Calculus Study Sheet

DIFFERENTIATION RULES
d 7 nA n-1 d 2 d 1
u = n u ul Qtan uU = (sec u) ul Qln uU = ul
dx dx dx u
d d 2 d ul
QuvU = uvl + vul Qcot uU = -(csc u) ul Qarcsin uU =
dx dx dx 1-u
2

d d ul
< F=
d u vul − uvl Qsec uU = (sec u tan u) ul Qarctan uU =
dx v v
2 dx dx 1+u
2

7f ( g (x))A = fl ( g (x)) g l (x)

d d d ul
Qcsc uU = -(csc u cot u) ul Qarcsec uU =
dx dx dx u u -1
2

d d u u
Qsin uU = (cos u) ul Qe U = e ul
dx dx
d d u u
Qcos uU = -(sin u) ul Qa U = (ln a) a ul
dx dx

INTEGRATION FORMULAS

# a du = au + C # tan u du = lnsec u + C or # csc 2

u du = -cot u + C
-lncos u + C
# u du = nu + 1 + C
n
n+1
# csc u cot u du = -csc u + C
# cot u du = lnsin u + C
# 1u du = lnu + C # tan 2
u du = tan u - u + C
# sec u du = lnsec u + tan u + C du u
#e u u
du = e + C # 2 2
= arcsin
a
+C
# csc u du = -lncsc u + cot u + C a -u

#a u
du =
a
u
+C or lncsc u - cot u + C # 2 du 2 = 1a arctan ua + C
ln a a +u
1
# sin u du = -cos u + C # sec 2
u du = tan u + C # du 2 2
= arcsec
a
u
a
+C
u u -a
# cos u du = sin u + C # sec u tan u du = sec u + C

TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
sin θ 1 sin (−θ) = −sin θ π
tan θ = = cos d − θn = sin θ
cos θ cot θ cos (−θ) = cos θ 2
cos θ 1 tan (−θ) = −tan θ π
cot θ = = sin d − θn = cos θ
sin θ tan θ sin (u ! v) = sin u cos v ! cos u sin v 2
1 cos (u ! v) = cos u cos v " sin u sin v 1 − cos 2θ
sec θ = 2
sin θ =
cos θ 2
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
1 2
cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ
2 1 + cos 2θ
csc θ = 2
cos θ =
sin θ 2 2
= 2 cos θ − 1
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1 2
= 1 − 2 sin θ
2 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ 2 tan θ
2 2 tan 2θ =
1 + cot θ = csc θ 2
1 − tan θ

1
 FORMULAS AND THEOREMS
1. Definition of Limit
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing c (except possibly at c) and
let L be a real number. Then lim f (x) = L means that for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
x"c
such that f (x) − L < ε where 0 < x − c < δ.

2. Continuity at a Point
A function y = f (x) is continuous at x = c if
i). f (c) is defined.
ii). lim f (x) exists
x"c
iii). lim f (x) = f (c)
x"c

3. Even and Odd Functions

1. A function y = f (x) is even if f (−x) = f (x) for every x in the function’s domain.
Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
2. A function y = f (x) is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in the function’s domain.
Every odd function is symmetric about the origin.

4. Periodicity
A function f (x) is periodic with period p (p > 0) if f (x + p) = f (x) for every value of x.
2π
Note: The period of the function y = A sin (Bx + C) or y = A cos (Bx + C) is .
B
The amplitude is A. The period of y = tanx is π.

5. Intermediate-Value Theorem
A function y = f (x) that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on every value
between f (a) and f (b).
Note: If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) and f (b) differ in sign, then the equation
f (x) = 0 has at least one solution in the open interval (a, b).

6. Limits at Infinity

f (x)
i). lim = 0 if the degree of f (x) < the degree of g (x).
x "!3 g (x)
2
x − 2x
Example: lim 3
=0
x"3
x +3
f (x)
ii). lim is infinite if the degrees of f (x) > the degree of g (x).
x "!3 g (x)
3
x + 2x
Example: lim 2
=3
x"3
x −8
f (x)
iii). lim is finite if the degree of f (x) = the degree of g (x).
x "!3 g (x)
2
2x − 3x + 2 2
Example: lim =-
x"3
10x − 5x
2
5

7. Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

1. A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b
x"3 x " -3

2. A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = !3 or lim f (x) = !3.
+ -
x"a x"a

2
 8. Average and Instantaneous Rate of Change
i). Average Rate of Change: If (x0, y0) and (x1, y1) are points on the graph of
y = f (x), then the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval
f _ x1i − f ` x0j y − y0
6x0, x1@ is
∆y
= 1 = .
x1 − x0 x1 − x0 ∆x
ii). Instantaneous Rate of Change: If (x0, y0) is a point on the graph of y = f (x), then
the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0 is f l (x0)

9. Definition of the Derivative of a Function

f (x + h) − f (x)
i). f l (x) = lim
x"0 h
f (x) - f (c)
ii). f l (c) = lim
x"c x-c

10. Differentiability and Continuity

i). If a function is differentiable at point x = c, it is continuous at that point.
The converse is false, in other words, continuity does not imply differentiability.
ii). If a function is not continuous at x = c, it is also not differentiable at x = c.

11. A Limit Involving e

1 x x+1 x
i). lim d1 + n = lim d n =e
x"3 x x"3 x
1/ x
ii). lim (1 + x) =e
x"0

12. Rolle’s Theorem

If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b), then there is
at least one number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f l (c) = 0

13. Mean Value Theorem

If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then there is at least one number
f (b) - f (a)
c in (a, b) such that = f l (c).
b-a

14. Extreme-Value Theorem

If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f (x) has both a maximum and
minimum on [a, b].

15. Finding Extrema on a Closed Interval

To find the maximum and minimum values of a function y = f (x), locate
1. the points where f l (x) is zero or where f l (x) fails to exist.
2. the end points, if any, on the domain of f (x) .
Note: These are the only candidates for the value of x where f (x) may have a
maximum or a minimum.

16. Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let f be differentiable for a < x < b and continuous for a a ≤ x ≤ b,
1. If f l (x) > 0 for every x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2. If f l (x) < 0 for every x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

3
 17. Test for Concavity
Suppose that f m (x) exists on the interval (a, b)
1. If f m (x) > 0 in (a, b), then f is concave upward in (a, b).
2. If f m (x) < 0 in (a, b), then f is concave downward in (a, b).
To locate the points of inflection of y = f (x), find the points where f m (x) = 0 or where
f m (x) fails to exist. These are the only candidates where f (x) may have a point of
inflection. Then test these points to make sure that f m (x) < 0 on one side and f m (x) > 0
on the other.

18. Linear Approximations

The linear approximation to f (x) near x = c is given by y = f (c) + f l (c) (x − c) for x
sufficiently close to c.

19. L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Forms

f (x) 0 3 f l (x) f (x) f l (x )
If lim is of the form or , and if lim exists, then lim = lim .
g (x )
x"c 0 3 x " c gl (x) x " c g (x ) x " c gl (x)
0
Indeterminate Form: 0/0, 3/3, 3 - 3 , 0 ⋅ 3 , 0 , 1 , 30
3

-3
Determinate Form: 3 + 3 " 3, -3 - 3 " -3, 0 " 0, 0
3
"3

20. Inverse Function

1. If f and g are two functions such that f ( g (x)) = x for every x in the domain of g
and g ( f (x)) = x for every x in the domain of f, then f and g are inverse functions
of each other.
2. A function f has an inverse if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.
3. If f is either increasing or decreasing in an interval, then f has an inverse.
4. If f is differentiable at every point on an interval I, and f l (x) ≠ 0 on I, then
−1
g = f (x) is differentiable at every point of the interior of the interval f (I) and
1
g l (x) = .
f l (g (x))

21. Properties of the Natural Exponential Function

x
1. The exponential function y = e is the inverse function of y = ln x.
2. The domain is the set of all real numbers, −3 < x < 3.
3. The range is the set of all positive numbers, y > 0.
d x x
4. Qe U = e
dx
m n m+n
5. e ⋅ e = e
x
6. y = e is continuous, increasing, and concave up for all x.
x x
7. lim Qe U = +3 and lim Qe U = 0.
x " +3 x " -3
ln x x
8. e = x, for x > 0; ln(e ) = x for all x.

22. Properties of the Natural Log

1. The domain of y = ln x is the set of all positive numbers, x > 0.
2. The range of y = ln x is the set of all real numbers, −3 < y < 3.
3. y = ln x is continuous and increasing everywhere on its domain.
4. ln (ab)= ln a + ln b.
a
5. ln = ln a − ln b.
b

4
 r
6. ln a = r ln a.
7. y = ln x < 0 if 0 < x < 1.
8. lim ln x = +3 and lim ln x = −3
x " +3 x"0
+

ln x
9. loga x =
ln a

23. Trapezoidal Rule

If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] where [a, b] has been
b-a
partitioned into n subintervals [x0, x1], [x1, x2], ... [xn − 1, xn], each length , then
n
b b-a
# f (x) dx ≈ [f(x0) + 2 f(x1) + 2 f(x2) + ... + 2 f(xn − 1) + f(xn)].
a 2n

24. Simpson’s Rule

Let f be continuous on [a, b]. Then
b b-a
# f (x) dx ≈ [f(x0) + 4 f(x1) + 2 f(x2) + 4 f(x3) + ... + 4 f(xn − 1) + f(xn)],
a 3n
where n is an even number of subintervals of equal length on [a, b].

25. Definition of Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum

Suppose that a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. Divide the
b-a
interval into n equal subintervals, of length ∆x = . Choose one number in each
n
subinterval, in other words, x1 in the first, x2 in the second, ..., xk in the kth, ..., and
n b
xn in the nth. Then lim
n"3
/ f (x ) ∆ x = #
k a
f (x) dx = F (b) = F (a).
k=1

26. Properties of the Definite Integral

Let f(x) and g (x) be continuous on [a, b].
b b
i). # c ⋅f(x) dx = c #
a a
f (x) dx for any constant c.

#
a
ii). f (x) dx = 0
a
b
# f (x) dx = - # f (x) dx
a
iii).
a b
b b
# # #
c
iv). f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx, where f is continuous on an interval
a a c
containing the numbers a, b, and c.

#
a
v). If f(x) is an odd function, then f (x) dx = 0
-a

# f (x) dx = 2 # f (x) dx
a a
vi). If f(x) is an even function, then
-a 0
b
vii). If f(x) > 0 on [a, b], then # a
f (x) dx ≥ 0
b b
viii). If g (x) ≥ f(x) on [a, b], then # a
g (x)dx ≥ #a
f (x) dx

26. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

b
i). #
a
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a), where F l(x) = f(x).
d
; # f (t) dt E = f(x).
x
ii).
dx a

5
 27. Average Value of a Function
1 b
The average value of f(x) on [a, b] is
b-a
#
a
f (x) dx.

28. Area of a Region Between Two Curves

If f and g are continuous functions such that f(x) ≥ g (x) on [a, b], then area between
the curves is # 7 f (x) - g (x)A dx.
b

29. Velocity and Acceleration

i). If a particle moving along a straight line has a positive function x (t), then its
instantaneous velocity v(t) = x l(t) and its acceleration a (t) = vm (t).
ii). v(t) = # a (t) dt and x (t) = # v (t) dt
30. Volume of Solids of Revolution
Let f be nonnegative and continuous on [a, b], and let R be the region bounded above
by y = f(x), below the x-axis and the sides by the lines x = a and x = b.
i). The volume V of the solid of revolution generated by revolving R about the x-axis:
Volume of disk = p(radius) ⋅ (thickness) = π # 7 f (x)A dx
2 b 2

a

Volume of washer = p 6(outer radius) - (inner radius) @ ⋅ (thickness)

2 2

= π # `7 R (x)A − 7r (x)A j dx
b 2 2

a

ii). The volume V of the solid of revolution generated by revolving R about the y-axis:
Volume of cylindrical shell = 2p(radius) ⋅ (height) ⋅ (thickness)
b
= 2π # r (x) h (x) dx
a

31. Volume of Solids with Known Cross Sections

Let S be a solid bounded by planes that are perpendicular to the x-axis at a and b. If,
for every x in [a, b], the cross-sectional area of S is given by A(x), then the volume of
b
S is V = # A (x) dx
a

32. Integration by Parts

If u = f(x) and v = g (x) and if fl (x) and g l(x) are continuous, then y u dv = uv − y v du.
Note: The goal of the procedure is to choose u and dv so that du is easier to
solve than the original problem.
Suggestion: When “choosing” u, remember LIATE, where L is the logarithmic
function, I is an inverse trigonometric function, A is an algebraic function, T is a
trigonometric function, and E is the exponential function. Just choose u as the
first expression in LIATE, (and dv will be the remaining part of the integrand). For
example, when integrating y x ln x dx, choose u = ln x since L comes first in LIATE,
x
and dv = x dx. When integrating y x e dx, choose u = x, since x is an algebraic
x
function, and A comes before E in LIATE, and dv = e dx. One more example, when
integrating y x arctan x dx, let u = arctan x, since I comes before A in LIATE, and dv =
x dx.

33. Trigonometric Substitution

2 2
i). For integrals involving a - u , let
u = a sin θ.
a
Then
2
a - u = a cos θ
2 u
π π θ
where − ≤ θ ≤ .
2 2 2 2
a -u

6
 2 2
ii). For integrals involving a + u , let 2

u = a tan θ. 2 +u
a u
2 2
Then a + u = a sec θ
π π θ
where − ≤ θ ≤ . a
2 2
2 2
iii). For integrals involving u - a , let
u = a sec θ. u 2 2
2 2 u -a
Then u - a = !a tan θ
π π θ
where 0 ≤ θ < or < θ ≤ π.
2 2 a
Use the positive value if u > a;
negative if u < −a.

34. Arc Length

If the function given by y = f(x) represents a smooth curve on the interval [a, b], then
the arc length of f between a and b is given by s = # 1 + 7 f l (x)A dx.
b 2

35. Improper Integral

b
#
a
f (x) dx is an improper integral if

i). f becomes infinite at one or more points of the interval of integration, or

ii). one or both of the limits of integration is infinite, or
iii). both (1) and (2) hold.

36. Parametric Form of the Derivative

If a smooth curve C is given by the parametric equations x = f(t) and y = g (t), then the
dy dy/dt dx
slope of the curve C at (x, y) is = , ≠ 0.
dx dx/dt dt

< F
d dy
2
< F=
d y
d dy dt dx .
The second derivative, =
dx
2
dx dx dx /dt

37. Arc Length in Parametric Form

If a smooth curve C is given by x = f(t) and y = g (t) and these functions have
continuous first derivatives with respect to t for a ≤ t ≤ b, and if the point P (x, y) traces
the curve exactly once as t moves from t = a to t = b, then the length of the curve is
2 2
dy
d n + d n dt = # 7 f l (t)A + 7 gl (t)A dt.
b dx b
given by s = #
2 2

a dt dt a

38. Polar Coordinates

i). Cartesian vs. Polar Coordinates. The polar coordinates (r, θ) are related to the
Cartesian coordinates (x, y) as follows:
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
y 2 2 2
tan θ = and x + y = r
x

ii). To find the points of intersection of two polar curves, find (r, θ) satisfying the first
equation for which some points (r, θ + 2nπ) or (−r, θ + π + 2nπ) satisfy the second
equation. Check separately to see if the origin lies on both curves, i.e. if r can be
0. Sketch the curves.

7
 iii). Slope in a Polar Form: If f is differentiable function of θ, then the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of r = f(θ) at the point (r, θ) is
dy dy/dθ f (θ) cos θ + f l (θ) sin θ dx
= = , ≠ 0.
dx dx/dθ − f (θ) sin θ + f l (θ) cos θ dθ

iv). Area in Polar Coordinates: If f is continuous and nonnegative on the interval

[α, β], then the area of the region bounded by the graph of r = f(θ) between the
radial lines θ = α and θ = β is given by A = # 7 f (θ)A dθ =
1 β 1 β 2
2 α
2

2 α
# r dθ

39. Sequences and Series

Summary of convergence and divergence tests for series.

Condition(s) Condition(s)
Test When to Use Comments
of Convergence of Divergence
All series This test cannot be used lim an ≠ 0 Inconclusive if lim an = 0
nth-Term
to show convergence. n"3 n"3

Some preliminary algebraic

Geometric 3 uru < 1 manipulation may be required
/ ar n

Sum: S =
a uru ≥ 1
Series n=0 to bring the series into this
1-r form.
3
1 Useful for comparison tests if
p-series / p p>1 p≤1 the nth term an of a series is
n=1 n p
similar to 1/n .
3 an ≥ an + 1 > 0 and
Alternating / ( −1) n+1
an
Remainder: uRnu ≤ an + 1.
Series n=1 lim an = 0
n"3

3 The function f obtained from

/a n
where f(x) = an,
n=1 f(x) = an, must be continuous,
Integral f is continuous and #1
3
f (x) dx converges #
1
3
f (x) dx diverges
positive, decreasing, and
decreasing and f(x) ≥ 0
readily integrable.
Any series (especially Inconclusion if lim n an = 1.
Root those involving lim n an < 1 lim n an > 1 n"3
n"3 n"3
exponentials)
Any series (especially
those involving an + 1 an + 1 an + 1
Ratio lim <1 lim >1 Inconclusion if lim = 1.
exponentials and/or n"3 an n"3 an n"3 an
factorials)
3 3 3 3
/a n
and / b , where
n
If /b n
converges, then If /a n
diverges, then The comparison series is
Direct n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
often a geometric series or a
Comparison 3 3
0 ≤ an ≤ b n /a n
converges. /b n
diverges. p-series.
n=1 n=1

3 3 The first step in using this test

/a n
and / b , where
n is to find another series
n=1 n=1 3 3 3 3
Limit an, bn > 0 and /a n
and /b n
both /a n
and /b n
both (whose convergence or
Comparison n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 divergence is known) that
an converge. diverge. “looks like” the series in
lim =L>0
n"3 bn question.

8
 A series / an is absolutely convergent if the series / an converges. If / an
converges, but / an does not converge, then the series is conditionally convergent.
3 3
Keep in mind that if / an converges, then /a n
converges.
n=1 n=1

Power Serires: A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form

3
/ a x = a + a x + a x + ... + a x + ... .
n 2 n
n 0 1 2 n
n=0
A power series about x = c is a series of the form
3
/ a (x − c)
n
n
= a0 + a1(x − c) + a2(x − c) + ... + an(x − c) + ...
2 n

n=0
in which the center c and the coefficients a0, a1, a2, ... , an, ... are constants. The
set of all numbers x for which the power series converges is called the interval of
convergence.

Taylor Series: Let ƒ be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some
interval containing c as an interior point. Then the Taylor series generated by ƒ at
x = c is
(n) (n)
3
f (c) f m (c) f (c)
/ (x − c) + ... + (x − c) + ... .
n 2 n
(x − c) = f(c) + f l (c)(x − c) +
n=0 n ! 2 ! n !
The Maclaurin series generated by ƒ is
(n) (n)
3
f (0) n f m (0) 2 ... f (0) n ...
/ x = f(0) + f l(0) x + x + + x + ,
n=0 n! 2! n!
the Taylor series generated by ƒ at x = 0.

Important Maclaurin series

Interval of
Maclaurin series
Convergence

1
= 1 - (x - 1) + (x - 1) - (x - 1) + (x - 1) - ... + (-1) (x - 1) + ...
2 3 4 n n
(0, 2)
x
2 3 4 n−1 n
(x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1) ( −1) (x − 1)
ln x = (x - 1) - + − +g+ + g (0, 2]
2 3 4 n
2 3 4 5 n
x x x x x x
e =1+x+ + + + +g+ + g (-3, 3)
2! 3! 4! 5! n!
3 5 7 9 n 2n + 1
x x x x ( −1) x
sin x = x - + − + −g+ + g (-3, 3)
3! 5! 7! 9! (2n + 1)!
2 4 6 8 n 2n
x x x x ( −1) x
cos x = 1 - + − + −g+ + g (-3, 3)
2! 4! 6! 8! (2n)!
3 5 7 9 n 2n + 1
x x x x ( −1) x
arctan x = x - + − + −g+ + g [-1, 1]
3 5 7 9 2n + 1