Clothing and Embodiment
Clothing and Embodiment
Clothing and Embodiment
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Research suggests that cultural shifts in the ways men’s bodies are represented lead men to feel
increasingly dissatisfied with their appearance. Clothing is an ideal but underresearched mecha-
nism for appearance management; however, little is known about men’s presentation of their
bodies through clothed displays. This article explores the ways in which men’s subjective feelings
about their bodies influence their clothing practices. Thematic analysis revealed 4 key themes:
practicality of clothing choices, lack of concern about appearance, use of clothing to conceal or
reveal the body, and use of clothing to fit cultural ideals. This article demonstrates the pervasive
and mundane role of clothing in men’s self-surveillance and self-presentation and the range and
complexity of the processes involved in clothing the body.
high interest in clothing makes it difficult to distin- Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001). A substantial and
guish between different groups of women on the ba- growing proportion of men are dissatisfied with their
sis of clothing practices (Kwon, 1992). These con- bodies (Mishkind et al., 1986), and the gap between
tradictory findings suggest that our understanding of men’s and women’s dissatisfaction is decreasing
the links between body image and clothing practices (McCaulay, Mintz, & Glenn, 1988). Men express
is far from complete. particular dissatisfaction with their biceps, shoulders,
Psychological research on dress and clothing prac- chest, and muscle tone (Cash, Winstead, & Janda,
tices is concerned almost exclusively with women. 1986; Furnham & Greaves, 1994). Men’s ideal chest
One rationale for this is that men are less interested in size is often significantly larger than their actual
clothing (Kwon, 1997; Minshall, Winakor, & Swin- chest size (Thompson & Tantleff, 1992), and many
ney, 1982; Solomon & Schloper, 1982), spend less say they want a larger chest (Tantleff-Dunn &
money on clothing (Crane, 2000; Nelson, 1989), and Thompson, 2000). Men and boys do not necessarily
are less involved in shopping for clothes (Peters, view thinness as an advantage and are as likely to
1989). It is often assumed that want to be bigger or heavier as they are to want to be
thinner (C. Davis & Cowles, 1991).
Men dress for fit and comfort rather than style; that Many of the recognized psychometric scales may
women dress and buy clothes for men; that men who
misrepresent men’s dissatisfaction because they are
dress up are peculiar (one way or another); that men do
oriented toward concerns about being overweight
not notice clothes; and that most men have not been
duped into the endless pursuit of seasonal fads. (Craik, when men are equally concerned about being under-
1994, p. 176) weight (Grogan, 1999). In addition, more extreme
forms of body dissatisfaction and distortion are a
However, the rapid expansion of menswear since the growing but underrecognized problem. Pope, Gruber,
1980s (Edwards, 1997; Nixon, 1996; Spencer, 1992) Choi, Olivardia, and Phillips (1997) coined the term
and the development of specialist style magazines muscle dysmorphia to describe a pathological preoc-
(such as Gentlemen’s Quarterly and Arena) enable cupation with muscularity and the perception of be-
men to relate to their clothed bodies in new ways. ing small despite having a very muscular physique
The fusion of consumption and identity apparent in (see also Olivardia, 2001). Others have proposed that
market segmentation places a greater emphasis on machismo nervosa, a psychological disorder mani-
narcissistic aspects of self previously unavailable to fested by excessive weight training, abnormal eating
men and evokes a greater emphasis on appearance habits, and cognitive abnormalities, may be con-
and display. Despite these trends, we could find no nected to the hypermesomorphic ideal body image
studies that explore the interconnection of body im- (Connan, 1998).
age and clothing practices for men. Men engage in various practices to alter the shape
of their bodies and conform to the muscular ideal.
Appearance and Body Image They exercise to gain weight, develop muscles, and
change their shape (C. Davis & Cowles, 1991); have
Most psychological research on body image fo- plastic surgery to swell their pectoral muscles
cuses on women because it is assumed that they face (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn,
greater pressures than men to be a particular size and 1999); and use anabolic steroids to develop muscle
shape. Such research adopts a causal model in which more quickly than is possible by weight training
cultural standards of beauty define unrealistic body alone (Rickert, Pawlak-Morello, Sheppard, & Jay,
shapes as “ideal.” Consequently, women become dis- 1992; Wroblewska, 1997). These appearance-
satisfied with less than ideal bodies and adopt (more management techniques, ranging from the mundane
or less) harmful practices to modify their bodies. (e.g., daily grooming) to the extreme (e.g., cosmetic
However, over the last 15 years, men have come surgery, self-starvation), provide further evidence of
under increasing pressure to conform to the cultural men’s dissatisfaction. Although most psychological
ideal of a lean, well-toned, muscular build, which is research has, understandably, focused on those forms
reflected in cultural representations (Mishkind, Ro- of appearance management that directly impact on
din, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1986; Mort, 1988; health, this has been at the expense of theorizing the
Weinke, 1998). Male action toys (Pope, Olivardia, links among body image, subjectivity, and everyday
Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999) and male centerfolds practices. As Weinke (1998) noted,
(Leit, Pope, & Grey, 2001) have become more mus-
cular, and the naked male body has featured more The implication of existing research is that there are
frequently in women’s magazines (Pope, Olivardia, great social-psychological costs for not fitting the cul-
42 FRITH AND GLEESON
tural ideal. Yet this research does not consider the ways you dress in a way that emphasizes aspects of your
men engage with, and actually respond to, the muscu- body? Is there anything else you think we should
lar ideal within the context of their everyday lives; nor know, or are there any questions we should have
does it give attention to the strategies men use to make asked but didn’t? Respondents were instructed to an-
sense of their own bodies in relation to the cultural
swer questions fully, giving specific examples and
ideal. (p. 259)
spending some time thinking about their answers be-
We focus on mundane methods of appearance man- fore they started to write. Spaces for written re-
agement, such as clothing practices, because this sponses were provided, and once completed the
form of body management is currently underrepre- forms were returned in sealed envelopes.
sented in empirical research and may be more per-
vasive than other, more extreme forms of body modi-
fication. Specifically, we explore men’s subjective Analysis
understanding of the importance of their feelings
Responses were analyzed using the inductive the-
about their body in guiding their clothing practices
matic analysis procedure described by Hayes (2000).
and whether men use clothing to alter their appear-
First, the data were read carefully to identify mean-
ance by concealing or revealing particular aspects of
ingful units of text relevant to the research topic.
their body.
Second, units of text dealing with the same issue
were grouped together in analytic categories and
Method given provisional definitions. The same unit of text
could be included in more than one category. Third,
Participants the data were systematically reviewed to ensure that
Using an opportunity, snowball-sampling strategy, a name, definition, and exhaustive set of data to sup-
undergraduate psychology students recruited 2 par- port each category were identified. The inductive the-
ticipants for a study on clothing and the body. A total matic analysis resulted in 50 categories, which were
of 75 men participated. They ranged in age from 17 grouped into 5 key themes (see the Appendix for a
to 67 (M ⳱ 25.79 years, SD ⳱ 11.01 years), al- full list of themes). The analysis was exhaustive in
though the majority (74%) were in the 17- to 26-year that 86.6% of the data were allocated to at least one
age group. Volunteers received no remuneration for category. The coherence and replicability of the
their participation. Most participants were White themes were established by a second researcher who
(93.4%); 3.9% described themselves as Pakistani, recoded the first question (61.5% of the data) with a
Black, and mixed race. Participants described the high level of interrater reliability ( ⳱ 0.9089, SD ⳱
main breadwinner in their household as an employer 0.1382). Levels of agreement for individual catego-
or manager (28%), a higher professional (20%), an ries are shown on Table 1.
intermediate professional (13%), or a lower profes-
sional (13%). Clearly, volunteer bias means that this
sample is not representative of the male population in Results
the United Kingdom, and the specificity of the
Although some men wrote at length about how
sample is acknowledged.
their use of clothing relates to their feelings about
their body, others wrote very little. The most verbose
Procedure responses were given to the first question, in which
men wrote an average of 68 words (SD ⳱ 41.48,
Participants received a pack containing an infor- range ⳱ 3–206). In response to Questions 2 and 3,
mation sheet, consent form, demographic form, and which asked about whether clothing was used to hide
The Clothing and the Body Questionnaire to com- or emphasize the body, men wrote an average of
plete. The information sheet outlined the purpose of 17.96 (SD ⳱ 13.35, range ⳱ 1–67) and 18.08 (SD ⳱
the research, the nature of their participation, how 18.49, range ⳱ 1–78) words, respectively. Analysis
data might be used, how to withdraw data, and, be- of these responses revealed four key themes1: (a)
cause body image is a sensitive topic, details about Men value practicality, (b) men should not care about
relevant counseling services. The Clothing and the
Body Questionnaire contained four questions: How
much does the way you feel about your body influ- 1
To aid readability, categories of each theme are pre-
ence the kinds of clothing you buy or wear? Do you sented followed by the number of units relating to each
dress in a way that hides aspects of your body? Do category in brackets.
MEN MANAGING BODY IMAGE AND APPEARANCE 43
Table 1
The Level of Agreement Between Two Analysts in Coding the Themes
Theme Agreement quality
1. Comfort is my priority. 0.913 Very good
2. I like to stand out. 1 Very good
3. I like to blend in. 0.765 Good
4. I like to look masculine. 1 Very good
5. I want to look heterosexual. 1 Very good
6. I want to look muscled. 0.871 Very good
7. Continuity in appearance is valued. 1 Very good
8. Age affects choice. 0.600 Good
9. Emphasis on functionality/practicality/purpose 0.859 Very good
10. Clothes are used to communicate about roles. 0.600 Good
11. I respond to fashion. 0.818 Very good
12. I am not a fashion victim. 1 Very good
13. I don’t want to appear vain. 1 Very good
14. We shouldn’t care too much about appearance. 1 Very good
15. I like labels. 0.846 Very good
16. I hate labels. 1 Very good
17. I like my clothes to fit well. 0.789 Good
18. I use clothing to motivate weight loss. 0.429 Moderate
19. I want clothes to flatter my body. 1 Very good
20. I want to make my body attractive to women. 1 Very good
21. I want to look taller. 0.875 Very good
22. I want to appear slim. 1 Very good
23. I don’t want to appear too slim. 1 Very good
24. I want to hide my body. 0.945 Very good
25. My physical size limits what I can wear. 0.882 Very good
26. The shape of my body is irrelevant. 0.956 Very good
27. Using clothes to look attractive is not an issue for
men. 1 Very good
28. My style is important. 0.692 Good
29. I like to look tidy. 1 Very good
30. Clothing choices are linked to confidence. 1 Very good
31. There is pressure from others about appearance. 1 Very good
32. Look good 0.840 Very good
33. Cost is an issue. 1 Very good
34. Not being smart 1 Very good
35. Clothes affect people’s judgments. 1 Very good
36. I use clothes to communicate. 1 Very good
37. Acceptance! 0.857 Very good
38. It matters! 1 Very good
how they look, (c) clothes are used to conceal or comfortable clothes at a particular occasion.” There
reveal, and (d) clothes fit a cultural ideal. are constraints on finding clothing to meet their
needs, which relate to the cost of clothes [5] and the
Men Value Practicality fact that physical size imposes limitations on finding
suitable clothes [12]. The frustration of trying to fit
Perhaps unsurprisingly, men emphasized the im- into average-sized clothing was tangible for unusu-
portance of practical rather than aesthetic aspects of ally tall, broad-shouldered, or short men: “I’m not
clothing. Clothes should be functional [14]; they short but I find trousers are often too long, making
should be fit for purpose, practical, and necessary for me fairly paranoid in the length of my legs.”
everyday living: “The clothes I buy tend to have a This approach might have been predicted by mar-
specific purpose and function.” The prioritization of keting research literature and by gender stereotypes.
comfort [34] suggests that, although other factors do Although women see shopping as an opportunity to
affect clothing choice, for many men “comfort and “try on” new identities (and, therefore, try on a num-
practicability comes first.” To look good and feel ber of different outfits), men regard shopping simply
comfortable clothes must fit well [13]: “I think I as a process of acquiring new clothes; if a gar-
spend most effort on finding the best fitting/most ment fits correctly, then they are likely to buy it
44 FRITH AND GLEESON
(Underhill, 1999). The look of the garment is appar- I tend to wear baggy tops to hide my stomach depend-
ently irrelevant. ing on how I am feeling about myself on the day.
I don’t have a particularly good body (i.e., muscles) they believe their actual body shape to be. Clothing is
it has never bothered me.” For others, the cultural an everyday body-modification practice that may not
ideal presents problems as they aspire to a muscular, be as dramatic or permanent as plastic surgery and
tall, and slim body. Men wrote about wanting to ap- exercise but requires knowledge, attention, and finan-
pear taller [9] and focused on wearing clothes that cial resources. Further research is needed to map
increase the appearance of height (e.g., “Buying these processes in more detail. We know little about
shoes that increase my height gives me a more con- the time and energy men spend shopping for, select-
fident feeling”). They also wrote about wanting to ing, and maintaining clothes. How do men acquire
look muscular [19] and focused on the importance of the knowledge to be able to skillfully alter their ap-
having muscular arms, a toned upper body, and an pearance using different styles of clothing, and what
athletic-looking body. role do style magazines and significant others play in
socializing men into appearance regimes? Although
I have started to bulk out and put on weight and gain our data suggest that men’s practices are flexible and
more confidence about my body shape and have started
varied, we know little about how they make decisions
buying more tight-fitting clothing.
about how to present their bodies in different con-
When I was doing weights, I felt confident enough to texts and in relation to different audiences.
buy a tank top; however, since I’ve stopped I feel more In addition, although some men express accep-
reluctant to show off my arms in public. tance and admiration of their bodies, for many there
is a battle being fought with a less than acceptable
A muscular body is clearly one to show off to others,
body in which clothing is a necessary armor. Our data
whereas a less developed physique is something to be
raise questions for psychologists interested in body
ashamed of.
image. Body image is typically conceptualized as an
I am not one to work out and, therefore, would not internal and enduring “essence,” but our data suggest
consider wearing tight T-shirts that cling to upper arm that it is fluid, contradictory, and constantly renego-
muscles and chest as they would make my body look tiated. Men’s subjective experience of their body im-
inadequate. age shifts constantly between, for example, “fat
Finally, these men wrote about wanting to appear days” and “thin days” and when different aspects of
slim [28] but not too thin [20] and used clothing to the body may become salient. Men might emphasize
manage this. parts of the body of which they feel proud and hide
aspects of the body of which they feel ashamed.
I tend to wear a great deal of black, which gives the Global measures of body satisfaction may not ad-
impression of slimness along with baggy clothing (i.e., equately capture men’s lived experience of their bod-
jumpers, jeans). ies. Our data reveal gaps in current understandings of
body image and clothing practices, but it has not
Very rarely do I wear short-sleeved shirts as I am un-
comfortable with my arms, which I believe to be too
allowed us to explore these in detail. We know little
thin. about how these processes operate or how they might
operate differently for diverse groups of men. For
These men use clothing to modify and manage the example, do pressures to conform to an ideal mascu-
appearance of their bodies depending on how well it line body have more impact on some groups than
currently fits with the ideal. Our data suggest that others? Our sample was skewed toward young men
muscularity and not being over- or underweight play and our findings may not apply equally to all ages,
an important role in men’s decisions about clothing. although research on age differences in body image is
Men’s clothing practices reflect their concerns and currently inconclusive (e.g., Pliner, Chaiken, & Flett,
anxieties about their appearance and how others will 1990; Lamb, Jackson, Cassiday, & Priest, 1993). We
evaluate their body. have also been unable to explore the ways in which
these practices might intersect with other aspects of
Discussion identity such as race, class, or sexual orientation.
However, previous work suggests that gay men, for
Challenging the idea that men have little invested example, value aspects of physical appearance highly
in their appearance, our participants deliberately and (Sergios & Cody, 1985–1986) and spend more
strategically use clothing to manipulate their appear- money on clothing than do heterosexual men (Rudd,
ance to meet cultural ideals of masculinity. They vary 1996). We also do not know whether those who are
the color, texture, pattern, fit, and size of garments to diagnosed as having pathological relationships to
appear slimmer, taller, bigger, or more muscular than their bodies (the anorexic, the compulsive exerciser)
46 FRITH AND GLEESON
share the same knowledge, expertise, and clothing and the range and complexity of the processes in-
practices as average men. Clearly, there is scope for volved in clothing the body and displaying the visual
further research exploring the appearance-manage- self.
ment strategies of those with and without pathologi-
cal relationships to their bodies.
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(Appendix follows)
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48
Appendix
Complete Set of Themes Identified
Men are very practical in Real men shouldn’t Clothes are used to conceal Clothes are used to fit a cultural
choosing their clothes. care about how they look. or reveal. ideal. Miscellaneous
Comfort is a priority. Body shape does matter. Clothing is used to hide the Clothing reflects acceptance of Overlapping and specificity of
Clothes must fit well. We shouldn’t care too much body. the body. the questions
Clothes must be functional. about appearance. Men have nothing to hide. I want to appear taller. Shoes and accessories
Cost of clothes is important. The shape of my body is I have mixed feelings about I want to look muscular. Style and color
Physical size imposes irrelevant. displaying the body. I want to appear slim. Cross-dressing
limitations. I want to look good. I want to display the body. I am concerned with not Cultural aspects of clothing
Clothes are used to I want clothes that flatter the I use clothes to emphasize appearing too thin. Is it the body or the clothes that
communicate about roles. body. particular features of the I want to look masculine. make the difference
I respond to fashion. body. I wanting to appear Male image as
I am not a fashion victim. Clothing choices are linked to heterosexual. holistic
I don’t want to appear vain. confidence. Continuity in apppearance is
Using clothes to look attractive Age affects clothing choice valued.
is not an issue for men. Clothing is used to reflect a I like labels.
My personal style is important. desire to blend in. I hate labels.
I want to look tidy. Clothing can reflect shyness. I use smaller clothes to motivate
Clothes affect people’s weight loss.
FRITH AND GLEESON