“abc” Course on BATTERY TESTING

Summary

The purpose of the course “ abc” Battery Testing is to familiarise the students with the
basic Nomenclature and Definitions of the Electrochemical Energy Sources. The course
is designed primarily for beginners. It can be used also by PhD students and Post –
Doc`s working in the fields of chemistry, electrochemistry and electrochemical power
sources.

The course contains 6 lectures and a discussion:

1. Preliminaries: Electric Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, Resistance; Basic

Electric Laws.

2. Batteries as Sources of Energy (Basic Knowledge): Nominal Voltage, Capacity,

Specific Energy & Specific Power.

3. Modes of operation: Galvanostatic, Potentiostatic, Power-static, R-static.

4. Testing modes: Charge, Discharge, Life Cycling, Special Test Modes.

5. Load Characteristic. Discharge characteristics. Charge characteristics.

6. Life Performance. Specific Relations: Rate of Discharge, “Ragone” –

dependence; State of Charge, State of Health.

D. Specific problems related to the Portable & Emergency Energy Sources.

The lectures are supplemented by practical exercises elucidating the material.

The lectures are presented in Bulgarian, following the classical lecturing routine; the
English thesaurus is used, too.

The Tutor is supported by two assistants (highly-active students) preparing the notes of
the course and the graphical material necessary for the building of the e – version of the
course. The course finished with a test (in Bulgarian) and a conversation – in English.

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 abc Testing

The course "abc" Testing is prepared as general preliminary information

for engineers and chemists, beginners in the field of battery testing and
investigation. The course is part of the educational programme of the
Project POEMES. The ensuing material represents the record of the
presented during the course lectures delivered to POEMES Project’s
beginners in November 2003.

BATTERIES AS SYSTEMS UNDER STUDY

From system theory point of view the electrochemical power sources are
large, non-linear, quasi-reversible and non-stationary systems with
distributed parameters in macro- and micro- scale. During their operation,
processes of mass and energy transfer take place on the electrodes. They
change the electrochemical kinetics, the electrodes morphology and
structure as well as the external battery behaviour and determine the strong
dependence between the spaces of parameters and state. The batteries are
systems with memory and could be presented as long Markow’s chains.

Markov’s chain: The term given by Markov has a wide application

in statistics and in physical chemistry. For a system of this type, the
probability for a given state is a function of a number of former
states. The Markov’s chains can be:
Short:
Pn+1(A) = f[ Pn(B)];
Long:
Pn+1(A) = F[ Pn(B), Pn-k(CK)],
k=1,2,3…m.

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 1. PRELIMINARIES

1. Electric Charge (q): Its unit is the Coulomb [C]. The elementary
charge of the electron is a fundamental physical constant. It has the
value of:

e0 = 1.602 176 462(63) × 10-19 C

2. Electric current (I) is any flow of charge, generally through a metal

wire or some other electrical conductor. The SI unit of I is the Ampere
[A]. The electric current can be directly measured with an ammeter,
connected in series in the circuit. The large amperages can be measured
by means of a shunt.

3. Amount of charge (Q): The SI unit of Q is the Coulomb [C] and is

defined in terms of the ampere-second: 1 coulomb is the amount of
electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second.

Q = I .t

4. Electric potential (E): It is a scalar field and it has a magnitude, but

no direction, at every point in space. It determines (for a given system at
a given point) the work needed to move a single charge to infinity. The
electrical potential is measured in units of energy per unit of electric
charge [J/C]=[V].

5. Voltage (U): The potential difference between two points in the

electric field. Its SI unit is volt [V]. The Electric Voltage can be directly
measured with a voltmeter, connected in parallel to the measured object
in the circuit.

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 6. Power (P): The power consumed by an electrical device is the
product of the voltage and the current passing through the device. That
is,
P = U .I

Power is the amount of work completed per unit of time. The SI unit of
power is the Watt, which is equal to one Joule per Second.

[J/s]= [A.V]=[W]

7. Energy (W): It could be defined by:

W=P. t

The SI unit of Energy is: [J] = [W.sec]

W = U .I .t;
W = U .Q

8. Resistance (R): It is the ratio of the potential difference (i.e. voltage)

across an electric component (such as a resistor) to the current
passing through it. Its SI unit is Ohm[Ω]

We can always find the equivalent resistance by repeated application of

two simple rules. These rules relate to resistors connected in series and in
parallel:

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 In series: In parallel:

R∑ = R1+R2 R-1∑ = R1-1+R2-1

9. Current density: j[A/m2] is the current per unit (cross-sectional)

area.

Basic Electric Laws

1. Ohm`s law states that the voltage drop V across a resistor is

proportional to the current I flowing through it:
R=U/I [Ω]
2. Kirchoff's laws

K1: Kirchoff's first law applies to junction points in circuits (i.e., points at
which three or more wires or elements come together). The junction rule is:
The sum of all the currents entering any junction point is equal to the sum
of all the currents leaving that junction point.

K2: Kirchoff's second law applies to loops in dc circuits. The loop rule is:
The algebraic sum of the changes in electric potential encountered in a
complete traversal of any closed loop is equal to zero.

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 2. THE BATTERIES AS ENERGY SOURCES

A battery is an electrochemical device that stores energy and typically

consists of two or more cells. From a user's viewpoint, at least, batteries
can be generally divided into two main types - rechargeable and non-
rechargeable (disposable).

The disposable batteries are also labelled as primary cells and are intended
to be used once, until the chemical changes that induce the electrical
current supply are exhausted, at which point the battery is discharged.
These are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices with either
low current drain, only used intermittently, or well away from an
alternative power source.

By contrast, the rechargeable batteries, or secondary cells, can be re-used

after being drained. This latter is accomplished by applying externally
supplied electrical current, which causes the chemical changes that occur
to be reversed. Devices to supply the proper current are called chargers or
re-chargers.

Battery Parameters

The batteries can be characterised by the following basic parameters:

1. Nominal Voltage: The voltage, which is displayed on the battery

label.
2. Nominal Capacity: The quantity of electricity the battery can store.
The practical unit of electrical capacity is Ampere–hour or Ah. Ah

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 designates the storage capacity of the battery. Amp-hour capacity will
vary with temperature and with the rate of discharge.
3. Weight G.
4. Volume V.
5. Specific capacity: Q/G [Ah/kg]; Q/V[Ah/l].
6. Specific energy: W/G [Wh/kg]; W/V[Wh/l].

The other basic battery’s parameters like UOCV, Maximal Power, Internal
Resistance and others can be illustrated by an important characteristic,
designated:

Volt – Ampere characteristic (load characteristic): It gives the

correlation between the current and the voltage:
U/V

I II III

I/A

Fig.1. Typical discharge characteristic

The plot can be separated into three zones:

I: When the current values are small an electrochemical kinetics

appears and the dependence is non-linear;

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II: Here the dependence is quasi-linear and the basic processes are
dominated by transport;
III: In this domain a new electrochemical reaction begins to dominate,
the latter being generally destructive. This is the reason why this domain is
undesirable and in contrast to the first two it is not a working region.

From this characteristic plot some basic parameters can be derived:

1. Ri = dU/dI - it can be determined within the second domain.

2. U*ocv – can be defined from the approximation of the linear
domain to the abscise.
3. Maximal Power.

3. MODES OF OPERATION

The most common types of battery circuit connections are:

• Two electrode cell (2-pole cell) - a classical

electrochemical cell circuit where the cell connection is
by the two electrodes.
• Three electrode (3-pole) connection. An
electrochemical cell containing a working electrode, a
counter electrode and a reference electrode. The current
flows between the working and the counter electrodes,
while the potential of the working electrode is measured
against the reference electrode.
• Four electrode cell (4 pole).
• Five and six poles cells are also used.

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 +U

+u
+

–
–u

–U
Fig.2. Circuit with three electrodes

Modes of operation:

1. Galvanostatic mode (I=const): An electrochemical measuring mode

for electrochemical analysis or for the determination of the kinetics
and mechanism of electrode reactions based on the control of the
current flowing through the system. The control apparatus is called a
galvanostat.

start
U/V

work area
end

I/A

Fig.3. Operating diagram of a Galvanostat

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2. Potentiostatic (U=const):

work
end area start

U/V I/A

Fig.4. Operating diagram of a Potentiostat

3. Potentio-galvanostatic: At the beginning of the measuring the mode

is galvanostatic and in the special point (cross over point), when the
voltage reaches a proper value the mode turns in potentiostatic.
U/V

end Cross over point

*start

I/A
Fig.5. Operating diagram of a Potentio-Galvanostat

4. Power-static (P=const)

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5. Resistance-static (R=const)

U/V

I/A

Fig.6. Operating diagram of a Resistance-static mode.

6. Pulse modes: The operational mode is typically galvanostatic and

the load is pulsing. Different kinds of pulse shapes and number of
cycles can be utilised:
I/A

Fig.7. Typical pulse mode of operation.

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7. Functional mode.
When the profile of the current is predetermined, the load diagram
could be programmed:

4. TYPICAL TESTING MODES

Nominal Capacity (QT). It is used for the batteries capacity

measurement. It consists of charge and discharge (QT: C, DQ). The
working regime is typically 20h, but in some cases it may be 10h. When
this kind of test is executed, the battery under test must be at a definite state
of charge, i.e. DSC. Classically this signifies a stationary state, which is
defined by the stationarity of both voltage and electrolyte density.
Q/Ah

Q0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t/h

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With the decreasing of the working regime, Q also decreases. When the
working regime is very short (<1h), Q decreases down to 50%.

Cycling Test (CT): This kind of test includes a large number of cycles(N),
which are obtained by combination of charge and discharge.

T1 is the time for charge and T2 is the time for discharge. T is the period of
the cycle and is equal to: T= T1 + T2.

Every testing mode can be described by a number of test-vectors (TV) the

sum of which is designated as a test-matrix:

TV1: C: I/t, U, t0: 10; 6; 16; 45; 2

TV2: D: I/t, U: 20; 2; 10; 5; 3
TV3: END

Life cycling (Life Test - LT): The life test determines how many times a
battery can be cycled before it reaches the point where it can deliver only
(customarily) 80% of it's original capacity. This depends on how deep the
battery is cycled.
I/A

T t/h

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 Q/Ah
Q0

80%Q0

NL Nc

Accelerated Tests: These are used for the approximate evaluation of the
battery life.

Basic approaches: Temperature rising and heavy pulse testing. An

example: Edison’s cycle: slow charge and heavy discharge (5Q0).

Self-Discharge Test (SDT): All batteries will "self-discharge" if left with

no load. The rate of self-discharge can vary considerably both with the
battery type and age. The basic procedure for SDT is:

1. DSC; 2. (QT)1; 3. DSC; 4. Shelf Pause; 5. (QT) 2

Special Test Modes

GSM-T: The GSM Batteries must meet some special requirements. Unlike
analogue equipment that draws a steady current, the digital phone loads the
battery with very short and heavy current spikes.

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 I/A

t/h

EVT is designed for tests of batteries for electric vehicles. It consists of

discharge steps with programmed current (or power) and pause. The test
consists of repetition of the test profile (cycling) and registration of the
measured data. This kind of the load profile is shown in the following
diagram:
-1
v/km.h
I/A

t/s

5. LOAD CHARACTERISTIC

Discharge

Discharging is the process of utilising the delivered by the battery power.

Depending on the purpose the battery is used for, the energy that a battery

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delivers can be specified in different ways. Typical discharge
characteristics are illustrated below:

U/V

t/h

I1>I2>I3
U/V

I1

I2

I3

t/h

Charge

The limited efficiency of the chemical process within the battery signifies
that the energy supplied must be larger than the useful energy output from
the battery. It is important that the batteries should be exactly fully charged.
All the lead sulphate must be processed into lead oxide in order that the
electrodes do not sulphate, which is what happens if the battery is under-
charged. If the battery is overcharged, water is lost through gassing, which
will cause corrosion of the electrodes. Overcharging can also cause the

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temperature inside the battery to rise above the admissible level and
damage the battery as a result.

U,I
U

t/min

The shape of the curves depends on the mode of operation and the electrochemical
nature of the object.

6. LIFE PERFORMANCE

DOD - Depth of Discharge: How much of the available charge has been
used compared to the full 100% charge.

SOC (σ) - State of Charge is similar to DOD - it is how much charge is

left.
U/V

I/A

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SOH (α) - State of Health: As a battery ages, the maximum amount of
charge it can hold will gradually decrease; which is known as a
degradation. The status of battery degradation can be referred to as its
“state of health”; for example, a battery with a state of health at 70% can
only hold a maximum of 70% of its original capacity.

Q/Ah

Q0
new helth old

Nc

The energy of the system E is a function of the following parameters:

nominal voltage, nominal capacity, time, temperature, state of health, depth
of discharge, testing regime:

E (U0, Q0, t, t0, α, DOD, h).

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