Dr. A.

Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

Induction Machines
1.1 Introduction:
An essential feature of the operation of the synchronous machine is that the
rotor runs at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field produced by the
stator winding. The magnetic field when observed from a point on the rotor
does not vary with time. A very different type of machine results if the rotor is
allowed to run more slowly than the rotating field. The rotor will experience a
rotating field moving past it at the difference of the two speeds, and this will
cause induced currents to flow in suitably arranged conductors on the rotor.
These currents will interact with the rotating field to produce a torque, and this
is the basis of the induction motor.
In common with other rotating machines, induction machines can operate as
motors or generators, but have as generators very limited use. Nearly all
electric power is generated by synchronous machines. Induction motors, on
the other hand, are used in far greater numbers than any other type of
machine; they range in power rating from a few watts to tens of megawatts.
The simplicity of the induction principle is reflected in the robust, reliable and
relatively inexpensive construction of the machine itself, and die induction
machine is the natural choice in the majority of motor applications.

The induction machine consists essentially of a stator, which has a 3-phase

winding, and a rotor. The stator winding is a 3'phase winding, often being a
narrow-spread mesh-connected closed winding. The winding is laid in open or
half-closed slots in a laminated silicon- steel core.
The rotor winding is placed in half-closed or closed slots, the air- gap between
stator and rotor being reduced to a minimum. There are two main types of
rotor, the wound rotor and the squirrel-cage rotor. In the squirrel-cage rotor,
solid conducting rods are inserted into closed slots, and at each end the rods
are connected to a heavy short-circuiting ring. This forms a permanently
short-circuited winding which is practically indestructible. In some smaller ma-
chines the conductors, rings and fan are cast in one piece in aluminum. The
cage rotor is cheap and robust, but suffers from the disadvantage of a low
starting torque.
The wound rotor has a 3-phase winding with the same number of poles as the
stator; the ends of the rotor winding may be brought out to three slip rings.
The advantage of the wound-rotor machine is that an external starting
resistance can be connected to the slip rings to give a large starting torque.
This resistance is reduced to zero as the machine runs up to speed.

In this report the characteristics of induction machines, as well as their effects

on power systems operation are discussed.

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

2 Operational concepts:
The axes of the stator and rotor distributions have an angular displacement,
and as a result a torque acts on the rotor and causes it to accelerate in the
same direction as the stator field.
Should the speed of the rotor attain the synchronous value, the rotor
conductors would be stationary in relation to the rotating flux. There would
therefore be no e.m.f. and no current in the rotor conductors and
consequently no torque on the rotor. Hence the latter could not continue
rotating at synchronous speed. As the rotor speed falls more and more below
the synchronous speed, the values of the rotor e.m.f. and current and
therefore of the torque continue to increase until the latter is equal to that
required by the rotor losses and by any load there may be on the motor.
The speed of the rotor relative to that of the rotating flux is called slip.
The steady-state rotor speed is normally slightly less than synchronous so
that the motor runs with a slip, s, defined as
n1 − nr
s= (1.1)
n1
where nr is the rotor speed.
At standstill, nr = 0 and s = 1. For the rotor to reach synchronous speed (nr =
no and s = 0), an external drive is necessary.
If the rotor is driven so that nr > no, the slip becomes negative, the rotor
torque opposes the external driving torque and the machine acts as an
induction generator. In all cases the slip speed is
ns = no − nr (1.2)

It was shown in the synchronous machine report that for a three-phase

winding with p pairs of poles supplied at a frequency of f hertz, the speed of
the rotating flux is given by n1 revolutions per second, where
f = n1 p
If nr is the rotor speed in revolutions per second, the speed at which the rotor
conductors are being cut by the rotating flux is (n1-nr) revolutions per second,
Frequency of rotor e.m.f:
fr = (n1 − nr ) p = sn1 p = sf (1.3)

Currents in the stator winding produce a resultant magnetic field, the axis of
which rotates at synchronous speed, n1 revolutions per second, relative to the
stator. Similarly the currents in the rotor winding produce a resultant magnetic
field, the axis of which rotates (by expression(1.3)) at a speed sn1 revolutions
per second relative to the rotor surface, in the direction of rotation of the rotor.
But the rotor is revolving at a speed nr revolutions per second relative to the
stator core. Hence the speed of the resultant rotor magnetic field relative to
the stator core is
sn1 + nr
= (n1 − nr ) + nr = n1rps
The axis of the resultant rotor field e.m.f. is traveling at the same speed as
that of the resultant stator field m.m.f., so that they are stationary relative to
each other. Consequently the induction motor can be regarded as being
equivalent to a transformer having an air-gap separating the steel portions of
the magnetic circuit. Because of this gap, the magnetizing current and the

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

magnetic leakage for an induction motor are large compared with the
corresponding values for a transformer of the same apparent power rating.
Friction and windage losses contribute towards making the efficiency of the
induction motor less than that of the corresponding transformer.
Also, an increase of slip due to increase of load is accompanied by an
increase of the rotor currents and therefore by a corresponding increase of
the stator currents.

The value of the slip at full load varies from about 6 per cent for small motors
to about 2 per cent for large machines. The induction motor can therefore he
regarded as practically a constant-speed machine. The difficulty of varying its
speed economically constitutes one of its main disadvantages.

3 Equivalent circuit.
The similarity of the induction motor to a transformer with a closed secondary
circuit should be noted. The relative motion between the primary and
secondary is represented in the equivalent circuit by the factor 1 /s multiplying
the secondary resistance R2. By analogy with the transformer, the effects of
stator resistance, stator leakage reactance and core loss may be included in
the equivalent circuit. Fig. 1 shows the complete equivalent circuit of the
machine. In this circuit the effect of a turns ratio 1: n between the stator and
rotor windings is also included, by using referred values of the secondary
R2 X2
parameters ( R`2 = 2 , X `2 = 2 ). It is instructive to compare the equivalent
n n
circuit of the induction machine with thee complete equivalent circuit of the
synchronous machine. In the synchronous machine equivalent circuit, the
rotor is represented by an active element - a current generator, which is
capable of supplying some or all of the magnetizing current. In the induction
machine, on the other hand, there is no external rotor excitation. The rotor is
represented by an impedance element, in the equivalent circuit, and all the
magnetizing current must be drawn from the stator supply. This means that an
induction motor necessarily behaves as an inductive load, taking current at a
lagging power factor.
I1 I`2

R1 jX1 Io jX2

V1
jXm Rl R2`/s

Figure 1: Equivalent circuit of induction machine

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

4 Basic electrical calculations.

Let Vp be the voltage per phase applied to stator winding and Zs be the
number of stator conductors in series per phase. If Eo = rotor e.m.f. generated
per phase at standstill, and if Er is the rotor e.m.f. generated per phase when
the per-unit slip is s and the rotor frequency is fr=sf
Er = sEo (1.4)
If R = resistance per phase of the rotor winding
and Xo = leakage reactance per phase of rotor winding at standstill
=2nfx leakage inductance per phase of rotor winding
then for per-unit slip, corresponding reactance per phase is
Xr = sXo
and corresponding impedance per phase is
Zr =  R 2 + ( sXo )  (1.5)
2
 
If Io = rotor current per phase at standstill
and Ir = rotor current per phase at slip s
Eo
Io =
 R 2 + ( sXo ) 2 
 
Er sEo
and Ir = = (1.6)
 R 2 + ( sXo ) 2   R 2 + ( sXo )2 
   
If φ is the phase difference between Er and Ir
Xr sXo
tan φ r = = (1.7)
R R
R
and cos φ r = (1.8)
 R 2 + ( Xr ) 2 
 

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

5 Loses
The following diagram, in Figure 2, indicates concisely what becomes of the
power supplied to the stator of the induction motor:

Input Power to stator winding

I2R loss in stator Core loss in stator Power transferred to

winding core rotor via magnetic
field of air gap

I2R loss in rotor Core loss in rotor Total mechanical

winding core(very small at power developed by
small slip) rotor

Friction loss at Windage Usefull mechanical

bearings and loss poer obtained from
slip-rings (if any) rotor shaft

Figure 2: Induction motor power loses

The fundamental core loss, due to the fundamental component of the rotating
magnetic field, is mainly confined to the stator core. This follows from the fact
that the magnetic field at a point in the stator, alternates with the supply
angular frequency ω, whereas the corresponding field at a point fixed in the
rotor alternates with the slip angular frequency sω. Fundamental eddy-current
and hysterisis losses are therefore insignificant in the rotor at the normal full-
load slip. There is another component of core loss caused by (a) harmonic
components of the rotating field which arise from the non-sinusoidal
distribution of practical windings, and (b) pulsations in the field which arise
from the relative motion of rotor and stator slots. This high-frequency
component of core loss occurs in both the rotor and the stator, and the energy
is supplied in a very complex way. It is customary to assume that it can be
represented by a rotational loss term added to the mechanical (windage and
friction) losses.
If T = torque, in Newton-meters, exerted on the rotor by the rotating dux and
n1= synchronous speed in revolutions per second, power transferred from
stator to rotor is
2π Tn1 (watts)
If nr = rotor speed in revolutions per second, total mechanical power
developed by rotor is
2π Tnr (watts)
But from the diagram above it is seen that total I2R loss in rotor ≅ power
transferred from stator to rotor - total mechanical power developed by rotor
= 2π T (n1 − nr ) (watts)
Thus:
2π T (n1 − nr )
= s (1.9)
2π Tn1

or total rotor I2R loss (in watts) is: s x input power to rotor (in watts)

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

6 Torque influential factors

If m is the number of rotor phases, then, using the symbols given in section 2,
we have :
Electrical power generated in rotor = mIrEr cos φ r watts
ms 2 Eo 2 R
=
R 2 + ( sXo)2
All this power is dissipated as I2R loss in the rotor circuits.
Since input power to rotor= 2π Tn1 watts, hence, from equation (1.9),
ms 2 Eo 2 R
s × 2π Tn1 = 2
R + ( sXo) 2
Consequently, for given synchronous speed and number of rotor phases,
sEo 2 R sΦ 2 R
T∝ 2 ∝ (1.10)
R + ( sXo) 2 R 2 + ( sXo) 2
Since Eo ∝ Φ

If the impedance of the stator winding is assumed to be negligible, then for a

given supply voltage, Φ and Eo remain constant.
sR
Torque ∝ 2 (1.11)
R + ( sXo)2
The value of Xo is usually far greater than the resistance of the rotor winding.
If the slip/torque characteristic needs to be graphically displayed, an easy
approach is to assume R = 1 Ω and Xo = 8 Ω, and calculate the value of
sR
for various values of the slip between 1 and 0. 1. It will be seen
R + ( sXo) 2
2

that, for small values of the slip, the torque is almost directly proportional to
the slip, whereas for slips between about 0.2 and 1, the torque is almost
inversely proportional to the slip. These relationships can be easily deduced
from expression (1.11). Thus, in the case of the cage rotor, R is small
compared to Xo, but for values of the slip less than about 0.1 per unit, ( sXo) 2
Is very small compared to R 2 , so that
sR s
Torque ∝ 2 ∝ (1.12)
R R
Thus the torque is directly proportional to the slip when the latter is very
small.
For large values of the slip, R 2 is very small compared with ( sXo) 2 for the cage
rotor and for the slip-ring rotor with no external resistance.
sR R
Torque ∝ 2
∝ (1.13)
( sXo) s
since Xo is constant for a given motor, i.e. the torque is inversely proportional
to the slip when the latter is large.

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

7 Effect of rotor resistance on the slip/torque relationship

From expression (1.13), it is seen that when R is small compared with sXo.
The torque for a given slip is directly proportional to the value of R. However,
from expression (1.12) it follows that when R is large compared with sXo the
torque for a given slip is inversely proportional to the value of R. The simplest
sR
method of demonstrating this effect is to repeat the calculation of 2
[ R + ( sXo)2 ]
with R = 2 Ω, R = 4 Ω,and R = 8Ω,. The results, shown in Figure 3,
demonstrate that for a slip of, say, 0.03 per unit, the effect of doubling the
rotor resistance, is to reduce the torque by about 0.45 per unit, whereas for a
slip of 1, the torque is nearly doubled when the resistance is increased from 1
Ω, to 2 Ω,. Hence, if a large starting torque is required, the rotor must have a
relatively high resistance.
Also the maximum value of the torque is the same for the four values of R and
that the larger the resistance the greater is the slip at maximum torque. The
condition for maximum torque can be derived by differentiating (1.11) with
respect to R, assuming s to remain constant, or with respect to s, assuming R
to remain constant. Both methods give the same result; thus, with the second
method, the torque is maximum when
 ( R + s Xo ) R − sR × 2 sXo
2 2 2 2
∂ sR
 = 2
∂s  R 2 + s 2 Xo 2  ( R 2 + s 2 Xo2 )
i.e R 2 + s 2 Xo 2 = 0

so that sXo = R (1.14)

Hence the torque is at maximum when the reactance is equal to the

resistance. For instance, with R = 1 Ω and Xo = 8 Ω , maximum torque occurs
when s = 0.I25 per unit, whereas with R=8 Ω and Xo = 8 Ω, maximum torque
occurs when s=1, namely when the rotor is at standstill.
Substituting R for sX0 In expression (1.11) ,
sR 1
Maximum torque ∝ 2
∝
2R 2 Xo
But Xo is the leakage reactance at standstill and is a constant for a given
rotor; hence the maximum torque is the same whatever the value of the rotor
resistance.
T
R=8, Xo=8
0.06
A
B R=4, Xo=8
C
0.03 R=2, Xo=8
D

R=1, Xo=8

0
0 0.5 1 S
Per unit Slip

Figure 3: Torque/Slip curves for an induction motor

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

At the instant of starting, s = 1, and with a motor having a low-resistance rotor,

such as the usual type of cage rotor, the starting torque is small compared
with the maximum torque available. On the other hand, if the bars of the cage
rotor were made with sufficiently high resistance to give the maximum torque
at standstill, the slip for full-load torque (usually about one-third to one half of
the maximum torque) would be relatively large and the I2R loss in the rotor
winding would be high, with the result that the efficiency would be low. If this
load was maintained for a period of time, the temperature rise would be
excessive. Also, the variation of speed with load would be large. Hence, when
a motor is required to exert its maximum torque at starting, the usual practice
is to insert extra resistance into the rotor circuit and to reduce the resistance
as the motor accelerates.
Thus slip-ring machines are used, where the rotor resistance per phase is
such as to give a satisfactory operating characteristic.
The machine is started with all the resistances in, driving a high starting
torque. As the machine runs up to speed the external resistance is reduced
until the machine attains full speed with no external resistance.
Large motors are often fitted with a short- circuiting and brush-lifting device
which first short-circuits the three slip- rings and then lifts the brushes off the
rings, thereby eliminating losses due to the brush-contact resistance and the
brush friction and reducing the wear of the brushes and of the slip-rings.

8 Cage motor starting

The cage-rotor machine suffers from the disadvantage that the starting torque
is low if the resistance is low, while the efficiency is reduced if the rotor
resistance is high.
If this type of motor is started up by being switched directly across the supply,
the starting current is about four to seven times the full-load current, the actual
value depending upon the size and design of the machine. Such a large
current can cause a relatively large voltage drop in the cables and thereby
produce a voltage sag, observed by the momentary dimming of the lamps in
the areas with small electrical distances from the motor. Consequently it is
usual to start cage motors - except small machines, using one of the methods
given under the headings below.

- Star-Delta starter
The two ends of each phase of the stator winding are brought out to the
starter which, when moved to the 'starting' position, connects the winding in
star. After the motor has accelerated, the starter is quickly moved to the
'running` position, thereby changing the connections to delta. Hence the
1
voltage per phase at starting is of the supply voltage, and the starting
3
torque is one-third of that obtained if the motor were switched directly across
he supply with its stator winding delta-connected. Also, the starting current in
1
star is of its value in delta. So the line current for star connection is 1/3 of
3
the value for delta, restricting the voltage sag and its effects at the motor
terminal.

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

- Auto transformer starting

In autotransformer starting the transformer has at least three tappings giving
open circuit voltages of not less than 40, 60 and 75 per cent of line voltage for
starting. The stator is switched directly to the mains when the motor has run
up to speed. If the fractional tapping is x, then the applied voltage per phase
on starting is xVi (where V1 is the mains voltage), and the starting torque is
reduced by x2. The starting current from the mains will also be reduced by
approximately x2.
The autotransformer is usually arranged with two or three tappings per phase
so that the most suitable ratio can he selected for a given motor, but an
autotransformer starter is more expensive than a star-delta starter.

Where a high starting torque is required from a squirrel cage motor, it may be
achieved by a double-cage arrangement of the rotor conductors, as shown in
Fig. 4(a). The equivalent electrical rotor circuit is shown at (b), where X1 and
X2 are leakage reactances. This equivalent circuit neglects mutual inductance
between the cages. For the upper cage the resistance is made intentionally
high, giving a high staring torque, while for the lower cage the resistance is
low, and the leakage reactance is high, giving a low starting torque but high
efficiency on load. The resultant characteristic will be approximately the sum
of the two as shown in Fig. 4(c).
If a 3-phase-induction motor starts in the wrong direction, this can be
remedied by interchanging any two of the three supply leads to the stator.

Combined
Torque
R2 X2 X1 X2
Lower
cage
X1 R1/s R2/s
R1
Upper cage

Load torque Speed

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4:Starting torque improvement in cage rotors.

a) Double cage rotor
b) Equivalent circuit
c) Combined torque/speed characteristic
The cage rotor possesses the following advantages:
1. Cheaper and more robust.
2. Slightly higher efficiency and power factor.
3. Explosion-proof since the absence of slip rings and brushes eliminates the
risk of sparking.

The advantages of the slip-ring rotor are:

1. The starting torque is much higher and the starting current much lower.
2. The speed can be varied especially by means of solid-state switching.

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Dr. A. Polycarpou Induction machine characteristics and operation

9 Speed control of induction machines

In the majority of applications the speed of a driving motor is required to be

almost constant, and hence the plain induction motor is very suitable.
Sometimes, however, it is desirable to be able to control the speed of the
motor, and this may be achieved in three main ways.
The speed, may be varied by varying the number of stator poles, the
resistance, or varying the supply frequency. It is rarely that variation of the
supply frequency is used.
In wound-rotor machines, the speed for a given load torque may be changed
by varying the rotor resistance. This gives a range of speeds near full speed,
four speeds being possible for the same load torque, with a four-position
resistance. The disadvantages of this method are the heat lost in the
regulating resistor, and the dependence of the sped variation on the load
torque.
If two or three different operating speeds are required near the synchronous,
speeds may be achieved by having two or more stator windings each having
a different number of pole-pairs. The required speed is obtained by switching
on the appropriate winding. This is only possible with cage-rotor machines,
since wound-rotor machines must have a fixed number of rotor poles. To
avoid the added cost of separate windings with different numbers of pole-
pairs, pole-changing windings were introduced. In these, by a series or
parallel grouping of the coils (achieved by switching), the number of stator
poles may be altered. Speed ratios of 2: 1 and 1.5: 1 may be achieved in this
manner.
The third method of speed control is achieved by variation of the supply
angular frequency. This permits continuous variation of the speed. The slip
can be kept low to maintain the efficiency, and the method can be applied to
cage induction motors.

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