(U+D)

Relative clauses

A. OVERVIEW
1. Definition

 Relative clauses are subordinate clauses which refer to the noun of the main clause:
identifying it or adding extra information.
 There are two types of relative clauses (identifying the noun or classifying it as part of a
group) and non-defining clauses (adding information about the noun).

Eg: Van Gogh was an artist who used a lot of bold, vibrant colours.

The pipes which were just repaired by Mr Nolan are leaking again.

2. Form and use

- Relative clauses are subordinate clauses introduced by relative pronouns, such as that, which or
who. These clauses give information about someone or something in the main clause.

Compare these examples

Find out the difference between them.

1. You adopted a type of manner yesterday. It was utterly rude.

2. The type of manner which you adopted yesterday was utterly rude.

The type of manner which you adopted yesterday was utterly rude.

• Main clause: the type of manner was utterly rude

• Subordinate clause: which you adopted yesterday

- The relative pronoun is the subject or object of the relative clause . lt is therefore unnecessary
to repeat the noun from the main clause or introduce a personal pronoun to replace it:

1. You adopted a type of manner yesterday. It was utterly rude. (X)

2. You adopted a type of manner yesterday. That type of manner was utterly rude. (X)

- We usually put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun it refers to, otherwise the
meaning may not be clear:

1. He grabs “The Help” from the pile of books, which he’s going to read. (X)

2. He grabs “The Help”, which he’s going to read, from the pile of books. (✓)

- We often avoid relative clauses in casual speech and writing, preferring shorter ways of
defining or adding information:

1. People who come from Australia are not afraid of wild animals.

2. Australian people are not afraid of wild animals. (using adjective)

3. People from Australia are not afraid of wild animals. (prepositional phrase)

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3. Classification

There are two types of relative clauses: defining relative clauses (or identifying relative clauses) and
non-defining relative clauses.

What are they? What are their uses? Give examples. (work in groups of 4)

a) Defining relative clauses

- A defining relative clause identifies or classifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause

Eg:

• ldentifying relative clause: The book that I dog-eared is written by Thomas Baker.

• Classifying relative clause: Can all who wish to attend our annual workshop raise your
hands?

- In the first example, the relative clause is used to indentify a particular book – the book that I dog-
eared. So the listener can tell the book apart from other books.

- In the second example, the relative clause classifies the members of a group. So all who wish to
attend our annual workshop are separated from those who don’t wish to.

- Without the clause, the meaning of the sentence is different.

1. Alexandra who pissed the headmaster off was expelled (with the clause)

-> Alexandra was expelled (without the clause)

2. I’d like to have a boyfriend who does charity work. (with the clause)

-> I’d like to have a boyfriend (without the clause)

(In these two examples, without the clause, we don’t know why Alexandra was expelled or what
qualities I’d like in a boyfriend. As a result, the sentences are not “full”. The key meaning of the
sentences are not conveyed.)

- We often use defining relative clauses to describe an important quality of someone or

something:

(Q) Students give examples

Eg: Johanna creates pieces of music which are intense and stand out among other artists’ work.

The walk-in closet which features mutiple chandeliers and storage units has recently been developed
by ARK Company.

- We often use a relative clause with the same pattern for emphasis, with introductory “It”.

Eg: It is always hate crime that prevents teenagers from living their true selves.

It is their latent conflict that makes them archenemies.

b) Non-defining relative clauses

- We usually use non-defining relative clauses to add extra information about the subject of a
main clause

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Eg:

1. “Rillington Place”, which is available in BBC iPlayer, is a poignant crime drama.

2. Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin, is a famous biologist and doctor.

Main clauses:

1. “Rillington Place” is a poignant crime drama.

2. Alexander Fleming is a famous biologist and doctor.

- We can also use non-defining relative clauses to show consecutive actions:

Eg:

1. Rick gave the bracelet to Judy, who instantly tossed it away.

2. The ball was passed to James, who successfully scored a goal.

- As a result of the above uses, we use non-defining relative clauses mainly in writing and formal
speech.

4. Subjects and objects

- A relative pronoun can be the subject of a relative clause

Eg:

1. Last week I watched a film which won a prize at the Toronto film festival.

2. He gave away his hiding place which had all the best equipment.

- A relative pronoun can also be the object of a relative clause.

Eg:

1. The dress which you bought at Forever 21 took 20 hours to make.

2. The perfume which Anna May created has sold out!

- ln defining relative clauses we can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the
relative clause, but not when it is the subject:

1. The dress you bought at Forever 21 took 20 hours to make. (✓)

2. The perfume Anna May created has sold out! (✓)

3. Last week I watched a film won the prize at the Toronto film festival. (X)

B. A CLOSER LOOK
1. Relative pronouns and the words used with them

a) Relative pronouns

(Q) How many relative pronouns can you name? What else do you know about them?

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- We use who and whom for people, which and that for things or for a group of people (a team…).
We use whose for both.

Eg:

1. The man who/whom I borrowed the book from is Dana’s brother.

2. The woman and the dog that I saw the other day were cuddling each other.

3. The teacher whose students won the Olympic are very proud.

a) Relative pronouns

• Who, whom

- Who is a subject pronoun, whom is an object pronoun

- Besides being used to indicate people, who/whom is also used for animals, particularly
domesticated pets, though not frequently.

Eg:

1. She owed lots of money to a man who worked at my school.

2. My bestfriend is the person who/whom I confided in.

3. Sherley who is Sydney’s dog is a very cheerful animal.

- In spoken or informal speech, American English tend to use “who” instead of “whom” when
referring to an object. Although this is not the correct use of who/whom pronouns, it’s acceptable.

• Which, that

- “Which” is used for things, either the subject or the object. Sometimes it’s used for the whole
sentence.

Eg:

1. The car which my brother lent me broke down on the way to school.

2. The book which is the author’s best-seller intrigues readers.

3. She chose to major in finance, which surprised everyone.

- We often use “that” in defining relative clauses instead of “which”, or (more informally) “who”.

- We can’t use “that” after prepositions or in non-defining relative clauses.

Eg:

1. The guy that kissed Andrea is Alex! (✓)

2. The rocks that the villagers engraved on are of historic importance. (✓)

3. The house in that I grew up is now Mr. Lander’s (X)

- We can use “that” as an alternative to “when” in defining relative clauses:

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Eg: I remember - it was the day when/that the heatwave started.

• Where, when, why

- With relative clauses of place and time, we can use “where” and “when” instead of preposition +
which (informal situations).

Eg:

1. I know a place where we can talk privately.

2. There comes a time when you will finally have to move on from your past relationships.

- The only noun which takes why as a relative pronoun is “reason”.

Eg: Sometimes he thinks her honesty is the reason why/that he fell in love with her.

We can use which + for instead of “why”

Eg: High taxation is often the main reason for which governments fall.

• Whose, what

- “Whose” is a possesive relative pronoun. It’s a determiner and so can only be used before a noun.

- We use “whose” for both people and things. But for things, we usually use “of which” or “with”
instead

Eg:

1. My uncle, whose house we stayed in every summer, never had any children of his own.

2. The house, the garden of which sloped down to the beach, was enormous.

3. The house, with the garden that sloped down to the beach, was enormous.

- We use “what” to mean ‘the thing that/which’. The clause containing “what” is a nominal clause,
i.e. the whole clause acts as a noun, either a subject or an object. While “what” isn’t used in
the same way as “that” or “which” it can fulfil the same functions as the other relative
pronouns:

Eg: Why don’t you tell Jessica what you has already told me?

In this example, “what you has already told me” is the object of the verb “tell”. It means the same
as:

Why don’t you tell Jessica the story (that) you has already told me?

We cannot use “what” to replace who, which or that

b) Words used with relative pronouns

• Prepositions in relative clauses

- When a preposition is necessary, it can go before the relative pronoun or at the end of the relative
clause. When it goes before, it is generally more formal:

(Q) Students give examples of prepositions before the relative pronoun.

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Eg: Chemistry is a subject which I always had problems with

->Chemistry is a subject with which I always had problems (more formal)

- We use many fixed prepositional phrases with “which” (and when) in non-defining relative clauses:

Eg:

1. It might rain, in which case we'll get back as soon as possible.

2. The hero died, at which point the curtain came down

3. There was a scandal, as a result of which all the ministers resigned.

4. He stopped playing in 1995, since when he hasn't kicked a ball.

5. Plant them out in May, by when (by which time) the risk of frost will have passed

 Relative clauses after pronouns

- Defining relative clauses often follow these pronouns: someone, anyone, something, anything,
everything, all, many, those, some, nothing, little, much

Eg: Many who saw the film were unimpressed.

- Instead of using which, we commonly use that or omit the relative pronoun, when the pronoun is
impersonal (anything, something, nothing, etc)

Eg:

1. I'm ready for anything that happens.

2. Anything you can do I can do better.

- After the personal pronouns we use relative clauses only in formal or literary English:

Eg:

1. He who laughs last laughs longest. (proverb)

2. ...we that are young

3. Shall never see so much, or live so long. (Shakespeare, King Lear)

- Those in structures like the following example nearly always refers to people rather than things

Eg: Will all those who want to go please follow me?

- Much that and little that are fairly formal

Eg: Much that has been done here is of profound significance.

I will tell you the little that I know.

• Relative clauses after some of, all of, etc.

- Who, whom, whose and which frequently combine with all of, some of, several of, both of and
other quantifiers

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Eg:

1. I bought a load of apples, three quarters of which were bad.

2. Thousands of people, none of whom realised what was about to happen, had come to Dallas
to see the President.

• Which with other Wh-words.

- We can use which with other wh-words in non-defining clauses

Eg:

1. He arrived at six, which was when the diamonds went missing.

2. She left her address, which was how we contacted her.

3. All delegates are in the lecture theatre, which is where you should be.

4. His fingerprints were all over it, which was what gave him away.

5. She had become separated from her mother in the shop, which was why she was crying.

2. Omitting relative pronouns.

a) Omitting the relative pronouns

• In defining relative clauses, we often omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the
clause

Eg: The excuse he offered was unconvincing.

• We can't omit the relative pronoun when it's the subject of the clause

Eg: The people were sitting at the back couldn't see anything. (X)

• We can't omit the relative pronoun in non-defining clauses

Eg: My lawyer's excuse, he offered rather reluctantly, was that the law had recently changed (X)

b) Reduced relative clauses

(Q) What do you know about reduced relative clauses? (work in pairs)

• -ing forms

- We can use -ing forms after nouns and pronouns in a 'reduced' defining relative clause

Eg: The people sitting at the back couldn't see anything (sitting = who were sitting)

- With this structure, we can use stative verbs not commonly found in the Continuous

Eg: Anyone wanting to go on the excursion should go to Reception (wanting = who wants)

They found several boxes containing explosives (containing = which contained)

- We can omit the -ing form when it's followed by a prepositional phrase

Eg: The people at the back couldn't see anything

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 • Past participles and adjectives

- We can use past participles after nouns in a 'reduced' defining relative clause:

Eg:

1. All those selected will be informed by 5 o'clock on Friday (=who have been selected)

2. The man arrested last night has yet to be charged (=who was arrested)

- We can do the same with some adjectives:

Eg:

1. I used to work for a man capable of all sorts of dishonesty (=a man who was/is capable)

2. We will do everything possible to ensure you get your money back (=everything that is
possible)

 To-infinitives

- To-infinitives can sometimes replace relative clauses containing modal verbs:

Eg:

The woman to talk to is over there (=who you should talk to)

I haven't got a thing to wear (=that i can wear)

We can also use to-infinitives after quantifiers and anything, nobody, etc.

Eg:

There is a lot to do (=which we need to do)

Is there anything left to eat? (=which we can eat)

We can also use to-infinitives after phrases like the next, the first, etc.

Eg:

He was the only man to believe us (=who believed us)

The next person to walk through that door will get a surprise (=who walks)

c) Non-defining descriptive clauses

- As well as non-defining relative clauses, we can add participle or noun phrases to give extra
information about a noun

Eg:

1. The three men, laughing and joking, burst in through the door.

2. The town, devastated by three recent earthquakes, has an almost unreal atmosphere.

3. Brazil, the largest South American country, is in many ways different from its neighbors.

3. Nominal relative clauses

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a) What are nominal relative clauses?

- In nominal relative clauses, the relative pronoun acts like a noun and a linking relative pronoun
working together. The most common nominal relative pronoun is what meaning 'the things which'

- This has already been introduced when we learned about the relative pronoun "what"

Eg:

1. This is what I have always wanted.

2. What concerns him is the urgency of the situation.

3. Luckily, what causes her to bleed is curable.

b) Other nominal relative pronouns

- We can also use the following as nominal relative pronouns:

Eg:

1. I'll do whatever the boss wants me to. (=anything that)

2. You can invite whoever you like (=anybody who)

3. Choose whichever you like, they're all good (=any one that)

4. We just talked about when we'd first met. (=the occasion on which)

5. Believe it or not, this is where i first met my wife. (=the place in/at which)

6. Bernadetter? That's not who i thought you meant (=the person who)

7. Great coffee! Just how i like it (=the way that)

8. I know you like chocolate, that's why i bought you some (=the reason that)

c) Nominal relative pronouns followed by a to-infinitive

- When, who, what, where and how can be followed by a to-infinitive:

(Q) Give examples (students)

Eg:

1. Good leadership is largely a question of deciding when to take action.

2. I really did want to pay but i didn't know who to ask.

3. I just don't know what to do about this leak.

4. Where to sleep is my biggest problem at the moment.

5. I don't know how to tell you this.

d) What before a noun

- We can use what before a noun:

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Eg:

1. I gave the beggar what change i had.

2. What experience i have of carpentry is rather limited, i'm afraid.

- When we use what like this, it means 'all the change' and 'all my experience', but also suggests that
there wasn't or isn't much.

e) Which

- We use which to refer back to a whole clause rather than the preceding noun only

Eg:

1. He only did what anyone else would do in that situation, which is panic.

2. The piano required several men to lift it, which was perhaps not surprising.

4. Other things to remember

a) Punctuation and pausing

- We usually use commas to separate the relative clause from the main clause in non-defining
relatives, but we do not use them in defining relatives:

Eg:

1. The tribespeople, who traded with the settlers, retained their land (All of the tribespeople
retained their land, and, incidentally, they traded with the settlers)

2. The tribespeople who traded with the settlers retained their land (Only some of the
tribespeople retained their land – this defines a group).

- The use of commas reflects the way we say the two types of relative clauses. ln defining
relative clauses, there is no pause between the main clause and the relative clause:

Eg:

We asked for the double room which had a sea view.

- ln non-defining relatives, there is a short pause after the main clause or between the two
parts of the main clause:

Eg:

1. We were given a lovely double room (__), which had a sea view.

2. I first met Harry Chadwick (___), who eventually became my husband, at an AA meeting.

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 Relative clause exercises

Ex1: Complete the following article by writing each missing relative pronoun or adverb in the
spaceprovided. Use only one word for each space.

Jack of Hearts

Jack of Hearts is a new six-part drama (0) which/that comes to our screens this week. lt has been
given the prime Wednesday evening 9.30 slot, (1) _______ shows that the network has faith in its
latest creation. The first episode opens to a scene (2) ______ a young man is being chased. He stops
at a phone box and makes a desperate call. This calls wakes up a man (3) ______ most viewers will
recognise as Keith Allen - the slightly sleazy unshaven Cockney (4) _______ characters are usually
less than wholesome. This time, however, he is on the right side of the law, playing a probation
officer with a complicated professional and personal life, both of (5) _______form the main themes
of the series. The writers have managed to find a different angle on his personal problems. At the
centre of these problems is his stepdaughter, for (6) _______ he attempts to keep the household
together. His relationship with the girl's mother, (7) _______ seems to be a bad-tempered, grumpy
woman, is further compromised later in the series (8) _______ she joins the staff of a college at (9)
_______ she meets a former lover.

Thus the ground is prepared in this first episode for a series (10) _______ may help to lift British
summertime TV out of its regular slump.

Key:

1 which 6 whom
2 where 7 who
3 who/whom/that 8 when
4 whose 9 which
5 which 10 which/that

Ex2: Read the following text. ln most lines, there is an unnecessary word, a word missing or a
punctuation error. For each numbered line l-22, identify the mistake and write the correct version in
the space on the right. Some lines are correct. lndicate these lines with a tick (✓). The first two lines
are examples (0 and 00).

0 Tourism today is an industry…has grown so much in recent years that in many .which….
00 countries it provides the greatest single contribution to the country's revenue. …✓…....
1 But is it always a good thing? Mass tourism which is a relatively recent ………....
2 phenomenon, brings with it a whole raft of problems. First, it means that a ………....
3 country's economy may rely on an industry which it is wholly seasonal, with ………....
4 the consequence that the huge numbers of people work in tourism during the ………....
5 season have no income during the rest of the year. Some find wherever work ………....
6 they can, but others may turn to a government is already receiving lower ………....
7 revenues for support. ………....

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 8 Second, it is true that in many countries tourists are destroying the very ………....
9 sights they flock to see them. They take home pieces of an ancient monument ………....
10 or of a coral reef which will gradually result in erosion of the attractions and ………....
11 therefore of the industry. While this kind of destruction may be wholly ………....
12 unintentional, a certain type of tourist what wants only a 'good time' can be ………....
13 very destructive in a different way: they drink too much, pick fights and ………....
14 destroy the clubs and bars where they are drinking in. Obviously, it is then ………....
1 5 this behaviour by that the local community judges all members of that ………....
16 nationality group, creating enmity between races rather than fostering ………....
17 empathy, what should be one of the main advantages of tourism. ………....
18 Finally, there are many places tourism is threatening a well-established ………....
19 way of life: people that whose livelihoods traditionally come from older ………....
20 industries, such as agriculture or fishing, are finding new jobs and wealth in ………....
21 the over-developed tourist regions, but at what cost? It is sometimes difficult ………....
22 to understand exactly which a country gains from tourism. ………....
Key:

1.tourism which -> 7. ✓ 13. ✓ 19. that whose ->

tourism, which 8. ✓ 14. where they are whose
2. ✓ 9. to see them -> to drinking in -> 20. ✓
3. which it is -> which see that/which they are 21. ✓
is 10. reef which -> reef, drinking in / where 22. which -> what
4. people work -> which they are drinking
people who work 11. ✓ 15. that -> which
5. wherever work -> 12. tourist what wants 16. ✓
work wherever -> tourist who/that 17. what -> which
6. government is wants 18. places tourism ->
already receiving -> places where/in which
government tourism
which/that is already
receiving/government
receiving

Ex3: Complete these definitions with the following words.

Crime Prison Revenge That When Which

Motive Quarantine What Where Why

1 . …………………is a place……………..people are kept as punishment for crimes.

2. A………………..is an explanation of………………..someone acts in a particular way.

3. A………………..is an offence for………………….you may be punished by law.

4. …………………..is deliberate punishment or injury……………is inflicted in return for ……….....someone

has suffered.

5. …………………..is a period………………an animal or person is kept away from others in order to prevent
the possible spread of disease.

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Key:

1. prison – where

2. motive – why

3. crime – which

4. revenge – that – what

5. quarantine – when

Ex4: Complete this email message with the following words:

how what when which why

that whatever where whichever

Thanks for your email and the good news about the report. I’ve tried several times to think about
the report, but then the phone rings and I have to pay attention to (1)……………..is going on right at
that moment. I can assure you that this won’t happen everytime (2)………… we have to do one of
these quarterly reports, but right now I’m in a position (3)……………… every problem in the office
seems to land on my desk, (4)………………….is partly my own fault, I know. Anyway, that’s not (5)
…………you wanted to hear about, I’m sure. I don’t think there’s a slot in my schedule this morning (6)
……………we can talk. How about late this afternoon around three or four, (7)………………is best for
you. If you already have some idea (8)…………….we should put the report together, then I agree with
you that there shouldn’t be any reason (9)……………… we can’t complete it before the deadline. I’ll
talk to you later.

Key:

1. whatever 6. when
2. that 7. whichever
3. where 8. how
4. which 9. why
5. what

Ex5: Fill each of the blanks with one suitable word.

When I was at school, maths was a subject which I could simply never get on (1)…………… This dislike,
the (2)………………of which was that I failed most exams in the subject, was a standing joke amongst
my friends, (3)………………..of whom had the slightest problem with the most abstruse calculations. (4)
……………who did find themselves struggling tended to sit together at the back of the class, which is
(5)………….we gained the nickname of ‘The back-row innumerates’. Nothing (6)………..any teacher
could do seemed to help and little (7)…………….they said stayed between my ears. I left school at 16,
(8)…………..when I have become a very successful accountant.

Key:

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 1. with 5. how/why
2. result 6. that
3. none/few 7. that
4. those/any/students/pupils 8. since

Ex6: Rewrite each sentence using the words given.

Example: My thanks to my family, who made all of this possible. without/none

-> My thanks to my family, without whom none of this would have been possible.

a. Since writing a best-seller in 1995, Joe has hardly produced any good work at all. wrote/since/very

-> Joe wrote a best-seller in 1995, since when he hasn’t produced very much good work.

b. He hasn’t written much recently that’s been appreciated by those attracted by his early style.
little/who

-> Little he has written recently has been appreciated by people who were attracted by his early
style.

c. Not only his appearance but also his manners leave great scope for improvement. he/man/both/
desired

-> He is a man in whom both appearance and manners leave something/much to be desired.

d. By the time he realized where his career was going in the late nineties, it was too late. in/which

-> In the late nineties he realized where his career was going, by which time it was too late.

e. He now regrets writing the article because it was that that caused him all the problems he’s had.
now wishes/ but for/ not

-> He now wishes he hadn’t written the article because but for that he would not have had all the
problems he has.

Ex7: Complete each of the following sentences so that it is as close in meaning as possible to the
sentence printed before it.

a. There were a lot of survivors and most of them were in pain.

-> There were a lot of survivors, …the majority of whom were in pain….

b. We are holding a series of meetings to acquaint the general public with the facts.

->We are holding a series of meetings, the ….purpose of which is to acquaint the general public with
the facts….

c. When the fire spread, the theatre was cleared.

->The fire spread, at…… which point the theatre was cleared…..

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d. The full-time librarian will lend you up to five books at any one time.

->There is a full-time librarian, from… whom you can borrow up to five books at any one time….

e. Numerous witnesses of the robbery were unable to identify the two men.

->Many who… witnessed the robbery were unable to identify the two men……

Ex8: Rewrite each sentence using the words that follow so that it is as similar in meaning as possible
to the one printed above it.

Example: I was so shocked I was at a loss for words. aback/know

-> I was so taken aback, I didn’t know what to say.

a. She said something that was not at all polite. what/extremely

->What she said was extremely rude.

b. I can’t decide on the best way of telling her what’s happened. how/break

-> I can’t decide how to break the news to her (best).

c. No matter what the outcome of the general election, things will go on more or less the same.
whichever/change

-> Whichever party wins the election, nothing much will change (or things will not change much).

d. I’m not sure what level of difficulty to pitch the test at. decide/how

-> I can’t decide how difficult the test should be.

e. You could write what I know about computers on a postage stamp. what/knowledge/be

-> What knowledge I have of computers could be written on a postage stamp.

f. I always thought San Francisco would look and feel exactly like this. how/imagined/be

-> This is exactly how/what I imagined San Francisco would be.

g. Can you remember the subject of our conversation last week? recall/what/was/talking

-> Can you recall what it was we were talking about last week?

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