Chapter 10

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

10.1 Introduction
™ One of the oldest processes used to shape metals is the casting process (CP) which basically
involves:
1. Pouring molten metal into a mold cavity (patterned after the part to be mfg),
2. Allowing it to solidify (cool), and
3. Removing the part from the mold.
™ Casting processes developed over the years can be classified into:
1. Expandable mold: sand, shell, expandable pattern, plaster, ceramic and investment.
2. Permanent mold: slush, pressure, die, centrifugal, squeeze, and semisolid.
3. Single crystal growing: single crystals for microelectronics, single-crystal turbine blades,
and directional solidification.
As in all manufacturing, each casting process has its own characteristics, applications,
advantages limitations, and costs.
™ Casting processes are most often selected over other manufacturing methods, for the following
reasons:
1. Casting can produce complex shapes with internal cavities or hollow sections.
2. Very large parts can be produced in one piece.
3. It can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by other means.
4. Casting is competitive with other processes.
™ Almost all metals can be cast in the final shape desired (net-shape mfg), often with only minor
finishing operations required.
™ Important considerations in casting operations:
1. Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity.
2. Solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold.
3. The influence of the type of mold material.
™ Metal fundamentals are discussed in this chapter. Industrial metal-processes, design
considerations and casting materials are described in chapter 11 and 12. The casting of ceramics
and plastics are discussed in chapters 18 and 19, respectively.

10.2 Solidification of Metals

™ After pouring molten metal into a mold, a series of events takes place during the solidification of
the metal and cooling to room temperature.
™ These events greatly influence the size, shape uniformity, and chemical composition of the grains
formed throughout the casting, which in turn influence its over all properties.

10.2.1 Solidification of Pure Metals

™ A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature. It has a clearly defined melting (or freezing)
point (see table 3.1 and fig. 10.1).
™ After the temperature of the molten metal drops to its freezing point, its temperature remains
constant while the latent heat of fusion is given off.
™ The solidification front (solid-liquid interface) moves through the molten metal, solidifying from
the mold walls in toward the center.

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Figure 10.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that the
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time
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™ The grain structure of a pure metal cast in a square mold is shown in Fig 10.2a:
9 At the mold walls (usually at room temp), the metal cools rapidly and produces a solidified
skin (or shell) of fine equiaxed grains (approx. equal dims. in all dirs.)
9 The grains grow in a direction opposite to that of the heat transfer out through the mold.
Those grains that have favorable orientations grow preferentially away from the surface of the
mold producing columnar grains (Fig. 10.3).
9 As the driving force of the heat transfer is reduced away from the mold walls, the grains
become equiaxed and coarse. Those grains that have substantially different orientations are
blocked from further growth. Such grains development is known as homogeneous
nucleation, meaning that the grains grow upon themselves, starting at the mold wall.

Figure 10.2 Schematic

illustration of three cast
structures of metals
solidified in a square mold:
(a) pure metals; (b) solid-
solution alloys; and (c)
structure obtained by using
nucleating agents.

Figure 10.3 Development of a preferred

texture at a cool mold wall. Note that
only favorably oriented grains grow
away from the surface of the mold

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™ When the heat is abstracted rapidly, however, solidification it leads to fine structures due to a
decrease in diffusion rates.

10.2.2 Solidification of Alloys

™ Solidification begins when the temperature drops below the liquidus, TL, and is complete when it
reaches the solidus, TS (Fig.10.4).
™ Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty state with columnar dendrites
(close to tree). Note the liquid metal present between the dendrite arms.

Figure 10.4 Schematic

illustration of alloy
solidification and
temperature distribution in
the solidifying metal. Note
the formation of dendrites in
the mushy zone.

™ Dendrites have 3-D arms and branches (secondary arms) which eventually interlock, as can be
seen in Fig. 10.5.
Figure 10.5 (a)
Solidification patterns
for gray cast iron in a
180-mm square
casting. Note that
after 11 minutes of
cooling, dendrites
reach each other, but
the casting is still
mushy throughout. It
takes about two hours
for this casting to
solidify completely.
(b) Solidification of
carbon steels in sand
and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.

™ The width of the mushy zone (L & S) is an important factor during solidification. It is described
by the freezing range as:
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 Freezing range = TL - TS (10.1)
™ It can be seen in Figure 10.1 that pure metals have no freezing range, and that the solidification
front moves as a plane front without forming a mushy zone.
™ In alloys with a nearly symmetrical phase diagram, the structure is generally lamellar, with two or
more solid phases present, depending on the alloy system.
™ When the volume fraction of the minor phase of the alloy is less than about 25%, the structure
generally becomes fibrous. These conditions are particularly important for cast irons.
™ For alloys, a short freezing range generally involves a temperature difference < 50o C, and a long
freezing range > 110o C.
™ Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones, whereas aluminum and magnesium alloys
have wide mushy zones.
Effects of cooling rates
™ Slow cooling rates (order of 102 K/s) – long solidification time- result in coarse dendritic
structures with large spacing between the dendrite arms.
™ For higher cooling rates (order of 104 K/s) –short solidification times- the structure becomes finer
with smaller dendrite arm spacing.
™ For still higher cooling rates (order of 106-108 K/s), the structures developed are amorphous.
™ As grain size decreases, the strength and the ductility of the cast alloy increase, microporosity
(interdendritic shrinkage voids) in the casting decreases, and the tendency for the casting to crack
(hot tearing, see Fig. 10.12) during solidification decreases.
™ Lack of uniformity in grain size and grain distribution results in casting with anisotropic
properties.
™ A criterion describing the kinetics of the liquid-solid interface is the ratio:
G/R = thermal Gradient (K/m) / Rate at which the liquid-solid interface moves (m/s)

™ Dendritic type structures (Figs. 10.6a and b) typically have a G/R ratio in the range of 105 to 107,
whereas ratios of 1010 - 1012 produce a plane-front, nondendritic liquid-solid interface (Fig. 10.7).

Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic.

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 Figure 10.7 Schematic
illustration of cast structures in
(a) plane front, single phase, and
(b) plane front, two phase.

10.2.3 Structure-property relationships

™ The relationships between properties and the structures development during solidification are
important aspects of casting.
™ The phase diagram of the particular alloy gives the compositions of the dendrites and the liquid
metal.
™ When the alloy is cooled very slowly, each dendrite develops a uniform composition.
™ However, under normal (faster) cooling rates, cored dendrites are formed. Cored dendrites have a
surface composition different from that at their centers. This difference is referred to as a
concentration gradient.
™ The surface of the dendrite has a higher concentration of alloying elements than does the core due
to solute rejection from the core towards the surface during solidification of dendrite (micro
segregation).
™ The darker shading in the interdendritic liquid near the dendrite roots (Fig. 10.6) indicates that
these regions have a higher solute concentration; micro segregation in these regions is much more
pronounced than others.
™ There are several types of segregation. In contrast to micro segregation, macro segregation
involves differences in composition throughout the casting itself:
9 Normal segregation: In situations where the solidifying front moves away from the surface
of a casting as a plane front (Fig. 10.7), lower-melting point constituents in the solidifying
alloy are driven toward the center. Consequently, such a casting has a higher concentration of
alloying elements at its center than at its surfaces.
9 Inverse segregation: In dendritic structure such as those found in solid-solution alloys (Fig.
10.2b), the center of the casting has a lower concentration of alloying elements than does its
surface. The reason is that liquid metal (having a higher concentration of alloying elements)
enters the cavities developed from solidification shrinkage in the dendrite arms, which have
solidified sooner.
9 Gravity segregation: Describes the process whereby higher-density inclusions or compounds
sink, and lighter elements float to the surface.
™ A typical cast structure of a solid-solution alloy with an inner zone of equiaxed grains is shown in
Fig. 10.2b. This inner zone can be extended through the casting, as shown in Fig 10.2c by adding
inoculants (nucleating agent – grain refining agent ) to the alloy (liquid phase). This inoculant
induces nucleation of the grains throughout the liquid metal; heterogeneous nucleation. These
additions lead to an increased number of crystals per unit volume of solidified metal, e.g. TiC in
aluminum alloys.

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Effects of convection
™ Because of the presence of thermal gradients in a solidifying mass of liquid metal, and because of
gravity and the resultant density differences, convection has a strong influence on the structures
developed.
™ Convection promotes the formation of an outer chill zone; refines grain size, and accelerates the
transition from columnar to equiaxed grains.
™ The structure shown in Fig. 10.6b can also be obtained by increasing convection within the liquid
metal, whereby dendrite arms separate (dendrite multiplication).
™ Conversely, reducing or elimination convection results in coarser and longer columnar dendritic
grains. Convection can be enhanced by the use of mechanical or electromagnetic methods.

10.3 Fluid Flow

™ Fluid flow is very important in casting, so let us consider the gravity casting system shown in Fig.
10.8.

Figure 10.8 Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs,
supplying molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification.

™ The molten metal is poured through a pouring basin or cup. It then flows through the gating
system (sprue, runners and gates) into the mold cavity.
™ Sprue is a tapered vertical channel through which the molten metal flows downward in the mold.
™ Runners are the channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold cavity, or
connect the sprue to the gate.
™ The gate is the portion of the runner through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
™ Risers (feeders) serve as reservoirs to supply any molten metal necessary to prevent porosity due
shrinkage during solidification.
™ Successful casting requires proper design and control of the solidification process to ensure
adequate fluid flow in the system.
For example, an important function of the gating system in sand casting is to trap contaminants
(oxides and other inclusions) in the molten metal by having the contaminants adhere to the walls
of the gating system, thereby preventing them from reaching the mold cavity.
™ Furthermore, a properly designed gating system avoids or minimizes problems such as premature
cooling, turbulence, and gas entrapment.

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™ Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design: Bernoulli’s theorem, and the law
of mass continuity.
™ Bernoulli’s theorem:
p υ2
h+ + = constant (10.2)
ρ g 2g
Where
h = elevation above a certain preference plane (datum)
p = pressure that elevation
v = velocity of the liquid at that elevation
ρ = density of the fluid (assuming incompressible)
g = gravitation constant
9 Conservation of energy requires that (between 2 different elevations) the following
relationship be satisfied as:
p υ p
2
υ 2
h1 + 1 + 1 = h 2 + 2 + 2 + f (10.3)
ρ g 2g ρg 2g
Where f = frictional losses in the liquid as it travels downward through the system.
Frictional losses include factors such as energy loss at the liquid-mold wall interfaces and
turbulence in the liquid.
™ Mass Continuity:
9 For incompressible liquids and in a system with impermeable walls, the rate of flow is
constant. So, considering two different locations in the system:

Q = A1 ν 1 = A 2 ν 2 (10.4)
Where
Q = volume rate of flow m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of the liquid stream
v = the average velocity of the liquid at that cross-sectional location
9 The permeability of the walls of the system is important because otherwise some liquid will
permeate through the walls (as occurs in san molds) and the flow rate will decrease as the
liquid moves through the system. Coatings often are used to inhibit such behavior in sand
molds.
™ Sprue design:
9 The shape of the sprue by using Eqs. (10.3) and (10.4). Assuming that the pressure at the top
of the sprue is equal to the pressure at the bottom and that there are no frictional losses, the
relationship between height and cross-sectional area at any point in the sprue is given by the
parabolic relationship:
A1 h2
= (10.5)
A2 h1

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 9 Where, for example, the subscript 1 denotes the top of the sprue and 2 denotes the bottom.
Cross-sectional area of the sprue decreases moving downward. Depending on the
assumptions made, expressions other than Eq. (10.5) can also be obtained.
9 If we design a sprue with a constant cross-sectional area and pour the molten metal into it,
regions may develop where the liquid loses contact with the sprue walls.
9 As a result aspiration (a process whereby air is sucked in or entrapped in the liquid) may take
place.
9 A common alternative to tapered sprues is to use a straight-sided sprues with a chocking
mechanism at the bottom. The choke slows flow sufficiently to prevent aspiration in the sprue.
™ Modeling: Another application of the above equations is in the modeling of mold filling.
9 If the pouring basin has a much larger cross-sectional area than the sprue bottom, then the
velocity of the molten metal at the top of the pouring basin is very low and may be taken as
zero.
9 Also, if frictional losses are due to a viscous dissipation energy, then f in Eq. (10.3) can be
taken as a function of the vertical distance and is often approximated as a linear function.
9 Therefore, the velocity of the molten metal laving the gate is obtained from Eq. (10.3) as:

ν = c 2gh (10.5a)
Where
h = the distance from the sprue base to the liquid metal height
c = a friction factor (between 0 and 1). For frictionless flow, c = 1.
9 The magnitude of c varies with mold material, runner layout, and channel size and includes
energy losses due to turbulence, as well as viscous effects.
9 If the liquid level has reached a height of x, then the gate velocity
ν =c 2g h− x
9 The flow rate through the gate will be the product of this velocity and the gate area according
to Eq. (10.4).
9 The shape of the casting will determine the height as a function of time, and hence, integrating
Eq. (10.4) gives the mean fill time and flow rate and dividing the casting volume by this
mean flow rate gives the mold fill time.
9 Simulation of mold filling assists designers in the specification of the runner diameter, as well
as the size and the number of sprues and pouring basins.
9 To ensure that the runners stay open, the fill time must be a small fraction of the
solidification time, but the velocity should not be so high as to erode the mold material
(called mold wash) or to result in too high of a Reynold number (see next). Otherwise,
turbulence and associated air entrainment results.
9 Many computational tools are now available to evaluate gating designs and assits in the sizing
of the components.
™ Flow Characteristics
9 An important consideration of the fluid flow in gating systems is the presence of turbulence,
as opposed to the laminar flow of fluids.
9 The Reynolds, Re = inertia forces / viscous forces, is used to quantify this aspect of fluid flow.
Defined as follows:
ν Dρ
Re = (10.6)
η
9
 Where
v = the velocity of the liquid , ρ = the density of the liquid
D = the diameter of the channel , η = the viscosity of the liquid
9 The higher the Re, the greater the tendency for turbulent flow to occur.
9 In gating systems:
a. Laminar flow: 0 ≤ Re ≤ 2000

b. Transition flow: 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 20,000

A mixture of laminar and turbulent flow; considered harmless.

c. Turbulent flow: Re > 20,000,

Result in air entrainment and the formation of dross (the scum that forms on the
surface of molten metal) from the reaction of the liquid metal with air and other gases.
9 Techniques for minimizing turbulence generally involve avoidance of sudden changes in
flow direction and in the geometry of channel cross-sections in gating system design.
9 Dross or slag can be almost completely eliminated only by vacuum casting.
9 Conventional atmospheric casting mitigates dross or slag: a) by skimming, b) by using
properly designed pouring basins and runner systems, or c) by using filters, which also can
eliminate turbulent flow in the runner system.
9 Filters are usually made of ceramics, mica, or fiberglass, and their proper location and
placement are important for effective filtering of dross and slag.
10.4 Fluidity of Molten Metal
™ Fluidity is the capability of the molten metal to fill mold cavities. Fluidity is influenced by
(consists of) two basic factor:
9 Characteristics of the Molten Metal
9 Casting Parameters.
1) Characteristics of Molten Metal:
a. Viscosity: As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature (viscosity index) increase, fluidity
decreases.
b. Surface tension: A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity. Oxide films on
the surface of the molten metal have a significant adverse effect on fluidity.
c. Inclusions: As insoluble particles, inclusions can have a significant adverse effect on fluidity.
For example, liquid with sand in it has a higher viscosity and hence lower fluidity than a
liquid without sand.
d. Solidification pattern of the alloy: The manner in which solidification takes place fluidity.
Fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing range. The shorter the range (as in pure
metals and eutectics), the higher the fluidity. Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges
have lower fluidity.

2) Casting Parameters:
a. Mold design. The design and dimensions of sprue, runners and risers all influence fluidity.
b. Mold material and its surface characteristics. The higher the thermal conductivity of the
mold and the rougher the surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the molten metal. Although

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 heating the mold improves fluidity, it slows down solidification of the metal. Thus casting
develops coarse grains and hence lower strength.
c. Degree of superheat: Defined as the increment of temperature above the melting point of an
alloy, superheat improves fluidity by delaying solidification. The pouring temperature often is
specified instead of the degree of superheat.
d. Rate of pouring. The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold, the lower the
fluidity because of the higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.
e. Heat transfer. This factor directly affects viscosity of the liquid metal (see below).
Castability: the ease with which a metal can be cast to obtain a part with good quality. This term
includes not only fluidity but casting practices as well.
10.4.1 Test for fluidity
™ Several tests have been developed to quantify
fluidity, although none is accepted universally.
™ In one such common test, the molten metal is
mode to flow along a channel that is at room
temperature; the distance the metal flows before it
solidifies and stops flowing is a measure of its
fluidity.
Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity using a spiral
mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified
metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of
the solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.

10.5. Heat Transfer

™ The heat transfer during the compete cycle (pouring, solidification, and cooling), is another
important consideration in metal casting.
™ Heat flow is a complex phenomenon and depends on several factors relating to material cast and
the mold and the process parameters.
™ For instance, in casting thin sections, the metal
flow rates must be high enough to avoid
premature chilling and solidification. On the other
hand, the flow rate must not be so high as to
cause excessive turbulence – with its detrimental
effects on the casting process.
™ A typical temperature distribution at the mold
liquid-metal interface is shown in Fig. 10.10. Heat
from the liquid metal is given off through the
mold wall and to the surrounding air.
™ The temperature drop at the air-mold and mold-
metal interfaces is caused by the presence of the
boundary layers and imperfect contact at these
interfaces.
™ The shape of the curve depends on the thermal
properties of the molten metal and the mold.
Figure 10.10 Temperature distribution at the
interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal during the solidification of metals in casting
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10.5.1 Solidification Time
™ During the early stages of solidification, a thin, solidified skin begins to form at the cool mold
walls and, as time passes, the skin thickens (Fig. 10.11).
™ With flat mold walls, this thickness is proportional to the square root of time.

Figure 10.11 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure.
™ The solidification time is a function of the volume of a casting and its surface area (Chvorinov's
rule);
n
⎛ volume ⎞
Solidification time = C ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (10.7)
⎝ surface area ⎠
Where C is a constant that reflects: (a) mold material, (b) metal properties (including latent heat),
and (c) temperature.
The parameter n has a value between 1.5 and 2 but usually is taken 2.

™ The effects of mold geometry and elapsed time on skin thickness and shape are shown in Fig.
10.11.
™ The skin thickness increases with elapsed time, and the skin is thinner at internal angles
(location A) than at external angles (location B). This condition is caused by slower cooling at
internal angles than at external angles.

See Example 10.1

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10.5.2 Shrinkage:
™ Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metal usually shrink during solidification and
while cooling to room temperature. Shrinkage, which causes dimensional changes and
(sometimes) cracking, is the result of the following three sequential events:
9 Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification.
9 Contraction of the metal during phase change from liquid to solid (latent heat of fusion).
9 Contraction of the solidified metal as its temperature drops to ambient temperature, which is
the largest potential amount of shrinkage.
™ The amount of contraction during the solidification of various metals is shown in Table 10.1.
™ Gray cast iron expands, because graphite has a relatively high specific volume, and when it
precipitates as graphite flakes during solidification, it causes a net expansion of the metal.

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10.6 Defects
™ Because different names have been used in the past to describe the same defect, the International
Committee of Foundry Technical Associations has developed a standardized nomenclature,
consisting of seven basic categories of casting defects:
A. Metallic projections: consisting of fins, flash, or massive projections such as swells and
rough surfaces.
B. Cavities: consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities, including blowholes,
pinholes, and shrinkage cavities.
C. Discontinuities: such as cracks, cold or hot tearing, and cold shuts. If the solidifying metal is
constrained from shrinking freely, cracking and tearing can occur. Coarse grain size and the
presence of low melting point segregates along the grain boundaries (intergranular) increase
the tendency for hot tearing. Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks complete fusion
because of the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from different gates.
D. Defective surface: such as surface folds, laps, scars, adhering sand layers, and oxide scale.

Figure 10.12 Examples of hot tears in castings. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may
be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing
E. Incomplete casting: such as misruns (due to premature solidification), insufficient volume of
the metal poured, and runout (due to loss of metal from mold after pouring). Incomplete
castings can result from the molten metal being at too low a temperature or from pouring the
metal too slowly.
F. Incorrect dimensions or shape, due to factors such as improper shrinkage allowance,
pattern-mounting error, irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or warped casting.
G. Inclusions: which form during melting, solidification, and molding; generally nonmetallic.
They act as stress raisers and reduce the strength of the casting.
Inclusions may form during melting when the molten metal reacts with the environment
(usually oxygen) or with crucible or mold material.
Chemical reactions among components in the molten metal itself may produce inclusions.

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Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or
eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures.

10.6.1 Porosity
™ Porosity may be caused by shrinkage or gases or both.
™ Thin sections in a casting solidify sooner than thicker regions; as a result, molten metal flow into
the thicker regions that has not yet solidified. Porous regions may develop at their centers because
of contraction as the surfaces of the thicker region begin to solidify first.
™ Microporosity also can develop when the liquid metal solidifies and shrinks between dendrites
and between dendrite branches.
™ Porosity is detrimental to the ductility of a casting and its surface finish, making it pearmeable
and, thus, affecting the pressure tightness of a cast pressure vessel.
™ Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or eliminated by various means such as:
9 Adequate liquid metal should be provided to avoid cavities caused by shrinkage.
9 Internal or external chills, used in sand casting (Fig. 10.13), also are an effective means of
reducing shrinkage porosity.
9 The function of chills is to increase the rate of solidification in critical regions. Internal chills
(avoided) are usually made of the same material as the casting and are left in the casting.
External chills may be made of the same material or may by iron, copper, or graphite.
9 With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated by making the temperature gradient steep.
For example, mold materials that have higher thermal conductivity may be used.
9 Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is another method of reducing porosity.

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Figure 10.14 Various
types of (a) internal and
(b) external chills (dark
areas at corners) used in
castings to eliminate
porosity caused by
shrinkage. Chills are
placed in regions where
there is a larger volume
of metal, as shown in
(c).

™ Because liquid metals have much greater solubility for gases

than do solid metals (Fig. 10.14), when a metal begins to
solidify, the dissolved gases are expelled from the solution.
Figure 10.15 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp
decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify
™ Gases also may result from reactions of the molten metal with
the mold materials.
™ Gases either accumulate in regions of existing porosity (such
as in interdendritic regions) cause microporosity in the
casting, particularly in cast iron, aluminum, and copper.

™ Dissolved gases may be removed from the molten metal by

flushing or purging with an inert gas, or by melting and pouring the metal in a vacuum.
™ If the dissolved gas is oxygen, the molten metal can be deoxidized. Steel is usually deoxidized
with aluminum, silicon, copper-based alloys with phosphorus copper, titanium, and zirconium-
bearing materials.
™ If the porosity is spherical and has smooth walls,
it is generally from gases.
™ If the walls are rough and angular, porosity is
likely from shrinkage between dendrites.
™ Gross porosity is from shrinkage and is usually
called a shrinkage cavity.

See Example 10.2 Casting of an aluminum

automotive pistons

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