LESSON 2 CONVENTIONS IS MATH

CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS IN THE A.) Sets and Logic

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
CHARACTERISTICS
1. precise (able to make very fine distinction)
2. concise (able to say things briefly) and;
3. powerful (able to express complex thoughts
with relative cases).
Nouns - used to name mathematical objects of
interest.
Sentences - states complete mathematical
thoughts.
The “=” sign is the most popular mathematical verb.
In 1+2 = 3, the “+” sign is the connective which is
used to connect objects of a given type to get a
‘compound’ object of the same type. In English, this
is called the connector.
Mathematical Sentence - is the analogue of an
English sentence. It is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that states a complete
thought
Examples: B.) Basic Operations and Symbols

The capital of Philippines is Manila.

Rizal park is in Cebu.
5 + 3 =8
5 + 3 =9
Truth of Sentences – sentences can be true or
false. The notion of truth is a fundamental
importance in the mathematical language.
Conventions in Languages – Languages have
conventions. In English, for example, it is
conventional to capitalize name (like Israel and
Manila). Mathematics also has its convention, which
help readers distinguish between different types of
mathematical expression.

Expression - An expression is the mathematical

analogue of an English noun; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to
represent a mathematical object of interest. An
expression does NOT state a complete thought; in
particular, it does not make sense to ask if an
expression is true or false.
C.) Set of Numbers TERMINOLOGY OF SETS
1. Unit set - a set that contains only one element.
Illustration:
A = {1}; B= {c}; C= {banana}
2. Empty set or Null set; Ø - Empty or null set is a
set that has no element.
Illustration:
A = {}
1. Twelve more than a number. 3. Finite set - a set that the elements in a given set
Ans: 12+x is countable. Illustration:
2. Eight minus a number.
Ans: 8−x A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B= {a, b, c, d}
3. An unknown quantity less fourteen.
4. Infinite set - a set that elements in a given set has
Ans: x−14
no end or not countable.
4. Six times a number is fifty-four.
Illustration: A set of counting numbers
Ans: 6x=54
5. Two ninths of a number are eleven. A = {…-2, -1,0,1,2,3, 4…}
a. Ans: 2/9x=11
6. Three more than seven times a number is 5. Cardinal number are numbers that are used to
nine more than five times the number. measure the number of elements in a given set. It is
a. Ans: 3+7x=9+5x just similar in counting the total number of elements
7. Twice a number less eight is equal to one in a set.
more than three times the number.
Illustration:
a. Ans: 2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x
A = {2, 4, 6, 8} n= 4
FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
6. Equal set - Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
I. The Language of Sets
equal if and only if they have equal number of
Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is
was introduced in1879 by Georg Cantor. For most a 1-1 correspondence.
mathematical purposes we can think of a set
Illustration:
intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection of
elements. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
A set is a collection of well-defined objects. 7. Equivalent set - Two sets, say A and B, are said
Illustration; ex: A set of counting numbers from 1 to to be equivalent if and only if they have the exact
10. number of elements. There is a 1–1correspondence.
Illustration:
A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets {} and
label or name the set by a capital letter such as A, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {a, b, c, d, e}
B, C…etc.
8. Universal set is the set of all elements under
Example: A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5 discussion.
A = {1,2,3,4,5} Illustration: A set of an English alphabet
U = {a, b, c, d…, z}
9. Joint Sets 3. Difference of Sets - defined as the difference of
sets A from B, denoted by A- B is the set A-B= {x|x
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint
∈ A and x B}
sets if and only if they have common element/s.
Example: If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, c, e}, then A-
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 4, 6}
B = {b, d}.
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they
4. Compliment of Set - For a set A the difference U
have common element such as 2.
- A, where U is the universe, is called the
10. Disjoint Sets complement of A and it is denoted by Ac. Thus, Ac is
the set of everything that is not in A.
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint
if and only if they are mutually exclusive or if they Example: Let U = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a, e}
don’t have common element/s.
then Ac = {i, o, u}
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {4, 6, 8}
5. Cartesian Product - Given sets A and B, the
TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING A SET Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B and
read as “A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,
1. Roster or Tabular Method - It is done by listing b) where a is in A and b is in B. Symbolically:
or tabulating the elements of the set.
A x B= {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
2. Rule or Set-builder Method - It is done by stating
or describing the common characteristics of the Example 1: Let A = {1,2,3} and B= {a, b}.
elements of the set. We use the notation A = {x/x…}
Then A x B = {(1, a), (1,b),(2,a),(2,b),(3,a),(3,b)}.
VENN DIAGRAM - is an illustration of the
SUBSETS relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common.
A subset A B, means that every element of A is
also an element of B.
ORDERED PAIRS
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes
the ordered pair consisting of a and b together with
the specification that “a” is the first element of the
pair and “b” is the second element.
OPERATIONS ON A SET
1. Union of Sets - The union of sets A and B,
denoted by A U B is the set defined as:
II. FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
AB= {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND
Example 1: FUNCTIONS
If A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5}, then A U B = {1,2,3,4, 5}. What is a relation?
Note: Elements are not repeated in a set A relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs
of real numbers (x, y) such that to each element x of
2. Intersection of Sets - The intersection of sets A
the set X there corresponds at least one element of
and B, denoted by A B, is the set defined as:
the set Y.
A B= {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
Example 1: If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,4,5} then
A B = {1, 2}.
1. Given a set of an ordered pairs: 3) G ∈ R + defined by a*b = a + 17b
{(0,-5),(1,-4),(2, -3),(3,-2),(4, -1),(5,0)} Solution: Let a, b ∈ R +. If we take the sum of a +
17b ∈ R+. Hence it is a binary operation.
The domain is x = {0,1,2,3,4,5}
4) G ∈ Z +, defined *by a*b = a – b for all set a, b
The co-domain is y= {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1,0}
∈ Z+.
C. ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION
Solution: If a > b= a–b> 0 ∈ Z+, If a < b= a–b< 0 Z+
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The
Therefore, *is NOT a binary operation.
arrow diagram for R is obtained as follows:
5) G ∈ R defined by a*b = ab
1. Represent the elements of A as a point in one
region and the elements of B as points in another To be able to determine if the above statement is a
region. binary operation or not, we need to have a counter
example. If a = 0 and b = 0, then ab does not exist,
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x
hence it is not an element of R. If a = -4 and b = ½,
to y, and only if, x is related to y by R.
then ab would be an element of a complex number
D. PROPERTIESOFA RELATION C, so ab R.

When a relation R is defined from a set A into the 6) G ∈ Z\ {-1}, defined *by a* b =a + b + ab for all
same set A, the three properties are very useful such set a, b ∈ Z.
as reflexive, symmetric and the transitive.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ Z except -1, then a >-1 and b>-
a) Reflexive - A relation R on A is said to be 1 and a <-1 and b<-1. If a*b = a + b + ab, it follows
reflexive if every element of A is related to that a*b = a + b + ab ∈ Z since in both case such as
itself. In notation, a R a for all a ∈ A. a and b>-1 and a and b<-1, the result would be Z,
b) B. Symmetric - A relation R on A is symmetric hence *is a binary operation.
if given a R b then b R a. For example, "is
married to “is a symmetric relation, while, "is CLOSED - A set is “closed” under operation if the
less than “is not. operation assigns to every ordered pair of elements
c) Transitive - A relation R on A is transitive if from the set an element of the set.
given a Rb and b Rc then a Rc. Examples of Cayley Tables - A (binary) operation on a finite set
reflexive relations include: "is equal can be represented by a table. This is a square grid
to"(equality) and "is a subset of “(set with one row and one column for each element in the
inclusion) set. The grid is filled in so that the element in the row
E. FUNCTIONS - A function is a relation in which belonging to x and the column belonging to y is x*y.
every input is paired with exactly one output. A
function from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of
real numbers (x, y) in which no two distinct ordered
pairs have the same first component.
III. BINARY OPERATION
1) G ∈ Z define a *b = a + b (usual addition on Z)
Solution:
Let a ∈ Z and b ∈ Z. If we add a and b, then the sum
a + b ∈ Z. Hence, a *b = a + b is a binary operation.
2) G ∈ Z define a *b = ab (usual multiplication on
Z)
Solution: Let a, b ∈ Z. Then the product of a and b,
that is ab ∈ Z. Hence a *b = ab is a binary operation.
LOGIC AND FORMALITY
Logic is the study of the principle of correct
reasoning, one of the principles in logic that is very
much important to study is on how to determine the
validity of one’s argument.
FORMALITY
Definition - it is a formal statement of the meaning
of a word or group of words and it could stand alone.
Theorem - A theorem is a statement that can be
demonstrated to be true by accepted mathematical
operations and arguments.
Proof - To be able to say that a theorem is true, it
should be undergoing on the process of proving.
Proposition - it is a declarative statement that is true
or false but not both.
Types of proposition
1. Negation
2. Conjunction
3. Disjunction
4. Conditional
5. Bi – Conditional
Corollary - it is also a proposition that follows with
little or no proof required from one already proven.
Lemma - lemma is a short theorem used in proving
a larger theorem.
Conjecture - A proposition which is consistent with
known data, but has neither been verified nor shown
to be false.
LESSON 3 3. Proof by Counter Example (Disproving
Universal Statements)
INDUCTIVE REASONING
A conjecture may be described as a statement that
The type of reasoning that forms a
we hope is a theorem. As we know, many theorems
conclusion based on the examination of
(hence many conjectures) are universally quantified
specific examples.
statements. Thus, it seems reasonable to begin our
The conclusion formed by using inductive
discussion by investigating how to disprove a
reasoning is often called a conjecture.
universally quantified statement such as:
Uses a set of specific observations to reach
an overarching conclusion or it is the process ∀x∈ S, P(x), To disprove this statement, we must
of recognizing or observing patterns and prove its negation
drawing a conclusion.
∼ (∀x∈ S, P(x)) = ∃x∈ S, ∼P(x).
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
4. Proof by Contradiction - This method works by
The process of reaching specific conclusion assuming your implication is not true, then deriving
by applying general ideas or assumptions, a contradiction.
procedure or principle or it is a process of
reasoning logically from given statement to a Recall that if p is false then pq is always true, thus
conclusion. the only way our implication can be false is if p is true
The concept of deductive reasoning is often and q is false. So, if we let pq be a theorem, a proof
expressed visually using a funnel that by contradiction is given by this way;
narrows a general idea into a specific a) Assume p is true
conclusion. b) Suppose that q is also true
PROOF - is an inferential argument for a c) Try to arrive at a contradiction
mathematical statement while proofs are an d) Therefore, q is true
example of mathematical logical certainty.
TYPES OF PROOF
1. Direct Proof - is a mathematical argument that
uses rules of inference to derive the conclusion from
the premises.
In a direct proof, let us say we need to prove a given
theorem in a form of PQ. The steps in taking a direct
proof would be:
a) Assume P is True
b) Conclusion is True
2. Indirect/Contrapositive Proof - is a type of proof
in which a statement to be proved is assumed false
and if the assumption leads to an impossibility, then
the statement assumed false has been proved to be
true
Recall that the proposition pq is a conditional
statement. This proposition is logically equivalent
to qp. Now, the expression qp is the contra positive
form of the statement pq.
LESSON 4
MODULAR ARITHMETIC