QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their
experiences and the world in which they live.
It is exploratory and seeks to explain “how” and “why” a particular phenomenon, or behavior,
operates as it does in a particular context.
Data are not in the form of numbers.

Qualitative Research Purpose

 Describe
 Understand
 Explain
 Identify
 Develop
 Generate

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

The aim is detailed description The aim is to classify features, count them
Researcher may only know roughly in advance Researcher knows clearly in advance what
what he/she is looking for he/she is looking for
The design emerges as the study unfolds All aspects of the study are careful designed
Data is in form of words, pictures or objects. Researcher questionnaires or equipment to
collect numerical data

Qualitative Research (Funnel Approach)

 General research questions
 Collect data
 Narrow research questions
 Collect data
 Narrower research questions
 Conclusions
 Quantitative Research (Inductive Approach)
 Specific narrow research question
 Collect data
 Broader question
 Collect data
 Broader question
 conclusion

 STRENGTHS AND CHALLENGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Strengths Challenges
 Aims to understand meaning  Relationships between the researcher
 Interpretation in particular and the researched
settings, situations and conditions  Subjectivity
 Rigorous and systematic data  Reliability
collection and analysis often  Verification
concurrently  Difficulty in studying large
 Data rich in descriptions population
 Concepts derived from the data 
itself
 Aims to explore and communicate
 Hypothesis generation
 Need for a reflexive account ‘tell
how the study was done’
 Need for triangulation, multiple
points of observation

Check Your Understanding: Question

Which of the following is true about qualitative research?
A. Categories are established for analysis purposes.
B. Data are usually collected in a laboratory setting.
C. Focus is on studying the “whole.”
D. Intuition and abstraction are suppressed.
 QUALITATIVE

What is a qualitative research?

• Defined as a “market research method”
• Focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication.
• Method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so far.
• Qualitative data examples
• Qualitative data is also called categorical data since this data can be grouped according to
categories.
Think of a student reading a paragraph from a book during one of the class sessions. A teacher
who is listening to the reading gives a feedback on how the child read the paragraph. If the teacher
gives a feedback based on fluency, intonation, throw of words, clarity in pronunciation without
giving a grade to the child, this is an example of a qualitative data.
For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic
observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method to
determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential
customers in the category.
On successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and
selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have enough items
for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was understood only by
personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there
were more male products than female ones.

• Qualitative research methods allow in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents
based on their responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their
motivation and feelings.
• Understanding how your audience takes decision can help derive conclusion in market research.
• Qualitative research methods

One-on-one Interview

• Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods.
• A personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time.
• A purely conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the
respondent.
• Provides opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and what their motivations
are.
• Asks right questions that can help him/her collect meaningful data.

Focus Groups
• Includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.
• The main aim is to find answers to the why, what and how questions.
• Can be sent in form of an online survey on various devices and responses can be collected.
• Method is use when it comes to market research on new products and testing new concepts.

Ethnographic Research
• The most in-depth observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring
environment.
• Requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences 'environments which could be anywhere
from an organization to a city or any remote location.
• It aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur.
• Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings first hand.

Case study research

• It is used for explaining an organization or an entity.
• It is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences and similar.
• It is one of the simplest was of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough
understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

Record Keeping
• Makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar information as the data source.
• There one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can be likely
used in the research.
 Process of Observation
• Qualitative observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather
systematic information or data.
• The focus is on the research process of using methodologies to gather information or data.
• Primarily used to equate quality differences.
• Deals with the 5 major senses.
• Doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.

Phenomenology
• An approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience.

Grounded Theory
• Is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of theories through
methodical gathering and analysis of data.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS:
PROBLEM FORMULATION

WHAT IS RESEARCH PROBLEM?

 Any question that you want answered and any assumption or assertion that you want to challenge
or investigates.
However;
- not all questions can be transformed into research problem.
- the process of formulating them in a meaningful way is not at all an easy task
- it requires considerable knowledge of both the subject area and research methodology
- A research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem wants to solve.
- A research problem is an issues or a concern that an investigator/ researcher presents and justifies
in a research study
Research Problem is like an identification of destination before undertaking research journey.
Research Problem is the foundation of the research study
 If one wants to solve a problem, one must generally know what the problem is. It can be said
that a large part of the problem lies knowing what one is trying to do
-Kerlinger

The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows ;
i. The type of study design that can be used
ii. The type of sampling strategy that can be employed
iii. The research instrument that can be used or developed
iv. The type of analysis that can be undertaken

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

1. PEOPLE
Individuals, groups, organizations communities
They provide the required information or collect information from or about them.
Example: personal experience, exposure to field situation, brainstorming, intuition, consultation
with the experts.

• PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
-Day to day experience of the researcher serves as a good source of idea to formulate
research problem.
• EXPOSURE TO FIELD SITUATIONS
-During field exposure researchers get variety of experiences which may provide plenty of
ideas to formulate research problems.

• BRAINSTORMING
-Brainstorming refers to intensified discussion among interested people of the profession in
order to find more ideas to formulate a good research problem

• INTUITION
-It is believe that a reflective mind is a good source of ideas which may be used to find out new
and good research problem

• CONSULTATION WITH THE EXPERTS

-Experts may help in finding a current problem of discipline to be solved which may serve as a
basis for formulation of research problem

2. PROBLEM
Issues, situations, associations, needs, population composition and profile
Information that you need to collect to find answers to your service research questions.
Example: Social Issues
-Sometimes issues of global contemporary or political issues of relevance are suggested
- An idea for a research may stem from a familiarity with social concerns or controversial
social issues

3. PROGRAMME
Contents, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfaction, consumers, providers
Information that you need to collect to find answers to your service research questions.
Examples: Critical Appraisal, previous research, existing theories, folklores
• CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF LITERATURE
-When one looks at books, articles, summaries of clinical issues relating to the subject of
your interest, pertinent questions may arise. These may strike the reader’s mind by
stimulating imagination and directly the additional research needed.
• PREVIOUS RESEARCH
-A body of knowledge is developed on a sound research finding.
Usually at the end of the research, problems are suggested based on the shortcoming of
the previous research, these could be investigated.
• EXISTING THEORIES
- Research is a process of theory development and theory testing.
- Generally a part/s of a theory are subjected to testing in a clinical situation.
- The testing of theory is needed therefore they serve as a good source of research problems.

4. PHENOMENA
Cause and effect, relationships, the study of phenomena itself.
Information that you need to collect to find answers to your service research questions.

CONSIDERATION IN SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEMS

o INTEREST
o MAGNITUDE
o CONCEPT MEASURES
o EXPERTISE
o RELEVANCE
o DATA AVAILABILITY
o ETHICAL ISSUES

STEPS IN FORMULATING STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

STEP 1: Identify a broad field of subject area of interest to you

Start by thinking about your areas of interest within the subject you’re studying
It’s a good idea to pick a field that you already have some familiarity with, so that
you don’t have to start your research completely from scratch. You don’t have to be
an expert on the topic, but if you’ve already read a few articles, that gives you a good
starting point to find out more
STEP2: Dissect the broad areas into subareas
Start narrowing down your broad area. This can be a gradual process, and your
topic should get more and more specific
Select any subject areas from the field and go through dissection
Once we have develop an exhaustive list of the subject areas, we proceed to the
next stage where we select what will become the basis of your enquiry
STEP3: Select what is of most interest to you
Out of the list, we should select issues or subareas about which we are
passionate. This is because our interest should be the most important determinant
for selection
One way to decide what interests us most is to start with the process of
elimination. We need to continue until we are left with something that manageable
considering the time available to us, our level of expertise and other resources
needed to undertake the study
Once we are confident that we have selected an issue we are passionate about
and can manage, we are ready to go to the nest step.

STEP4: Raise research questions

At this step, we ask ourselves “WHAT IS IT THAT I WANT TO FIND OUT ABOUT
IN THIS SUBAREA?
We should list whatever questions come to our mind relating to our chosen
subarea and if you think there are too many to be manageable, go through the
process of elimination.

STEP5: Formulate Objective

WHAT IS OBEJCTIVE?
A clear and specific goals you set out to attain in your study
Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your objective
Example: Start with;
-- ‘To determine’, ‘To find out’, ‘To ascertain’, ‘To measure’, and ‘To explore’
Wording of your objectives determines the type of research design you need to
adopt to achieve them.

STEP6: Assess your objectives

Now, we examine our objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them
through research endeavor. Consider them in the light of the time, resources
(financial and human) and technical expertise at your disposal.

STEP7: Double Check

We should go back and give final consideration to whether or not we are sufficiently
interested in the study, and have adequate resources to undertake it.
We should ask ourselves “AM I REALLY ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT THIS STUDY?
And “DO I REALLY ENOUGH RESOURCES TO UNDERTAKE IT?’ Answer the
question thoroughly and realistically
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK/ CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 “blueprint” or guide for a research
(Grant & Osanloo, 2014)
 “a map or travel plan”
(Sinclair 2017)
 Theoretical framework is the application of a theory, or a set of concepts drawn from one
and the same theory, to offer an explanation of an event, or shed some light on a particular
phenomenon or research problem.
 It provides the structure in showing how a researcher define his/her study philosophically,
epistemology, methodology and analytically.
 All aspects of the research are expected to connect to the theoretical framework
 The Theoretical Framework Cultural Ecology
 The Theoretical Framework Cultural Ecology

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 Is a structure which the researcher believes can best explain the natural progression of the
phenomenon to be studied (Camp, 2001)
 It is the researcher’s explanation of how the research problem would be explored. The conceptual
framework presents an integrated way of looking at the problem under study (Liehr &Smith , 1999).
 Can be graphical or in narrative form showing key variables or constructs to be studied and the
presumed relationships between them (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 It provides a general or broader set of ideas within which the study belongs.
 It is based on existing theory /theories in literature which has been tested and validated by other
scholars.
 It is in the form of a model that pivots a study, with its exponents and the results of that study.
 It is well developed , designed and accepted.
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 It refers to specific or narrower ideas a researcher utilizes in his/her study.
 It is based on the concepts which are the main variables in the study.
 It is a researcher’s own constructed model that s/he uses to explain the relationship that exists
between the main variables in his/her study.
 Its design is not accepted, but it’s a proposal of the researcher’s answer to the research problem
s/he has defined.

FORMS
 Process frameworks
 Set out the stages through which an action moves from initiation to conclusion. These
relate to the ‘how?’ question.
 Content frameworks
 Set out the variables, and possibly the relationship (with relative strengths) between them,
that together answer the ‘why?’ question.
 Flow charts.
 Tree diagrams.
 Shape based diagrams – triangles, concentric circles, overlapping circles.
 Mind maps.
 Soft systems.
 A ‘flow chart’ of innovation decision making
 A ‘tree chart’ of changing consumer behaviour
 A ‘triangle’ of needs
 A mind map of cruise travel and impacts
 Soft systems framework of tourism business activity
 Conceptual frameworks provide researchers with:
 The ability to move beyond descriptions of ‘what’ to explanations of ‘why’ and ‘how’.
 A means of setting out an explanation set that might be used to define and make sense of
the data that flow from the research question.
 A filtering tool for selecting appropriate research questions and related data collection
methods.
 A reference point/structure for the discussion of the literature, methodology and results.
 The boundaries of the work.
 HYPOTHESIS

What is hypothesis?
-an idea or theory that is not proven but leads to further study or discussion (Merriam-
Webster)
- a tentative explanation for an explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
that can be tested by further investigation ( The American Heritage Dictionary)
Examples of hypothesis:
1. If I replace the battery in my car, then my car will get better gas mileage.
2. If I eat more vegetables, then I will lose weight faster.
3. If I brush my teeth everyday, then I will not develop cavities.
4. If I take my vitamins everyday, then I will not feel tired.
Characteristics of good hypothesis
*Explain what is expected to occur
*Clear and understandable
*Testable
*Measurable
*Independent and dependent variables are clearly specified
How to form a hypothesis?
1. Start by collecting as many observations about something as you can.
2. Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
3. Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
4. After you have developed some possible hypothesis, it is important to think of ways that could
confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.
Examples of Hypothesis
 SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS -- A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables:
the independent and dependent variable.

Example:
Failing grades can lead to depression.
 COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS -- Examines the relationship between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.

Example:
Failing grades can lead to depression, anxiety, stress or even suicide.

 NULL HYPOTHESIS -- Poverty has nothing to do with the crime rate of the society.

There is no significant relationship between illiteracy and the rate of unemployment in the society.

 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS -- In attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to

discover an alternative hypothesis.

Example:
H: The race of the person have an effect on one’s educational attainment.
Economic class of one’s parent have an effect on one’s educational attainment.

 LOGICAL HYPOTHESIS -- A proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally, you want to
turn logical hypothesis to empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or postulations to test.

Example:
The number of suicidal issues from ages 12-15 are increasing because of cyber-bullying.

 STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS -- An examination of a portion of a population.

The statement would be logical or illogical but if the statistic verifies it, it will be statistical hypothesis.
Example:
If you want to conduct a study on the rate of bullying in a certain place, locate and examine first the
population of the people who experience being bullied(e.g school, office, family, community etc.)

SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the independent and
dependent variable.
Example:
Failing grades can lead to depression.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 It is usually an annex to a work (book, research paper, pamphlet, etc.) either at the beginning or
more likely near the end with a list of acronyms, jargons, credits etc. This is an important part of
Research paper or report
 Allows the audience/ readers to understand the concept of the research. The main purpose of
definitions is to eliminate any misunderstanding that one might run into while reading.
 From Harvard Extension School:
An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that you define, particularly ambiguous terms or
those used in a special way.

TWO WAYS TO DEFINE A TERM:

1. UNIVERSAL DEFINITION
- also known as conceptual definition that is attributed to a word or group of words and which is
understood by many people.
- It is abstract and most general in nature. The usual source of conceptual definition is the
DICTIONARY which is the reference book of everyday language.

2. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
- Is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a particular study, It is stated in concrete term.
- it is what is ones’ own interpretation, or how it is used by the writer/ researcher.

NOTE!
 In the Actual Research process, we use the OPERATIONAL DEFINITION to define terms.
 The usual practice when using both types of definition is to state first the conceptual followed by
the operational.

THE FUNCTION OF DEFINITION OF TERMS;

 The usual practice when using both types of definition is to state first the conceptual followed by
the operational.
 MEASUREMENT

 Refers to the assignment of numbers to observations made of objects or persons in such a way
that the numbers can be subjected to statistical analysis by manipulating or using the needed
operations according to mathematical rules of correspondence.
• MEASUREMENT
 Numerical data
a. Continuous Data
b. Discrete Data
 Categorical data
• Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal Scale – to show the classification of things based on the criterion
2. Ordinal Scale – to indicate the rank or hierarchical order of things
• Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
3. Interval Scale – for showing equal differences or intervals between points on the scale in an arbitrary
manner
• Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
4. Ratio Scale – like the interval scale, that shows equal differences or intervals between points on the
scale. However, these two quantitative scales of measurement are not exactly the same, in that, the latter
gives value to zero while the former does not give any value to zero for the value depends solely on the
respondent. (Schreiber 2011;Letherby 2013)
• NOMINAL SCALE
Distribution of Patients in Zambales Hospital According to Religion and Gender

Religion Male Female TOTAL

 Roman Catholic 60 75 135

Mormons 35 55 90

Iglesia Ni Cristo 80 45 125

Born Again 16 8 24

Total 191 183 374

• ORDINAL SCALE

0 1 2 3
NOT LOW MODERATELY HIGH
SEX ANXIOUS ANXIETY ANXIETY LEVEL ANXIETY TOTAL
LEVEL LEVEL

Male 9 16 2 1 28

Female 2 10 4 7 42
1

Total 3 26 6 8 70
0

• INTERVAL SCALE

(LIKERT ATTITUDE SCALE)

Reading is important.
____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree
• INTERVAL SCALE
How often does your professor come late?
____ ____ ____ _____ ____
Always Most of the Sometimes Rarely Never
time
• Ratio Scale
• Performance in Math subject – a grade of 89% (from 0 to 100%)

RELIABILITY
 When a measurement tool consistently gives the same answer
 the stability in maintaining the consistent measurement in a test administered twice.

• Four Well-Known Methods in determining the reliability of the Test

• Test – retest Method
• Alternate or Parallel Method
• Slip – half Method
• Internal- Consistency Method
• Test – retest Method
• Test repetition method
• This involves administering the test twice to the same group of individuals or examinees
(respondents) after a certain period of time.

• Test – retest Method

Percentage of consistency= No. of respondents with consistent responses
Total no. of respondents
If the reliability is .80 or 80 percent consistency, the test is said to be reliable.
 • Parralel Method
• Used to assess the consistency of the results of two tests constructed the same way from the
same content domain.
• Slip – half Method
• Creates two comparable test administrations.
• The items in a test are split into two that are equivalent in content and difficulty.
• Internal-Consistency Method
 Estimating or determining reliability of an instrument through single administration of an instrument
 Use to assess the consistency of results across items within a test.

VALIDITY
 The extent to which a measurement tool measures what is supposed to measure
 The appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the inferences a researcher makes based
on the data he collects.

THREE TYPES OF VALIDATION

CONTENT-RELATED EVIDENCE OF VALIDITY

 this refers to the content and format of the instrument.
 This could be done through FACE VALIDITY
B. CRITERION-RELATED EVIDENCE OF VALIDITY
 Refers to the relationship of between scores obtained using one or more other instruments or
measures often called a CRITERION.
C. CONSTRUCT-RELATED EVIDENCE OF VALIDITY
 Refers to the nature of the psychological construct or characteristics being measured by the
instrument.

DATA ANALYSIS
Data Analysis- is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful
information for decision-making.

KINDS OF DATA ANALYSIS

1.Descriptive Analysis
-refers to the description of the data from a particular sample.
-hence the conclusion must refer only to the sample
-In other words,these summarizes the data and descriptive sample characteristics

CLASSIFICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS

A.Frequency Distribution
-a systematic arrangement of numeric values from the lowest to the highest or highest to the lowest.
FORMULA: Ef=N
Where:
E=sum of
F= frequency
N= sample size

B.MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

-A statistical index that describes the average of the set values
KINDS OF AVERAGES
1. MODE-A numeric value in a distribution that occurs modsy frequently
2. MEDIAN-AN INDEX OF AVERAGE POSITION IN A DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBERS.
3. MEAN- the point on the score scale that is equaalto the sumof the scores divided by the total
number of scores
C. MEASURE OF VARIABILITY
Statistics that concern the degree to which the scores in a distribution are different from or similar to
each other

TWO COMMONLY USED MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

1. Range-the distance between the highest score and the lowest score in a distribution
2. Standard Deviation-the most commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average to
which the scores deviate from the mean.
2.Inferential Analysis
the use of statistical test,either to test for significant relationships among variables or to find statistical
support for the hypotheses
USES OF INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS

1. T-TEST-is used to examine the difference between the means of two independent groups.
2. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE(ANOVA)-is used to test the significance of differences between means
of two or more groups.
3. CHI-SQUARE-this test is used the hypotheses about the proportion of elements that falls into
various cells of a contingency table.

STEPS IN DATA ANALYSIS

-- Before data collection the researcher should accomplish the following:
1. Determine the method of data analysis
2. Determine how to process the data
3. Consult a statistician
4. Prepare dummy tables
After data collection;
1. Process the data
2. Prepare tables and graphs
3. Analyze and interpret findings
4. Consult again the statistician
5. Prepare for editing
6. Prepare for presentation
Presentation of Findings
1. NARRATIVE OR TEXTUAL FORM- This is compose of summary of findings, direct quotations and
implications of the study
2.TABLES-Tables are used to present a clear and organized data
-This is utilizes for easy analysis and interpretation of data
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
After analysis of data and the appropriate statistical procedure,the next chapter of the research paper
is to present the interpretation of the data, which is the final step of research process.
The THREE AREAS;
1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS-summarizes the result of data from chapter
 2. CONCLUSION-is drawn from the summary of findings/focuses o the answers to the problem
including the outcome of hypotheses whether it is rejected or accepted.
3.RECOMMENDATION

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE/METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF STATISTICAL

ANALYSIS

What is Data?
 Information that contains… patterns, connections, and relationships

Data Research

• Collect data
• Get insights

Example:
• a clothing brand is trying to identify the latest trends among young women • brand will first
reach out to young women and ask them questions relevant for research and collect
information • analyze that data to identify patterns — for example, they may discover that most
young women would like to see more color options for jeans

Data Analysis

• How researchers interpret a mass/huge data to meaningful insights

• There are many different data analysis methods, depending on the type of research
• We’ll talk about the methods you can use to analyse quantitative and qualitative data

Analyzing Quantitative Data

• Data Preparation – first stage, convert raw data into something meaningful and readable
• Data Validation – it has four steps ✓ Fraud, screening, procedure, completeness
• Data Editing – checking for errors and edit data to get accurate results
• Data Coding - grouping and assigning values to responses from the survey
• After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used quantitative
data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferentialstatistics.

Analyzing Qualitative Data

• A little different from quantitative

• Qualitative data is made up of words, observations, images, and even symbols
• Getting absolute meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for
exploratory research

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

• Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used data
analysis methods are:
• Content analysis - used to analyze documented information
 • Narrative analysis - used to analyze content from various sources
Discourse analysis – like narrative analysis but used to analyze interactions with people
• Grounded theory - refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon
happened

Statistical methods
1. Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a
study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple
graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.

2. Inferential statistics Inferential statistics, unlike descriptive statistics, is the attempt to apply the
conclusions that have been obtained from one experimental study to more general populations.
This means inferential statistics tries to answer questions about populations and samples that have
not been tested in the given experiment
3. . Exploratory data analysis In statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA) is an approach to
analyzing data sets to summarize their main characteristics, often with visual methods. A statistical
model can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the
formal modeling or hypothesis testing task

What is EDA Used For? EDA is used for:

Catching mistakes and anomalies Gaining new insights into data Detecting outliers in data Testing
assumptions Identifying important factors in the data Understanding relationships

EXAMPLE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The Effects of ChildBirth-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder on Woman and Their Relationship
  asks participants broad, general questions
- is there any impact in your relationship with your partner after having a new born baby?
- what are the changes in your physical aspect, mood, behaviour and social interactions after giving
birth?
- as a new mother how do you feel about having a new baby?
 detailed views of participants in the form of words or images
 - participants
18 yrs. old and above - reported having psychological problems as a result of
traumatic experiences.
22-37 yrs. old – 7 mos. to 18 yrs. respectively
- time since the traumatic experience
1. natural delivery/CS
2. woman with only child
3. woman married and living with their husband & children
4. woman divorce and living alone.
 Process
Participant who were interested in participating were sent an information sheet and given opportunity
to ask question about the study. If the woman agreed to participte an appointment was made to
interview her at a convenient time and place. Informed consent was obtained prior to carrying out the
interview. The questionnaire was completed at the end of interview

 Analysis
Qualitative analysis of interview was carried out using inductive thematic aqnalysis where dominant
themes were identified through careful examination of data

 Result
It is reported according to the aims of the study

Example:

1. Effects on woman
 physical effects of birth
 changes in mood and behaviour
 fear of childbirth and sexual dysfunction
 social interaction and trust

2. Effects on Relationship with Partner

 Support
 Strain on the relationship

3. Effects on the mother-child bond

 Differences in attachment
 Early feelings about the child
 Later feelings about the child