Chapter 3 Section 3-03 Earthwork Design

Section 3-03
Earthwork Design

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Exhibit 1- Earthwork Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Excavation (cut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Embankment (fill) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Topsoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Moisture and Density Control (MDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

EARTHWORK VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
End Area Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exhibit 2 - Irregular Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exhibit 3 - End Area Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Volume Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exhibit 4 - Roadway Cross Sectional End Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Compaction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

MASS DIAGRAM (MASS CURVE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Mass Diagram Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exhibit 5 - Mass Diagram Spreadsheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Exhibit 6 - Mass Diagram Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Interpretation of the Mass Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

HAUL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Haul Defines Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exhibit 7 - Hauling 1 CY of Excavated Material 1 Mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Calculating Project Haul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exhibit 8 - Calculate Total Haul As Sum Of Individual Rectangles . . . 12
Haul With Different Soil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exhibit 9 - Effect of Combining Different Soil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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OTHER EARTHWORK CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Interrelationship of Design Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Borrow Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Exhibit 10 - Mass Diagram With Insufficient Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Exhibit 11 - Mass Diagram With Borrow Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Waste Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exhibit 12 - Mass Diagram With Excess Excavated Material . . . . . . . . . 15
Exhibit 13 - Mass Diagram With Waste Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Point of Economical Haul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exhibit 14 - Economical Haul Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

COMPUTER EARTHWORK SOFTWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

KEY USER GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Earthwork Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exhibit 15 - Grand Summary Earthwork Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exhibit 16 - Mainline Earthwork Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Added Quantities in GEOPAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Positive Embankment (Fill) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exhibit 17 - Added Fill Affect On Mass Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Negative Embankment (Fill) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Positive and Negative Excavation (Cut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exhibit 18 - Earthwork and Added Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Using Shrink or Swell Factors in GEOPAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Multiple Compaction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Geopak Three-step Process For Multiple Compaction Factors . . . . . . . 23
Exhibit 19 - GEOPAK Multiple Factor Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Exhibit 20 - GEOPAK Multiple Factor Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Spreadsheet Process For Multiple Compaction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Widening for Guardrail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exhibit 21- Widening for Guardrail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Graphically Fixing Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

GUIDELINES FOR SNOW DRIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Road Surface Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Barn Roof Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Median Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Roadway Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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Exhibit 22 - Cross-Section Scenario With Snow Drifting . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Cut Slope Configuration to Prevent Snow Drift Encroachment . . . . . . . 31
Exhibit 23 - Cut Slop Modification For Snow Drift Control . . . . . . . . . 31
Superelevation Drifting Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Exhibit 24 - Low Side of Superelevated Roadway in Cut Section . . . . . 32
Snow Management For Rock Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Exhibit 25 - Cross-Section For Snow Management (In Rock Cuts) . . . . 33

BARRIERS AND SNOW DRIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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INTRODUCTION
General: One of the major tasks in roadway construction is removing and placing
earth materials to achieve the desired earth grade cross section. The design tasks
required to define where the roadway material is to be obtained, where it will be
placed, the direction in which it will be hauled, the amount of effort required to
transport the material to its desired location, the amount of material to be excavated,
etc., are collectively known as the earthwork process. The basic elements of the earth
grade portion of the roadway cross section are shown in Exhibit 1.

EXHIBIT 1
EARTHWORK CROSS SECTION

Excavation (cut): In-place material that is removed to achieve the desired earth
grade cross section. The cut slope catch point for each cut section is normally set at
a fixed distance from the bottom of the ditch. The most common WYDOT contract
bid item for excavation is Unclassified Excavation.

Embankment (fill): Excavated material that is placed and compacted to achieve the
desired earth grade cross section. WYDOT considers embankment quantities to be
incidental to excavation pay quantities.

Topsoil: The top layer of nutrient rich soil that is removed, stored, and eventually
placed over the surface of all disturbed areas for revegetation purposes. The topsoil
is handled and paid for twice, once for removal and once for placement. WYDOT
contract bid items for topsoil are Topsoil Storing and Topsoil Placing.

Moisture and Density Control (MDC): It is WYDOT construction practice to

excavate additional material beneath the proposed surfacing in cut sections, adjust
the moisture content, replace it, and properly compact it to provide a stable roadway
foundation. The required MDC depth for a particular project is specified in the Soils
Profile. Typically, the bottom 6 in [150 mm] of the specified depth is scarified and
compacted in place with added moisture. When necessary, the remaining depth of
MDC material is removed and replaced.

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Separate quantities for MDC are included in the plans, but MDC quantities are paid
for as part of Unclassified Excavation.

EARTHWORK VOLUMES
General: The traditional method used to calculate embankment and excavation
volumes is the average end area method. The average end area procedure is as
follows:

C Cross sections of the existing terrain are first taken at regular intervals
throughout the project as specified by the engineer. For rural projects, the
cross section interval is generally 100 ft [30.48 m] in tangent sections and 50
ft [15.24 m] in curved sections. For urban projects, the cross section interval
is generally either 50 ft [15.24 m] or 25 ft [7.62 m] depending on the level
of detail needed. Additional cross sections are also obtained at “breaks” in
the terrain, such as drainage bottoms, ridges lines, etc.

The cross sections are then plotted, showing the proposed earth grade
template superimposed on the existing terrain. The areas of excavation and
embankment are then calculated for each cross section.

C The average end area method approximates the volume of excavation or

embankment between two cross sections as follows:

Volume = ½ ×(A1+A2)×L
Where: A1 = Area of excavation or embankment of cross section 1
A2 = Area of excavation or embankment of cross section 2
L = Distance between cross sections 1 and 2

This method is an approximation in the following respects:

C Any irregularities in the natural terrain between cross sections are not
reflected in the calculated earthwork volumes.

C Mathematically, the average end area method is exact only if A1 = A2. The
maximum mathematical error occurs when one of the areas is equal to zero.

Even though some of the terrain irregularities are not accounted for, the average end
area method has been found to provide earthwork volumes that are sufficiently
accurate for practical engineering purposes. This method’s accuracy can be improved
by shortening the cross section interval.

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End Area Calculations: To use the average end area method, areas must be
calculated for irregular polygons whose vertices are defined by their elevations and
distances from centerline. One method for determining such areas is the so-called
“crisscross” method, which is demonstrated in the following example:

EXHIBIT 2
IRREGULAR POLYGON

Make a list of the x and y coordinates (distance and elevation) at each vertex of the
polygon starting at a selected point and proceeding around the enclosed area back to
the starting point, as shown in Exhibit 3. The coordinates of the starting point are the
first and last entries in the list. Compute cross-products of all coordinates in the list,
keeping track of signs, and calculate the sum of these products.

Enclosed area = ½ [(3y × x) - ( 3x × y)]. Note that the final area may be positive or
negative. The sign is of no consequence. Area = ½ [(37) - (-23)] = 30 ft2

EXHIBIT 3
END AREA CALCULATIONS

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Volume Calculations: The following pictorial view of a typical roadway and the
associated cross sectional end areas illustrates how the earthwork volumes are
computed throughout a typical project.

EXHIBIT 4
ROADWAY CROSS SECTIONAL END AREAS

In this example, the end areas provided in Exhibit 4 are used to calculate the cut and
fill earthwork volumes between Sta.1+00 and Sta. 2+00:

Example: V = [½ (A1+A2) × (L)] ÷ 27 (Where end areas are in ft²)

Where: V = Volume in CY
A1= End Area in ft2 at Sta. 1+00
A2= End Area in ft2 at Sta. 2+00

Fill volumes V = [½ × (100 + 120) × (100)] ÷ 27 = 407 CY

Cut volumes V = [½ × (150 + 50) × (100)] ÷ 27 = 370 CY

Compaction Factors: The density of embankment material is normally different

from the density of the excavated material. This difference is accounted for in the
earthwork process by using compaction factors. The compaction factors are
provided in the Soils Profile, or the Geology Program/Field Offices can provides
them.

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Excavated soil-type material (dirt) typically shrinks in volume from its natural state,
when compacted during the embankment construction process. For example a soil-
type material with a 20 % shrink results in a compaction factor of 1.2 that is applied
to the embankment quantities so that the earthwork can be balance. Fill Volume ×
1.2 = Cut Volume.

Excavated rock-type material typically swells in volume from its natural state, when
compacted during the embankment construction process. For example a rock-type
material with a 10% swell results in a compaction factor of 0.9 that is applied to the
embankment quantities. Fill Volume × 0.9 = Cut Volume.

Compaction factors are subjective and factors determined by soil-type will not
always provide the best results. Experience has shown that a project with several
sliver cuts and fills could require a compaction factor of 1.5± verses a laboratory
determined factor of 1.2±. The designer should work with the field offices to make
sure that the shrink factor being used is applicable to the project being designed.

MASS DIAGRAM (MASS CURVE)

General: Embankment and excavation volumes for an entire project are
summarized in the form of a mass diagram, which is an extremely useful tool in the
earthwork design process, to evaluate balance points (zero mass ordinate), to
calculate haul, etc.

One way to understand the mass diagram concept is to visualize a truck that travels
along the length of the project in the direction of increasing station. As the truck
travels between two stations, the excavation quantities between these stations are
added to the truck, and the embankment quantities (adjusted for the compaction
factor) are removed from the truck. The volume of material in the truck at a
particular station is the mass ordinate. Using the truck analogy, positive ordinates are
excess material at a particular station. Negative ordinates are the volume of material
required for embankment construction. In general, the mass ordinate at any station
is given by the following equation: M2 = (+ or - M1) + (Exc 1- 2) - (CF × Emb 1-
2)

Where:M2 = The mass ordinate at a particular station

M1 = The mass ordinate of the preceding station
Exc 1 - 2 = The volume of excavation between stations 1 and 2
Emb 1 - 2 = The volume of embankment between stations 1 and 2
CF = The compaction (shrink or swell) factor for the material on the project

Mass Diagram Calculations: The spreadsheet in Exhibit 5 illustrates how the

associated end areas and earthwork volumes are applied to calculate the mass
ordinate at each cross station:

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EXHIBIT 5
MASS DIAGRAM SPREADSHEET

Exhibit 6 shows a mass diagram plot of the ordinates calculated in Exhibit 5.

EXHIBIT 6
MASS DIAGRAM PLOT

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Interpretation of the Mass Diagram: Positive mass ordinates can be considered
to be the excess volume of excavated material at a particular station. As material is
used for embankment construction, the mass ordinates decrease. Negative mass
ordinates can be considered as the volume of material required for embankment
construction. As more material is excavated, the shortage of embankment material
is lessened and the mass ordinates increase.

Zero mass ordinates are called balance points, and the section of roadway between
two consecutive balance points is called a balance. The location of an intermediate
balance point is normally determined by linearly interpolating between positive and
negative mass ordinates. For example, the sample project has two balances–one
between Station 0+00 and Station 2+17.36, and one between Station 2+17.36 and
Station 4+00.00. Thus, sufficient material was excavated in each balance to construct
the embankment, taking the compaction factor into account. Contractors normally
work each balance separately and material usually is not taken from one balance into
another.

In the example, the mass ordinate at the end of the project is near zero, indicating
that sufficient material was excavated to construct all of the embankment, taking into
account the compaction factor. Therefore, a separate borrow source is not needed to
furnish material necessary for embankment construction, nor is extra material (waste)
left over at the end of the project.

Where the mass ordinate is increasing, more material is being excavated than is
being used in the embankments. Where mass ordinates are decreasing, embankment
predominates. Thus, the direction of haul in a balance where the mass ordinates are
positive, is ahead-station, which is from an area of increasing mass ordinates toward
an area of decreasing mass ordinates. Similarly, the direction of haul in a balance
where mass ordinates are negative, is back-station.

HAUL
General: The amount of work involved in a grading project is not totally reflected
by the excavation and embankment quantities alone. Two balanced projects with
similar excavation quantities, but significantly different lengths, differ widely in the
amount of work required to move the excavated material to its final position in the
embankment.

Haul Defines Work: The effort required to transport the excavated material is
quantified as haul. Haul is measured in units of cubic yards-miles (CY-Miles)
[m3-km], which is defined as the amount of work required to move 1 CY [m3] of
excavated material a mile [km] as illustrated in Exhibit 7.

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EXHIBIT 7
HAULING 1 CY OF EXCAVATED MATERIAL 1 MILE

Exhibit 7 shows a one mile balance with a haul quantity of 1 CY-Mile. Note that the
mass diagram is a rectangle enclosing an area of 1 CY-Mile. Therefore, the haul for
the project can also be regarded as the area enclosed by the mass diagram (Haul =
1 cubic yard ×1 mile).

The area under the haul diagram is the minimum amount of work required to
transport the excavated material to its final position in the embankment for the
balance. It is not a direct measure of the amount of work actually performed by the
contractor. The total quantity for haul is the area enclosed by the final mass diagram
for the project.

Calculating Project Haul: Haul is not a WYDOT pay item, but it’s calculated and
shown in the plans for estimating purposes. It is customary to calculate haul
quantities by approximating the area enclosed by the haul diagram as a series of
vertical rectangles as shown in Exhibit 8.

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EXHIBIT 8
CALCULATE TOTAL HAUL AS SUM OF INDIVIDUAL RECTANGLES

Area O1 = O1 × (½ distance to previous x-section + ½ distance to next x-section)

For standard interval cross sections, the area for ordinate O1 is:

Area O1 = O1 × (½ × I + ½ × I ) = (O1 × I )

Total Haul = Area O1 + Area O2 + . . . etc.

= I × O1 + [(I+d2) ÷ 2] × O2 + [(d2+I ) ÷ 2] × O3 + I × O4 + . . . etc.

Where: O1 = mass ordinate at cross section 1

O2 = mass ordinate at cross section 2, etc.
d1 = distance between cross section 1 and cross section 2 =I
d2 = distance between cross section 2 and cross section 3…I
I = standard cross section interval.

Haul With Different Soil Types: Even though compaction factors are applied to
embankment volumes, the amount of material required to construct a cubic yard of
embankment is a function of the type of excavated material used in the embankment.

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On projects where embankment is constructed with differing soil types that have
different compaction factors, a two-step earthwork process is required to determine
the balance points and the associated amount of haul. This process is illustrated in
Exhibit 9:

EXHIBIT 9
EFFECT OF COMBINING DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES

To determine the balance points, the inverse of the compaction factor is applied to
the excavation volumes, and 1 cubic yard of excavation is used to construct each
cubic yard of embankment. Using the truck analogy from earlier in this chapter, the
excavated material is compacted as it is loaded into the truck rather than being
compacted when it is being placed in the embankment.

Adjusted Excavation = (1÷1.2) + (1 ÷ 0.9) =1.944 CY

Since the adjusted excavation is equal to the embankment, the project is self
balancing. The mass diagram for this step incorrectly indicates that the haul is 1.944
CY-Miles. Obviously, the haul should be 2.0 CY-Miles.

To maintain the balance points determined in step one and to correct the haul, the
effective compaction factor is calculated for each balance and applied to the
embankment. Using the truck analogy, the different types of materials are excavated,
blended, placed in the truck, and compacted as the embankment is constructed.

Effective Compaction Factor = total exc. vol./total emb. vol.

vol.= (2.0 ÷ 1.944) = 1.0288

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Adjusted Embankment Volume = (Embankment Volume) (Effective CF)
= (1.944) × (1.0288) = 2.0 CY

Since the adjusted embankment is equal to the excavation, the project is still self
balancing. However, the mass diagram for this step now indicates the correct haul
of 2.0 CY-Miles.

OTHER EARTHWORK CONSIDERATIONS

Interrelationship of Design Elements: The earthwork design is dependent on all
the other roadway design elements, such as horizontal alignment, vertical alignment,
roadway cross section, etc. The designer must use good engineering judgment to
achieve an appropriate balance between all these elements to provide a final roadway
design that meets all the constraints for a particular project. For example, utility
conflicts may occur on a particular project, or additional right of way may be
required. The designer can choose to accept such encroachments or minimize them
by shifting the horizontal alignment, by revising the vertical alignment, by modifying
the embankment slopes, or by combining these techniques.

Borrow Material: On widen and overlay projects, the existing profile grade cannot
be adjusted, and there may be insufficient excavation material available adjacent to
the roadway to balance the earthwork. Consequently, borrow areas must be obtained
to furnish the required amount of excavation. A typical mass diagram for such a
project is shown in Exhibit 10.

EXHIBIT 10
MASS DIAGRAM WITH INSUFFICIENT EXCAVATION

Adding borrow material causes an immediate increase in the mass ordinate at the
location where the borrow material is brought onto the project. Although it is not
always possible to obtain borrow areas in optimal locations, borrow areas should be
located in the vicinity of the shortage of material. If possible, borrow areas should
be located to minimize haul by reducing the area under the mass diagram. A
reasonable location for a borrow area on the above noted project is shown in
Exhibit 11.

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EXHIBIT 11
MASS DIAGRAM WITH BORROW MATERIAL

Waste Material: Occasionally, excess excavated material not necessary to construct

the roadway embankment is obtained. For example, sight distance considerations
may necessitate a deeper cut at the crest of a hill than is necessary to balance the
earthwork. A typical mass diagram with waste material is shown in Exhibit 12.
Consequently, waste areas must be obtained or embankment slopes must be
flattened, etc., to dispose of the excess material.

EXHIBIT 12
MASS DIAGRAM WITH EXCESS EXCAVATED MATERIAL

If a waste area is used, waste material causes an immediate decrease in the mass
ordinate at the station added. If possible, material should be wasted without hauling
it a significant distance. A reasonable location for waste material is shown in Exhibit
13.

EXHIBIT 13
MASS DIAGRAM WITH WASTE MATERIAL

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In rare instances, it may be necessary to haul large amounts of excavated material

long distances before using it in the embankment. Depending on excavation costs,
haul costs, etc., it may be more economical to waste or flatten slopes with the
excavated material and then borrow other material necessary to construct the
embankment at a location closer to the embankment.

Point of Economical Haul: Where two or more borrow areas are used on a single
project, a decision must be made as to where to stop using the material from the first
borrow area and to begin using the material from the next borrow area. This is
known as the point of economical haul, as illustrated in Exhibit 14.

EXHIBIT 14
ECONOMICAL HAUL POINT

The point of economical haul occurs at the location where the total cost of
excavating and hauling a cubic yard of material from Borrow Area 1 is equal to the
total cost of excavating and hauling a cubic yard of material from Borrow Area 2.
The example assumes that sufficient borrow material is available in both borrow
areas.

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Example Problem:

Borrow Area 1: Royalty = $0.50 per CY and Excavation cost = $1.10 per CY
Borrow Area 2: Royalty = $0.60 per CY and Excavation cost = $1.50 per CY
Haul = $0.10 Per CY-Mile for both borrow areas

C1 = The cost to move 1 CY of excavation from Borrow Area 1:

C1 = Excavation + Royalty + Haul
=1.10 + 0.50 + [0.10 × (.25Mi+X)] =1.625+.10X

C2 = The cost to move 1 CY of excavation from Borrow Area 2:

C2 = Excavation + Royalty + Haul
= 1.50 + 0.60 + [0.10 × (8.0Mi - X + 0.5Mi)] = 2.950 - 0.1X
C1 = C2 or 1.625 + 0.1X = 2.950 - 0.1X
Therefore 0.2X = 1.325
X = 6.63 Miles

The economical haul distance from Borrow Area 1 = X+0.25 = 6.88 Miles and the
economical haul distance from Borrow Area 2 = (8-X)+.5 = 1.87 Miles. Where
royalty and haul costs are not known as is often the case, the point of economical
haul is based on distances only.

Special Considerations: Where applicable, take the following into account during
the earthwork process:

C Avoid uphill haul of large amounts of excavated material.

C Ensure balance points are located in the vicinity of bridges to avoid hauling
large amounts of excavated material across structures. It may be necessary
to waste or borrow material to force a balance at a structure.

C It may be necessary to balance each side of a two lane roadway, or both sides
and the median of an interstate roadway separately, to minimize conflicts
between traffic and earthmoving equipment.

C Typically, scrapers are used for hauling earthwork material distances less
than one mile. If haul distances become longer, the earthwork may require
a more expensive truck haul.

C Before the final earthwork is accepted, check the drainage for adequacy and
modify to remove small “sliver” fills or shallow drainage ditches, etc.

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COMPUTER EARTHWORK SOFTWARE
General: There are basically two types of computer methods available that compute
earthwork. One method uses a surface to surface volume calculation, and the other
method calculates volumes using cross sections. The surface to surface type of
programs are not used for roadway earthwork design because they do not calculate
earthwork volumes between cross sections, mass curves, haul quantities, etc.

WYDOT uses GEOPAK computer software for roadway earthwork design, and
GEOPAK uses the same basic concepts as presented in this chapter. Note that this
chapter only provides the reader with a basic understanding of the earthwork process.
The designer should refer to the GEOPAK manual for guidance in coding and
running the earthwork program.

KEY USER GUIDELINES

General: This section provides the earthwork user with additional information that
is applicable to added quantities, compaction factors, GEOPAK output reports, etc.

Earthwork Reports: Exhibits 15 and 16 are sample earthwork reports with key
elements noted.

EXHIBIT 15
GRAND SUMMARY EARTHWORK REPORT

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EXHIBIT 16
MAINLINE EARTHWORK REPORT

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Added Quantities in GEOPAK: Quantity adjustments to the earthwork can be

coded as plus or minus cut or fill quantities at specified point locations. The added
quantity directly adjusts the mass curve from the point of entry forward to the end
of the project. This also changes all the balance points and haul calculations from the
point entered forward to the end of project. It is common practice to add quantities
to the mass curve to construct additional roadway features such as approaches,
parking areas, guardrail widening, median cross-overs, earthwork for special
message signs, adding borrow, wasting fill, etc. The computer program considers the
excavation as positive number and fill as a negative number.

Not understanding how added quantities affect the earthwork can result in a costly
mistake. For example, if the project earthwork shows 10,000 CY of extra excavation
and the designer coded in an added quantity of -10,000 CY of excavation, the
computer would adjust quantities and the designer may think that the earthwork is
now balanced and the associated quantities list is correct. The next logical step would
be for the designer to use these quantities to create an earthwork summary and pay
quantity for the bid item Unclassified Excavation. However, the Unclassified
Excavation pay item would be short by 10,000 CY because the computer program
would also deduct the negative added quantity from the accumulated earthwork total.
The contractor still needs to move this material, but there is no pay quantity for the
work being performed. If the designer would have coded this as an added fill
quantity to waste the material, the project would still balance, and the 10,000 CY
have been included in the excavation pay item.

WYDOT Standard Specifications (effective at the time of this chapter’s publication)

call for general earthwork quantities on road construction projects to be measured
and paid for as the volume of Unclassified Excavation removed from its original
place. Other earthwork quantities that are incidental to the pay item Unclassified
Excavation, such as placing embankment, haul, etc., are included in the plans for bid
estimating purposes only.

Follow these general rules when added quantities are used:

C Use positive cut and fill added quantities as needed to adjust the earthwork
and associated pay item Unclassified Excavation.

C Negative added cut and fill quantities should not be used unless the removed
quantity is paid for by some other means.

The following is an example of how the added quantities affect the mass curve,
balance points, haul, and summary totals:

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Positive Embankment (Fill): Adding a positive embankment (fill) quantity will

result in adjusting the mass ordinate in a negative direction. If the mass ordinate is
a negative -1500 CY and 300 CY of approach fill material is added, GEOPAK will
adjust the mass ordinate to -1800 CY, and if the mass ordinate is a positive +1500
CY, then the mass ordinate is adjusted to +1200 CY. Note that in both cases the mass
curve adjustment is in the negative direction and the balance point is adjusted as
shown in Exhibit 17.

EXHIBIT 17
ADDED FILL AFFECT ON MASS CURVE

Negative Embankment (Fill): Adding a negative fill quantity adjusts the mass
ordinate in the positive direction. This option is generally used only in special cases
to void a specific area so that it can be filled using a different pay item such as Drain
Rock, etc.

Positive and Negative Excavation (Cut): Adding a positive cut quantity adjusts the
mass ordinate in a positive direction, and adding a negative cut will adjust the mass
ordinate in a negative direction. Positive added quantities generally include
quantities for approaches, ponds, parking areas, borrow areas, etc. However, a
negative added cut quantity should be used with caution because excavation is a pay
quantity, and the earthwork program will subtract a negative added quantity from the
total project excavation. There are special circumstances when the designer would
use a negative added cut quantity to remove material that would be paid for under a
different bid item or as an added quantity in a separate earthwork.

Assume a scenario where the designer is working on an interstate project with

separated earthwork runs on the EBL and WBL. Also, assume the EBL has 20,000
CY of excess cut and the WBL requires 30,000 CY of borrow material as shown in
Exhibit 18:

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EXHIBIT 18
EARTHWORK AND ADDED QUANTITIES

In this case, the designer wants to use the excess excavation from the EBL as borrow
material for the WBL. This would be a special circumstance where the designer
would use a negative added cut quantity of 20,000 CY to remove material from the
EBL earthwork and use a positive added cut quantity of 20,000 CY to add the
material to the WBL earthwork. The borrow material needed for the WBL has now
been reduced to 10,000 CY, which will come from a borrow area and be added to the
WBL earthwork by coding a positive added cut quantity of 10,000 CY.

The total pay item for Unclassified Excavation is correct because the WBL
earthwork accounts for the 20,000 CY of cut material removed from the EBL
earthwork.

Using Shrink or Swell Factors in GEOPAK: As stated in the EARTHWORK

VOLUMES section of this chapter, the density of compacted embankment is
different than the density of excavated material. This difference is accounted for in
the earthwork process by the use of shrink and swell factors applied to the
embankment.

Geopak’s initial process allows only one compaction factor to be used for each soil
type represented by the cross-section graphics, which works for the majority of
projects.

Multiple Compaction Factors: Projects that include multiple compaction factors

can be handled as a Three-step Geopak Process or as Spreadsheet Process that
require the Geopak quantities to be copied into an Excel spreadsheet so that the
different shrink factors can be applied. The following outlines the Geopak and
spreadsheet method of earthwork manipulation necessary to apply multiple
compaction factors:
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Geopak Three-step Process For Multiple Compaction Factors: This example
project begins at Station 76+50 and ends at Station 123+00. The Geology Program
provides the compaction factors and the station ranges where excavated material with
those factors are expected to be found. For example, the Soils Profile indicates that
any cut that occurs from Stations 82+00-96+00 and 103+00-123+00 will primarily
consist of rock materials and will swell 10 percent (embankment compaction factor
= 0.90). The remaining material will have a shrink factor of 20% (embankment
compaction factor = 1.20).

Step 1 The earthwork is processed in the normal manner through GEOPAK

with no compaction factors applied to either excavation or
embankment. Once the log file has been created through this process,
the Earthwork Tools can be used to include multiple compaction
factors in the earthwork computations.

Step 2 Load the log file created in Step 1, and choose the Multi-factor table
option. At this point there are different types of material being
excavated at each cross-section location. This means that the inverses
of the shrink and swell factors are applied to the excavation quantity
rather than the embankment. For the materials described above, the
factors applied to excavation volumes will be 1/1.2 = 0.83 for soil
and 1/0.9 = 1.11 for rock. The resulting excavation compaction
factor table for this project is shown in Exhibit 19.

EXHIBIT 19
GEOPACK MULTIPLE FACTOR TABLE

Once the compaction factor table is completed, the Apply and Calculate
Volumes buttons can be selected, and a new log file can be created (i.e.,
Ewexcfact.log).

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The resulting Grand Summary Totals and Balance Point Summary output
tables are given below. From the quantities shown below, the final mass
ordinate is +306 CY (a balanced project, for practical purposes).

G R A N D S U M M A R Y T O T A L S
Material Name Unadjusted Adjusted Multi
Volumes Volumes Factor
(cu. ft.) (cu. ft.)
-------------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 17817 19111 1.07
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 18805 18805 1.00
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 8279 8279 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00

B A L A N C E P O I N T S U M M A R Y
Material Name Unadjusted Adjusted Multi
Volumes Volumes Factor
(cu. ft.) (cu. ft.)
-------------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------
Station = 78+45.86 , Region 1
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 219 182 0.83
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 182 182 1.00

TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 307 307 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00

Station = 88+65.89 , Region 1

SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 2081 1847 0.89
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 1847 1847 1.00

TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 1866 1866 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0
0.00
Station = 122+91.07 , Region 1
SUIT_GRADING

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Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 17532 18795 1.07
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 18795 18795 1.00
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 8251 8251 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00

Notice that the calculated effective compaction factor for excavation given
in the GEOPAK output is based on the accumulated excavation and
embankment volumes and not the volumes in the individual balances.

The effective compaction factor for embankment within each particular

balance is calculated by dividing the unfactored excavation quantity in each
balance range by the unfactored fill quantity in each range. These will be the
embankment compaction factors used in Step 3.

For example, the effective compaction factor for embankment between the
balance points at Station 88+65.89 and 122+91.07 is calculated as:

(17532 - 2081) ÷ (18795 -1847) = 0.912

As expected, the effective embankment compaction factor for this balance is

close to 0.90 because rock-type material is located over a significant portion
of this area (Sta. 88+66± to Sta. 96+00 and Sta. 103+00 to Sta. 122+91).

Step 3 To ensure that the log file being processed is created with no
compaction factors, load the original log file from Step 1. If only one
line comes up and shows factors of 1.0, then the correct file is being
used.

Apply the effective embankment compaction factor that was

calculated in Step 2 to the fill in the station ranges of the balances
determined in Step 2. Note that GEOPAK does not allow stations that
are not included in the log file to be keyed in, so stations are adjusted
to the closest station available. This may result in minor changes in
the balance locations and in the effective embankment compaction
factors determined in Step 2.

Exhibit 20 shows the calculated effective embankment factor table to

be applied to the new log file (ie. Ewfillfact.log).

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EXHIBIT 20
GEOPAK MULTIPLE FACTOR TABLE

The Grand Summary Totals and Balance Point Summary output tables
resulting from the effective embankment compaction factors are shown
below.

G R A N D S U M M A R Y T O T A L S
Material Name Unadjusted Adjusted
Multi
Volumes Volumes
Factor
(cu. ft.) (cu. ft.)
-------------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 17817 17817 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 18805 17516 0.93
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 8279 8279 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00

B A L A N C E P O I N T S U M M A R Y
Material Name Unadjusted Adjusted
Multi
Volumes Volumes
Factor
(cu. ft.) (cu. ft.)

-------------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------

Station = 78+42.59 , Region 1
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00

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Excavation 212 212 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 179 212 1.18
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 301 301 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00
Station = 88+70.30 , Region 1
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 2083 2083 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 1882 2083 1.11
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 1874 1874 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00
Station = 122+90.26 , Region 1
SUIT_GRADING
Common Exca 0 0 0.00

Excavation 17506 17506 1.00

Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 18794 17506 0.93
TOPSOIL
Common Exca 0 0 0.00
Excavation 8249 8249 1.00
Subsoil Exca 0 0 0.00
Subgrade Exca 0 0 0.00
Fill 0 0 0.00

Note that the balance points are changed by ±3 feet. This difference is
caused by the number of significant figures and approximate station ranges
used for the effective compaction factors, etc.

The final earthwork log file produced with this example can be used with the
Mass Haul Diagram within GEOPAK, and the effective embankment
compaction factors can be given in the Grading Summary.

Spreadsheet Process For Multiple Compaction Factors: The process for

using a spreadsheet is basically the same as that outlined above and involves
manipulating actual excavation volumes and embankment volumes from the
initial GEOPAK output, along with variable compaction factors, in the three-
step process described in this chapter. Additionally, incremental Haul and
total Haul for each balance can be calculated and a mass haul diagram can be
produced using spreadsheet software such as Excel.
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Widening for Guardrail: Once the design has progressed to where the guardrail
placement is known, the designer will have to rerun the earthwork to include the
guardrail grading. Exhibit 21 shows typical grade widening for guardrail.

EXHIBIT 21
WIDENING FOR GUARDRAIL

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To ensure the grade widening is staked and constructed correctly, add x-sections at
the beginning, at break points, and each end of the widening section. Note that Area
(2) grade widening is staked and constructed as part of the overall roadway
embankment and is paid for as Unclassified Excavation, but the top 1V:10H final
slope portion of the widening, shown as Area (1), must be constructed after the
surfacing is in place. At this point in the construction process, embankment fill
material may not be readily available; therefore, Area (1) will most likely be
constructed with a suitable material, such as crushed base, pit run base, mill tailing,
etc., after the surfacing material is in place.

Graphically Fixing Slopes: GEOPAK uses slope criteria to establish the roadway
cut and fill slopes with the option for the designer to review and modify individual
slopes graphically on screen. The graphical slope modification process allows the
designer to quickly make slope modifications to a specific earthwork. Use this
feature with caution because all the graphically changed slopes will be lost if the
grade line needs to be changed and the earthwork needs to be rerun. It is very easy
for designers to make the mistake of spending several hours refining the earthwork
slopes graphically and then find out all this work is lost due to a grade change that
requires the earthwork to be rerun. It is best to use criteria to refine the majority of
earthwork slopes and keep the use of graphically modified slopes to a minimum.

GUIDELINES FOR SNOW DRIFTING

General: The designer has the option to mitigate snow drifting problems by
applying specific criteria to the roadway geometric design and earthwork cross
sectional elements. Typically earthwork modification for snow mitigation is more
costly than other methods, such as installing snow fence. However, if reconstruction
is an option, then apply the following guidelines to mitigate snow drifting in problem
areas that are identified by the District in terms of prevailing wind direction and
station range.

AASHTO standard geometric design and WYDOT guidelines govern over slope
modification for snow drifting.

Road Surface Elevation: It may be desirable to elevate the road surface above the
mean annual snow depth, with allowance for storing plowed snow. Use a 1V:4H
frontslope if possible to help keep the plowed snow accumulation below the
shoulder.

The minimum height ( He) of the road surface above the surrounding terrain is given
by: He = 0.4 × S + 1.958 (ft) Where: S = Mean annual snow fall. (ft)

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Barn Roof Section: Using a barn-roof section with 1V:6H frontslope will reduce
snow drifting on the roadway surface as apposed to flatter slopes.

Medians Section: When the opposing lanes of a divided highway are separated by
a narrow median the downwind lane should be at the same elevation or slightly
higher than the upwind lane. As the median width (W) increase the downwind lane
can be as much as 0.04 × W below the upwind lane without drift encroachment.
However, it may be necessary to keep the opposing lanes the same elevation so that
the median can be constructed with uniform slopes to locate the ditch bottom in the
center of the median to accommodate the placement of median barrier.

Roadway Cuts: Snow drifting across the roadway surface in cut areas can be
eliminated by flattening or modifying the upwind back slope to allow the wind to
form an equilibrium drift that tails out below the shoulder of the road. The following
scenario shows the typical problem section, the traditional flattening of backslopes,
and a recommended backslope modification section.

EXHIBIT 22
CROSS-SECTION SCENARIO WITH SNOW DRIFTING

Note that the traditional flattening of backslopes reduces the amount of snow drifting
on the roadway, but does not fully eliminate the drifting problem. Designers should
strive to use the “Recommended Option” to fully eliminate drifting on the roadway.

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Cut Slope Configuration to Prevent Drift Encroachment: For unclassified side
hill cuts (not rock) the distance from the shoulder to the top of the cut can be
calculated as:
WTOP = 95.144 + (5.8 × Hc × Sin ") ft
Where:
WTOP = distance (in feet) from the pavement edge to the top of the cut slope.
Hc = depth of cut (in feet) measured from the roadway surface to the top of cut.
" = acute angle between the road centerline and the prevailing wind direction.
The equation assumes a 4 ft [1.2m] minimum ditch depth consisting of a 1V:4H fixed
foreslope and trapezoidal ditch that extends a fixed distance of 46 ft [14m] from the
pavement edge to the back of the ditch or toe of backslope, with a 1V:4H or steeper
backslope. Note that snow storage increases when steeper backslopes are used.

EXHIBIT 23
CUT SLOPE MODIFICATION FOR SNOW DRIFT CONTROL

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Slope Modifications To Reduce Snow Drifting: (Tabler 1993)
C A 1V:4H foreslope is recommended.
C Minimum ditch depth: 4 ft [1.2 m]
C Minimum distance from edge of shoulder to the ditch bottom (toe of
backslope): 46 ft [14 m]
C If needed to accommodate drainage the trapezoidal ditch shown can be
replaced with a wide U or V- shaped ditch section.
C Snowdrift prevention through modification of cross-section slopes or
roadway geometry is most cost effective for shallow cuts.

Superelevation Drifting Problems: The combination of prevailing wind direction,

foreslope, and superelevation drop across the road surface can create serious drifting
problems when a sidehill cut is on the inside of a curve, as shown below:

EXHIBIT 24
LOW SIDE OF SUPERELEVATED ROADWAY IN CUT SECTION

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Snow Management For Rock Cuts: The following slope configuration for snow
management and drifting is recommended in rock cuts.

EXHIBIT 25
CROSS-SECTION FOR SNOW MANAGEMENT

BARRIERS AND SNOW DRIFTING

General: Safety barriers compound the blowing snow issues. Although barriers are
necessary to protect the motorist from roadside hazards or opposing traffic
encroachments, they do have a propensity to drift snow onto the roadway and/or
decrease visibility when blowing snow accelerates over the top of less porous
barriers. Barriers can also hinder snow removal operations. Generally, the smaller
the overall cross-section of the barrier perpendicular to the wind will provide the
most streamline profile to reduce snow deposition. There are a number of safety
considerations which must be factored into barrier selection. In terms of blowing
snow, the following options are prioritized below:
1. Eliminate or reduce the length of guardrail by mitigating the hazard
requiring its use.
2. For median installations, use cable barriers when practical.
3. For shoulder installations , use box-beam barriers when practical.
4. Avoid the combination of barriers and curbs when practical.
5. Use concrete barriers only when barrier performance issues dictates
their use.

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