subtracting the sum of all three BPRs from the overall t'1 T.
Calculate the new values of t'1T by Eq. (8.5-11). The sum of the t'1T values just
calculated must be readjusted to this new It'1 T value. Then calculate the boiling
point in each effect] Step 7 is essentially a repeat of step 3 but using Eq. (8.5-11) to
obtain a better estimate of the t'1 T values.
8. Using the new t'1 T values from step 7, repeat the calculations starting with step 4.
Two trials are usually sufficient so that the areas are reasonably close to being equal.

EXAMPLE 8.5-1. Evaporation o/Sugar Solution in a

Triple-Effect Evaporator
A triple-effect forward-feed evaporator is being used to evaporate a sugar
solution containing to wt % solids to a concentrated solution of 50%. The
boiling-point rise of the solutions (independent of pressure) can be estimated

Sec. 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporl1lors 505

 from BPROC = 1.78x + 6.22x 2 (BPROF = 3.2x + 1 L2x 2), where x is. wt
fraction of sugar in solution (KI). Saturated stearn at 205.5 kPa (29.8 psia)
[12LlOC (250°F) saturation temperature] is beingused. The pressure in the
vapor space of the third effect is 13.4 kPa (1.94 psia). The feed rate is 22680
kg/h (50000 lb,jh) at 26.7°C (80°F). The heat capacity of the liquid solutions
is (Kl) cp = 4.19 - 2.35x kJ/kg' K (1.0 - 0.56x btujIb m' oF). The heat of
solution is considered to be negligible. The coefficients of heat transfer have
been estimated as U t 3123, U 2 = 1987, and'U 3 1136 W/m 2 • K or 550,
2
350, and 200 btu/h· ft • OF. If each effect has the same surface area, calculate
the area, the steam rate used, and the steam economy.
Solution: The process flow diagram is given in Fig. 8.5- 1. Following the
eight steps outlined, the calculations are as follows. .
Step 1. For 13.4 kPa (1.94 psia), the saturation temperature is 5L6TC
(125°F) from the steam tables. Using the equation for BPR for evaporator
number 3 with x 0.5,
BPR 3 = l.78x + 6.22x2 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)2 2.4SOe (4.4°F)
T3 = 51.67 + 2.45 54.12°e (l29.4°F)
Step 2. Making an overall and a solids balance to calculate the total
amount vaporized (Vj + V1 + V3 ) and L 3 ,
F = 22680 L3 + (VI + V2 + V3 )
FXF 22680(0.1) = L](O.5) + (Vj + Vz + V)(O)
L3 = 4536 kg/h (10000 lbmfh)
total vaporized (VI + Vz + V3 ) = 18 144 kg/h (40 000 Ib,jh)
Assuming equal amount vaporized in each effect, VI Vz = V3 = 6048 kg/h
(13333 lb,jh). Making a total material balance on effects 1, 2, and 3 and
solving,
(1) F = 22680 = VI + Ll 6048 + L 1 , L! 16632kg/h(33667Ib,jh)
(2) 1.1 = 16632 = V1 + = 6048 + L 1 , 1.2 10584(23334)
(3) 1.2 = 10584 = V) + L) = 6048 + L), 1.3 4536(10000)
Making a solids balance on effects 1,2, and 3 and solving for x,
(1) 22680(0.1) = Ltx l 16632(xd, Xl 0.136
(2) 16632(0.136) = xz 10 584{x 2 ), X2 = 0.214
X3 0.500 (check balance)

F 22680
XF 0.1, TF =: 26.7°C 13.7 kPa
(-l ) (3)
S, 205.5 kPa
TSI =: 12Ll°C

TS3
L3 = 4536
X3 = 0.5, T3

FIGURE 8.5- L Flow diagramfor triple-effect evaporation for Example 85-1.

S06 Chap. 8 Evaporation

 Step 3. The BPR in each effect is calculated as folIows:
(I) BPR 1 = 1.78x 1 + 6.22xi = 1.78(0.136) + 6.22(0.136)2 = 0.36°C (O.rF)
(2) BPR z = 1.78(0.214) + 6.22(0.214)2 = 0.65°C (1.2°F)
(3) BPR 3 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)z = 2.4SOC (4.4°F)
L t'l. T available 151 T3 (saturation) - (BPR 1+ BPR z + BPR 3 )
121.1 ~ 51.67 ~ (0.36 + 0.65 + 2.45) = 65.97°C (118YF)
Using Eq. (8.5-6) for II TI and similar equations for t'l. Tz and t'l. T3 ,
'\ IjU! (65.97)(1/3123)
t'l.Tj = L t'l.T I/U 1 + I/U z + I/U 3 (1/3123) + (1/1987) + (1/1136)
t'l. TI 12.40°C t'l. T z = 19.50°C II T3 = 34.0rC
However, since a cold feed enters effect number I, this effect requires more
heat. Increasing t'l. TI and lowering II T z and t'l. T3 proportionately as a first
estimate,
II Tl 15.56°C = 15.56 K llTz 18.34°C = 18.34 K
II T) = 32.07°C = 32.07 K
To calculate the actual boiling point of the solution in each effect,
(1) Tj TSI llTI
= 121.1 15.56 = 105.54°C
TSI 121.1 °C (condensing temperature of saturated steam to effect 1)
(2) ~ = TI BPR 1 llTz
= 105.54 0.36 - 18.34 = 86.84°C
TS2 TI BPR 1 = 105.54 - 0.36
= 105.18°C (condensing temperature of steam to effect 2)
(3) T) = T z BPR 1 - llT3
= 86.84 0.65 32.07 = 54.12°C
TS3 = Tl BPR z
86.84 0.65 = 86.19°C (condensing temperature of steam to
effect 3)
The temperatures in the three effects are as follows:
Effect 1 Effect 2 Effect 3
151 = 121.l0~ 15z = 105.I~TS3 86.19 STS4 Condenser
= 51.67

Tl = 105.54 Tz = 86.84 T3 54.12

Step 4. The heat capacity of the liquid in each effect is calculated from the
equation cp = 4.19 2.35x.
F: cp = 4.19 - 2.35(0.1) 3.955 kJ/kg' K
L 1: cp = 4.19 - 2.35(0.136) 3.869
L 2: cp = 4.19 - 2.35(0.214) 3.684
L3: cp = 4.19 - 2.35(0.5) 3.015

Sec. 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple·Effect Evaporators 507

 The v.alues of the enthalpy H of the various vapo('streams relative to water
at ooe as a datum are obtained from the steam table as follows:
Effect I:
Tl = 105.54°e, T:n 105.18 (221.3°F), BPR 1 = 0.36, TSI = 12l.! (250°F)
H t = H S2 (saturation enthalpy at 'fs2) + 1.884 (0.36°e superheat)
= 2684 + 1.884{0.36) = 2685 kJ/kg
;'SI = HSI (vapor saturation enthalpy) - hSI (liquid enthalpy at 'fst)

= (2708 - 508) 2200 kJ/kg latent heat of condensation

Effect 2:
T2 = 86.84°e, Tn = 86.19, BPR z 0.65
H2 = H S3 + 1.884{0.65) = 2654 + 1.884{O.65) 2655 kJ/kg
)'S2 = HI - hS2 = 2685 441 = 2244 kJ/kg

Effect 3:
T3 = 54. 12°C, TS4 = 51.67, BPR 3 2.45
H 3 = HS4 + 1.884{2.45) = 2595 + 1.884{2.45) 2600 kJ/kg
;'S3 = H 1 - hS3 2655 - 361 = 2294 kJ/kg

(Note that the superheat corrections in this example are small and could
possibly have been neglected. However, the corrections were used to demon-
strate the method of calculation.) Flow relations to be used in heat balances
are
VI = 22680 L 1, V2 LI L2, V) = L2 4536, L3 = 4536
Write a heat balance on each effect. Use ooe as a datum since the values of
H of the vapors are relative to ooe (3TF) and note that (TF - ote =
(TF 0) K and (TI - ote (T1 - 0) K,
(1)

Substituting the known values,

22680(3.955)(26.7 - 0) + S(2200) L I(3.869)(105.54 0)
+ (22 680 - L 1)(2685)
(2) L1cp{TI 0) + VI /' S2 = L2 Cp(Tl - 0) + V2 Hl
Ll{3.869)(105.54 0) + (22680 - L 1 )(2244) = L2(3.684)(86.84 - 0)
+ (LI L 2 )(2655)
(3) L2 cp{T2 0) + V2 I. S) = L) cp(T) 0) + V3 H:;

L2(3.684)(86.84 0) + (L 1 - L 2 )(2294) = 4536{3.015)(54.12 - 0)

+ (L 2 4536)(2600)
Solving the last two equations simultaneously for LI and L2 and substi·
tuting into the first equation,
L I =17078kg/h L 2 =11068 L3 4536
S = 8936 VI 5602 V1 = 6010 V3 6532

508 Chap. 8 Evaporation

 The calculated values of VI' V2 , and V3 are close enough to the assumed
values so that steps 2, 3, and 4 do not need to be repeated. If the calculation
were repeated, the calculated values of VI' V2 , and V3 would be used starting
with step 2 and a solids balance in each effect would be made.

Step 5. Solving for the values of q in each effect and area,

ql = Si'SI G~~}22oo x 1000) = 5.460 X

6
10 W

q2 V\i' S2 = G~~}2244 x 1000) = 3.492 X 10 W

6

q3 Vz ;'S3 = e~~}2294 x 1000) 3.830 X 10 W

6

5.460 X 10 6
3123( 15.56)
3.492 x 10 6 7

1987(18.34) = 95.8 m-

_ _ 3.830 x 10 6 _ 1 2
A3 - U 3 t1 T) - 1136(32.07) - .105. m

The average area Am' 104.4 m 2. The areas differ from the average value by
less than 10% and a second trial is not really necessary. However, a second
trial will be made starting with step 6 to indicate the calculation methods
used.

Step 6. Making a new solids balance on effects 1, 2, and 3 using the new
L I = 17078, = 11 068, and L) 4536 and sol ving for x,
(1) 22680(0.1) 17078(x 1 ), Xl = 0.133

(2) 17078(0.133) = 11 068(x 2)' X2 = 0.205

(3) 11 068(0.205) 4536(x 3 ), x) 0.500 (check balance)

Step 7. The new BPR in each effect is then

(1) BPR! = 1.78x! + 6.22x; 1.78(0.133) + 6.22(0.133)2 0.35°C
(2) BPR 2 1.78(0.205) + 6.22(O.20W 0.63°C
= 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.W = 2.45 C
C
(3) BPR)
I t1 T available = 12Ll - 51.67 - (0.35 + 0.63 + 2.45) 66.00°C
The new values for t1 T are obtained using Eq. (8.5-11).

15.56(112.4) = 1677 K 16.77°C

104.4 .

t1 T z A2 = 18.34(95.8) = 16.86"C
Am 104.4

I t1T = 16.77 + 16.86 + 32.34 65.97°C

on Sec. 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators 509

 These /I.. T' values are readj usted so that /I.. T'l = 16.77, /I.. T~ = 16.87, /I.. T~
32.36, and I
/I.. T = 16.77 + 16.87 + 32.36 = 66.00°C. To calculate the
actual boiling point of the solution in each effect,
(1) Tl TSI /l..T'1 = 121.1 - 16.77 = 104.33°e, 0il = 121.1°e
(2) Tz Tl BPR 1 - /l..T~ = 104.33 - 0.35 - 16.87 = 87.11°e
= Tl - BPR 1 = 104.33 - 0.35 = 103.98°e
(3) TJ Tz - BPR z - /I.. T3 = 87.11 - 0.63 - 32.36 54.l2°e
153 = Tz BPR z = 87.11 - 0.63 = 86.48°e

Step 8. Following step 4, the heat capacity of the liquid IS cp

4.19 2.35x.
F: cp =3.955kJjkg·K
L1: c p = 4.19 - 2.35(0.133) = 3.877
L z : cp = 4.19 - 2.35(0.205) = 3.708
L}: c p = 3.015
The new values of the enthalpy H are as follows in each effect.
(1) HI H 52 + 1.884rC superheat) = 2682 + 1.884(0.35) 2683 kJjkg
I'S t HSI - hSI = 2708 -
= 2200 kJjkg508
(2) Hz H53 + 1.884(0.63) = 2654 + 1.884(0.63) = 2655 kJjkg
i. 5z = HI hS2 = 2683 - 440 = 2243 kJjkg
(3) H} = H 54 + 1.884(2.45) = 2595 + 1.884(2.45) = 2600 kJjkg
1'53 Hz - hS3 = 2655 - 362 = 2293 kJjkg
W ri ting a heat balance on each effect,
(I) 22680(3.955)(26.7 - 0) + S(2200) = L 1(3.877XI04.33 0)
+ (22 680 - LIX2683)
(2) L I(3.877){ 104.33 - 0) + (22680 - L I)(2243) = L z(3.708)(S7.ll 0)
+ (L I - L zX2655)
(3) L2(3.70S){S7.l1 - 0) + (LI - L z)(2293) = 4536(3.015)(54.12 0)
+ (L z - 4536)(2600)
Solving,
LI 17005 kgfh Lz = 10952 L3 = 4536 S 8960 (steam used)
VI = 5675 Vz = 6053
Note that these values from trial 2 differ very little from the trial I results.
Following step 5, and solving for q in each effect and A,
8960 6
ql = S).SI = 3600 (2200 x 1000) = 5.476 x 10 W

. 5675
qz = VIAS Z = 3600 (2243 x 1000) 3.539 X 10 6 W

S10 Chap. 8 Evaporation

 , 6053 6
q3 = V2 AS3 = 3600 (2293 x 1000) = 3.855 x 10 W

5.476 X 106 2
3123(16.77) = 104.6 m

3.539 x 106
105.6 m 2
Az = u z AT~ 1987(16.87)

A q3 3.855 X 106 2
3=U 3 AT3 1136(32.36) = 104.9 m

The average area Am 105.0 m 2 to use in each effect. Note that this value of
105.0 m Z is quite close to the average value of 104.4 m 2 from the first trial.

steam economy == v+v+v

I ; 3
5675 + 6053 + 6416 = 2.025

8.6 CONDENSERS FOR EVAPORATORS

8.6A Introduction
In multiple-effect evaporators the vapors from the last effect are usually leaving under
vacuum, i.e., at less than atmospheric pressure. These vapors must be condensed and
discharged as a liquid at atmospheric pressure. This is done by condensing the vapor's
using cooling water. The condenser can be a surface condenser, where the vapor to be
condensed and the cooling liquid are separated by a metal wall, or a direct contact
condenser, where the vapor and cooling liquid are mixed directly.

8.68 Surface Condensers

Surface condensers are employed where actual mixing of the condensate with condenser
cooling water is not desired. In general, they are shell and tube condensers with the vapor
on the shell side and cooling water in multipass flow on the tube side. Noncondensable
gases are usually present in the vapor stream. These can be air, CO 2 , N 2' or another gas
which may have entered as dissolved gases in the liquid feed or occur because of
decomposition in the solutions. These noncondensable gases may be vented from any
well-cooled point in the condenser. If the vapor being condensed is below atmospheric
pressure, the condensed liquid lea ving the surface condenser can be removed by pumping
and the noncondensable gases by a vacuum pump. Surface condensers are much more
expensive and use niore cooling water, so they are usually not used in cases where a
direct-contact condenser is suitable.

8.6C Direct-Contact Condensers

In direct-contact condensers cooling water directly contacts the vapors and condenses the
vapors. One of the most common types of direct-contact condensers is the counter-
current barometric condenser shown in Fig. 8.6-1. The vapor enters the condenser and is
condensed by rising upward against a shower of cooling water droplets. The condenser is
located on top of a long discharge tail pipe. The condenser is high enough above the
discharge point in the tail pipe so that the water column established in the pipe more
than compensates for the difference in pressure between the low absolute pressure in the

Sec. 8.6 Condensers for Evaporators 511

 cold water
TilK
+ur=--noncondensables
o
o 0
o 0
00
o
o 0
of. 0
vapor inlet--- :/00
o 0
o

tailpipe

FIGURE 8.6-1. Schematic of barometric condenser.

condenser and' the atmosphere. The water can then discharge by gravity through a seal
pot at the bottom. A height of about lOA m (34 rt) is used.
The barometric condenser is inexpensive and economical of water consumption. It
can maintain a vacuum corresponding to a saturated vapor temperature within about
2.8 K (5°F) of the water temperature leaving the condenser. For example, if the discharge
water is at 316.5 K (110°F), the pressure corresponding to 316.5 + 2.8 or 319.3 K is
10.1 kPa(1.47psia).
The water consumption can be estimated by a simple heat balance for a barometric
rr
condenser. the vapor flow to the condenser is V kgfh at temperaty/e Ts and the water
flow is W kgfh at an entering temperature of T[ and it leaving temperature of T2 , the
deri vat ion is as follows.
(8.6-1 )

where H s is the enthalpy from the steam tables of the vapor at Ts K and the pressure in
the vapor stream. Solving,
W kg water Hs - C p(T2 273.2)
(8.6-2)
V kg vapor Cp(T2 - TIl
The noncondensable gases can be removed from the condenser by a vacuum pump.
The vacuum pump used can be a mechanical pump or a steam-jet ejector. [n the ejector
high-pressure stearn enters a nozzle at high speed and entrains the noncondensable gases
from the space under vacuum.
Another type of direct-contact condenser is the jet barometric condenser. High-
velocity jets of water act both as a vapor condenser and as an entrainer of the non-
condensables out of the tail pipe. Jet condensers usually require more water than the
more common barometric condensers and are more difficult to throttle at low vapor
rates.

512 Chap.S Evaporation

 8.7 EVAPORATION OF BIOLOGICAL
MATERIALS

8.7 A Introduction and Properties of Biological Materials

The evaporation of many biological materials often differs from evaporation of inorganic
materials such as NaCI and NaOH and organic materials such as ethanol and acetic
acid. Biological materials such as pharmaceuticals, milk, citrus juices, and vegetable
extracts are usually quite heat-sensitive and often contain fine particles of suspended
matter in the solution. Also, because of problem~ due to bacteria growth, the equipment
must be designed for easy cleaning. Many biological materials in solution exhibit only a
small boiling-point rise when concentrated. This is due to the fact that suspended solids
in a fine dispersed form and dissolved solutes of large molecular weight contribute little
to this rise.
The amount of degradation of biological materials on evaporation is a function of
the temperature and the length of time. To keep the temperature low, the ~vaporation
must be done under vacuum, which reduces the boiling point of the solution. To keep the
time of contact low, the equipment must provide for a low holdup time (contact time) of
the material being evaporated. Typical types of equipment used and some biological
materials processed are given below. Detailed discussions of the equipment are given in
Section 8.2.
1. Long-tube vertical evaporator. Condensed milk.
2. Falling-film evaporator. Fruit juices.
3. Agitated-film (wiped-film) evaporator. Rubber latex, gelatin, antibiotics, fruit juices.
4. Heat-pump cycle evaporator. Fruit juices, milk, pharmaceuticals.

s 8.7B Fruit Juices

In evaporation of fruit juices such as orange juice the problems are quite different from
C evaporation of a typical salt such as NaCI. The fruit juices are heat-sensitive and the
:r viscosity increases greatly as concentration increases. Also, solid suspended matter in
e fruit juices has a tendency to cling to the heating surface and thus causes overheating,
leading to burning and spoilage of the matter (B2).
To reduce this tendency to stick and to reduce residence time, high rates of
circulation over the heat-transfer surface are necessary. Since the material is heat-
n sensitive, low-temperature operation is also necessary. Hence, a fruit juice concentration
plant usually employs a single and not a multiple evaporation unit. Vacuum is used to
reduce the temperature of evaporation.
A typical fruit juice evaporation system using the heat pump cycle is shown (P 1, C 1),
which uses low-temperature ammonia as the heating fluid. A frozen concentrated citrus
J. juice process is described by Charm (Cl). The process uses a multistage falling-film
,r evaporator. A major fault of concentrated orange juice is a flat flavor due to the loss of
!s volatile constituents during ev'aporation. To overcome this, a portion of the fresh pulpy
juice bypasses the evaporation cycle and is blended with the evaporated concentrate.
1-
l-
8.7C Sugar Solutions
Ie
Sugar (sucrose) is obtained primarily from the sugar cane and sugar beet. Sugar tends to
caramelize if kept at high temperatures for long periods (B2). The general tendency is to

Sec. 8.7 Evaporation of Biological Materials 513

use short-tube evaporators of the natural circulation type. In the evaporation process of
sugar solutions, the clear solution of sugar having a concentration of 10-13° Brix (IO-
n wt %) is evaporated to 40-60° Brix (K1, S1).
The feed is first preheated by exhaust steam and then typically enters a six-effect
forward-feed evaporator system. The first effect operates at a pressure in the vapor space
of the evaporator of about 207 kPa (30 psia) [121.1 °C (2S0°F) saturation temperature]
and the last effect under vacuum at about 24 kPa (63.9°C saturation). Examples of the
relatively small boiling-point rise of sugar solutions and the heat capacity are given in
Example 8.S- L

8.7D Paper-Pulp Waste Liquors

In the maki!1g of paper pulp in the sulfate process, wood chips are digested or cooked
and spent black liquor is obtained after washing the pUlp. This solution contains
primarily sodium carbonate and organic sulfide compounds. This solution is con-
centrated by evaporation in a six-effect system (Kl, SI).

8.8. EVAPORATION USING VAPOR RECOMPRESSION

8.8A Introduction

In the single-effect evaporator the vapor from the unit is generally condensed and
discarded. In the multiple-effect evaporator, the pressure in each succeeding effect is
lowered so that the boiling point of the liquid is lowered in each effect. Hence, there
is a temperature difference created for the vapor from one effect to condense in the
next effect and boil the liquid to form vapor.
In a single-effect vapor recompression (sometimes called vapor compression)
evaporator the vapor is compressed so that its condensing or saturation temperature is
increased. This compressed vapor is returned back to the heater of steam chest and
condenses so that vapor is formed in the evaporator (BS, WI, ZI). In this manner the
latent heat of the vapor is used and not discarded. The two types of vapor
recompression units are the mechanical and the thermal type.

8.SB Mechanical VaJWr Recompression EV3JWrator.

In a mechanical vapor recompression evaporator, a conventional single effect evapo-

rator similar to that in Fig. 8.2-2 is used and is shown in Fig. 8.8-1. The cold feed is
preheated by exchange with the hot outlet liquid product and then flows to the unit.
The vapor coming overhead does not go to a condenser but is sent to a centrifugal or
positive displacement compressor driven by an electric motor or steam. This com-
pressed vapor or steam is 'sent back to the heat exchanger or steam chest. The
cOfI1;pre.ssed vapor condenses ~t a higher temperature than the boiling point of the hot
liquid in- the effect and a temperature differe'nce is set up. Vapor is again generated and
the cycle repeated.
Sometimes it is necessary to add a small amount of makeup steam to the vapor
line before the compressor (B5, K2). Also; a small amount of condensate may be added
to the compressed vapor to remove any superheat, if present.
Vapor recompression units generally operate at low optimum temperature differ-
ence9 of S to lOoC. Hence, large heat transfer areas are needed. These units usually
have higher capital costs than multiple-effect units because of the larger area and the

514 Chap. 8 Evaporation

 makeup vapor
steam ---~I-""

vapor compressor

drive

co neeD tra ted

condensate
product
(for desuperheating)

cold feed
feed beater
FIGURE 8.B-1. Simplified process flow for mechanical vapor recompre ssion
evaporator.

costs of the relatively expensive compressor and drive unit. The main advantage of
vapor recompression units is in the lower energy costs. Using the steam equivalent of
the power to drive the compressor, the steam economy is equivalent to a multiple-
effect evaporator of up to 10 or more units (Zl).
Some typical applications of mechanical vapor recompression units are evapora-
tion of sea water to give distilled water, evaporation of kraft black liquor in the paper
industry (L2), evaporation of heat-sensitive materials such as fruit juices, and
crystallizing of salts having inverse solubility curves where the solubility decreases
with increasing temperature (K2, M3).
Falling-film evaporators are well suited for vapor recompression systems (W 1)
because they operate at low-temperature-difference values and have very little
entrained liquid which can cause problems in the compressor. Vapor recompression
has been used in distillation towers where the overhead vapor is recompressed and
used in the reboiler as the heating medium (M2).

8.8e Thermal Vapor Recompression Evaporator

A steam jet can also be used to compress the vapor in a thermal vapor recompression
unit. The main disadvantages are the low efficiency of the steamjet, necessitating the
removal of this excess heat, and the lack of flexibility to changes in process variables
(M3). Steam jets are cheaper and more durable than mechanical compressors and can
more easily handle large volumes of low-pressure vapors.

PROBLEMS

8.4-1. Heat-Transfer Coefficient in Single-Effect El·aporator. A feed of 4535 kg/h of a

2.0 wt % salt solution at 311 K enters continuously a single-effect evaporator and
is being concentrateq to 3.0%. The evaporation is at atmospheric pressure and
the area of the evaporator is 69.7 m 2. SattIrated steam at 383.2 K is supplied for
heating. Since the solution is dilute, it can be assumed to have the same boiling
point as water. The heat capacity of the feed can be taken asc p = A.lO kJjkg' K.
Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product and the overall heat-transfer
coefficient U.
Ans. U 1823 W/m 2 • K
8.4-2. Effects of Increased Feed Rate in Evaporator. Using the same area, value of U,
steam pressure, evaporator pressure, and feed temperature as in Problem 8.4-1,

Chap. 8 Problems 515

 calculate the amounts of liquid and vapor leaving and the liquid outlet con-
centration if the feed rate is increased to 6804 kgfh.
ADS. V 1256 kgfh, L = 5548 kgfh, XL = 2.45%
8.4-3. Effect of Evaporator Pressure on Capacity and Product Composition.. Recalculate
Example 8.4-1 but use an evaporator pressure of 41.4 kPa instead of 101.32 kPa
abs. Use the same steam pressure, area A, and heat-transfer coefficient U in the
calculations.
(a) Do this to obtain the new capacity or feed rate under. these new conditions.
The composition of the liquid product will be the same as before.
(b) Do this to obtain the new product composition if the feed rate is increased to
18 144 kgfh.
8.4-4. Production of Distilled Water. An evaporator having an area of 83.6 m 2 and a
U 2270 W/m 2 • K is used to produce distilled water for a boiler feed. Tap water
having 400 ppm of dissolved solids at 15.6°C is fed to the evaporator operating at
1 atm pressure abs. Saturated steam at 115.6°C is available for use. Calculate the
amount of distilled water produced per hour if the outlet liquid contains 800 ppm
solids.
8.4-5. Boiling-Point Rise of NaOH Solutions. Determine the boiling temperature'of the
solution and the boiling-point rise for the following cases.
(a) A 30% NaOH solution boiling in an evaporator at a pressure of 172.4 kPa
(25 psia).
(b) A 60% NaOH solution boiling in an evaporator at a pressure of 3.45 kPa
(0.50 psia).
Ans. (a) Boiling point = 130.6°C, boiling point rise 15°C
8.4-6. Boiling-Point Rise of Biological Solutes in Solution. Determine the boiling-point
rise for the following solutions of biological solutes in water. Use the figure in
(PI), p. 11-31.
(a) A 30 wt % solution of citric acid in water boiling at 220°F (104.4°C).
(b) A 40 wt % solution of sucrose in water boiling at 220°F (1 04.4° C).
Ans. (a) Boiling-point rise 2.2°F (L22°C)
8.4-7. Effect of Feed Temperature on Evaporating an NaOH Solution. A single-effect
evaporator is concentrating a feed of 9072 kgjh of a 10 wt % solution of NaOH
in water to a product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is
42 kPa (gage) and the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 20 kPa
(abs). The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1988 W/m 2 . K. Calculate the steam
used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam, and the area for the following
feed conditions.
(a) Feed temperature of288.8 K (l5.6°C).
(b) Feed temperature of322.1 K (48.9°C).
Ans. (a) S 8959kgjhofsteam,A 295.4m 2
8.4-8. Heat-Transfer Coefficient to Evaporate NaOH. In order to concentrate
4536 kgjh of an NaOH solution containing 10 wt % NaOH to a 20 wt %
solution, a single-effect evaporator is being used with an area of 37.6m 2 • The feed
enters at 21.1 °C (294.3 K). Saturated steam at 11 O°C (383.2 K) is used for heating
and the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 51.7 kPa. Calculate the
kgjh of steam and the overall heat-transfer coefficient.
8.4-9. Throughput of a Single-Effect Evaporator. An evaporator is concentrating
F kgjh at 311 K of a 20 wt % solution of NaOH to 50%. The saturated steam
used for heating is at 399.3 K. The pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator
is 13.3 kPa abs. The overall coefficient is 1420 W /m 2 . K and the area is 86.4m 1 •
Calculate the feed rate F of the evaporator.
ADS. F 9072 kgfh
8.4-10. Surface Area and Steam Consumption of an Evaporator. A single-effect evapo-
rator is concentrating a feed solution of organic colloids from 5 to 50 wt %. The

516 Chap. 8 Problems

 solution has a negligible boiling-point elevation. The heat capacity of the feed is
cp = 4.06 kJjkg' K (0.97 btuflbm ' OF) and the feed enters at 15.6°C (60°F). Satu-
rated steam at 101.32 kPa is available for heating, and the pressure in the vapor
space of the evaporator is 15.3 kPa. A total of 4536 kg/h (10000lbmfh) of water is
to be evaporated. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1988 W/m 2 • K (350
btu/h' ft2. OF). What is the required surface area in m Z and the steam consump-
tion?
8.4-11. Evaporation of Tomato Juice Under Vacuum. Tomato juice having a con-
centration of 12 wt % solids is being concentrated to 25% solids in a film-type
evaporator. The maximum allowable temperature for the tomato juice is 135°F,
which will be the temperature of the product. The feed enters at 100°F.
Saturated steam at 25 psia is used for heating. The overall heat-transfer coef-
ficient U is 600 btufh· ftz. OF and the area A is 50 ft 2 • The heat capacity of the
feed cp is estimated as 0.95 btuflb m ' OF. Neglect any boiling-point rise if present.
Calculate the feed rate of tomato juice to the evaporator.
8.4-12. Concentration of Cane Sugar Solution. A single-effect evaporator is being used to
concentrate a feed of 10000 lbmlh of a cane sugar solution at 80°F and containing
a sugar content of 15° Brix (degrees Brix is wt % sugar) to 30° Brix for use in a
food process. Saturated steam at 240°F is available for heating. The vapor space
in the evaporator will be at 1 atm abs pressure. The overall U = 350 btu/h . ft2. OF
and the heat capacity of the feed is Cp 0.91 btu/Ibm' OF. The boiling-point rise
can be estimated from Example 8.5-1. The heat of solution can be considered
negligible and neglected. Calculate the area required for the evaporator and the
amount of steam used per hour.
ADS. Boiling-point rise = 2.0°F (1.1 0q, A 667 ftZ (62.0 mZ)
8.5·1. Boiling Points in a Triple-Effect Evaporator. A solution with a negligible boiling-
point rise is being evaporated in a triple-effect evaporator using saturated steam
at 12Ll°C (394.3 K). The pressure in the vapor of the last effect is 25.6 kPa abs.
The heat-transfer coefficients are VI = 2840, V 2 == 1988, and V3 = 1420
W/m 2 • K and the areas are equal. Estimate the boiling point in each of the
evaporators.
AilS. Tl 108.6°C (381.8 K)
8.5·2. Evaporation of Sugar Solution in a Multiple-Effect Evaporator. A triple-effect
evaporator with forward feed is evaporating a sugar solution with negligible
boiling-point rise (less than 1.0 K, which will be neglected) and containing
5 wt % solids to 25% solids. Saturated steam at 205 kPa abs is being used. The
pressure in the vapor space of the third effect is 13.65 kPa. The feed rate is
22 680 kglh and the temperature 299.9 K. The liquid heat capacity is c p 4.19
- 2.35 x, where c p is in kJlkg· K and x in wt fraction (Kl). The heat-transfer
coefficients are U 1 = 3123, U 2 = 1987, and U 3 = 1136 W/m 2 • K. Calculate the
surface area of each effect if each effect has the same area, and the steam rate.
AilS. Area A = 99.1 m 2 , steam rate S = 8972 kg/h
8.5-3. Evaporation in Double-Effect J?everse-Feed Evaporators. A feed containing
2 wt % dissolved organic solids in water is fed to a double-effect evaporator
with reverse feed. The feed enters at 100°F and is concentrated to 25% solids.
'..:. .. The boiling-point rise can be considered negligible as well as the heat of
solution. Each evaporator has a 1()(){)-ft2 surface area and the heat-transfer
coefficients are VI = 500 and V z 700 btulh·ft Z 'OF. The feed enters
evaporator number 2 and steam at 100 psia is fed to number I. The pressure in
the vapor space of evaporator number 2 is 0.98 psia. Assume that the heat
capacity of all liquid solutions is that of liquid water. Calculate the feed rate F
and the product rate L I of a solution containing 25% solids. (Hint: Assume a
feed rate of, say, F == 1000 Ibm/h. Calculate the area. Then calculate the actual
feed rate by mUltiplying 1000 by lOOO/calculated area.)
AilS. F = 133800 lbmlh (60 691 kg/h), L[ 10700 lb.,jh (4853 kg/h)

Chap. 8 Problems 517

8.5-4. Concentration ofNaOH Solution in Triple-Effect Evaporator. A forced-circulation
triple-effect evaporator using forward feed is to be used to concentrate a 10 wt
% NaOH solution entering at 37.SoC to 50%. The steam used enters at 5S.6 kPa
gage. The absolute pressure in the vapor space of the third effect is 6.76 kPa.
The feed rate is 13 60S kglh. The heat -transfer coefficients are U I = 6246, U 2
2
= 3407, and U 3 = 2271 W/m • K. All effects have the same area. Calculate the
surface area and steam consumption.
AIlS. A = 97.3 m\ S = 5284 kg steamjh
8.5-5. Triple-Effect Evaporator with Reverse Feed. A feed rate of 20410 kglh of
10 wt % NaOH solution at 4S.9°C is being concentrated in a triple-effect
reverse-feed evaporator to produce a 50% solution. Saturated steam at 17S.3°C
is fed to the first evaporator and the pressure in the third effect is 10.34 kPa abs.
The heat-transfer coefficient for each effect is assumed to be 2840 W/m 2 • K.
Calculate the heat-transfer area and the steam consumption rate.
8.5-6. Evaporation of Sugar Solution in Double Effect Evaporator. A double-effect
evaporator with reverse feed is used to concentrate 4536 kglh of a 10 wt % sugar
solution to 50%. The feed enters the second effect at 37.8°C. Saturated steam
at 115.6°C enters the first effect and the vapor from this effect is used to heat the
second effect. The absolute pressure in the second effect is 13.65 kPa abs. The
overall coefficients are U 1 2270 and U 2 = 1705 W1m 2 • K. The heating areas
for both effects are equal. Use boiling-poi nt-rise and heat-capacity data from
Example S.5-1. Calculate the area and steam consumption.
8.6-1. Water Consumption and Pressure in Barometric Condenser. The concentration of
NaOH solution leaving the third effect of a triple-effect evaporator is
50 wt %. The vapor flow rate leaving is 5670 kglh and this vapor goes to
a barometric condenser. The discharge water from the condenser leaves at
40.5°C. Assuming that the condenser can maintain a vacuum in the third effect
corresponding to a saturated vapor pressure of 2.78°C above 40.5°C, calculate
the pressure in the third effect and the cooling water flow to the condenser. The
cooling water enters at 29.5°C. (Note: The vapor leaving the evaporator will be
superheated because of the boiling-point rise.)
Ans. Pressure = 8.80 k Pa abs, W 306200 kg waterjh

REFERENCES

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York: McGraw-Hili Book Company, 1955.
(B2) BLAKEBROUGH, N. Biochemical and Biological Engineering Science, Vol. 2. New
York: Academic Press, Inc., 1968.
(B3) BADGER, W. L, and MCCABE, W. L Elements of Chemical Engineering, 2nd ed.
New York' McGraw-Hili Book Company, 1936.
(B4) BROWN, G. G., et aL Unil Operations. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
(BS) BEESLEY, A. H. and RHINESMITH, R. D. Chern. Eng. Progr., 76(8),37 (1980).
t

(CI) CHARM, S. E. The Fundamentals of Food Engineering, 2nd ed. Westport, Conn.:
Avi Publishing Co., Inc., 1971. ... "
(Kl) KERN, D. Q. Process Heat Transfer. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
19S0.
(K2) KING, R. J. Chern. Eng. Progr., 80(7), 63 (1984).
(LJ) LINDSEY, E. Chern. Eng., 60 (4),227 (1953).
(Ll) LOGSDON, 1. D. Chern. Eng. Progr., 79(9),36 (1983).
(Ml) MCCABE, W. L. Trans. A.l.Ch.E., 31, 129 (1935).

518 Chap. 8 References'

(M2) MElLI, A., and STUECHELl, A. Chem. Eng., 94 (F~b. 16), 133 (1987).
(M3) MEHRA, D. K. Chem. Eng., 93(Feb. 3),56 (1986).
(PI) PERRY, R. H., and CHILTON, C. H. Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 5th ed ..
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.
(P2) PERRY, R. H., and GREEN, D. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
(Sl) SHREVE, R. N., and BRINK, J. A., JR. Chemical Process Industries, 4th ed. New
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(WI) WEIMER, L. D., DOLF, H. R., and AUSTIN, D. A. Chern. Eng. Progr., 76 (11), 70
(1980).
(Zl) ZIMMER, A. Chem. Eng. Progr., 76(9),37 (1980).

Chap. 8 References 519