Learning Theories: Implications for Online Learning

Design
Hesham Alomyan Deborah Green
University of Petra,Jordan University of South Australia, Australia
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT present online material to ensure effective teaching and learning.

Globally, online learning is widely used as a modern means of Educational institutions are increasingly placing more learning
delivering instruction. Yet, a significant proportion of online material online; yet, a significant proportion of this material
material fails to meet the benchmarks of successful teaching and seemingly fails when judged from a teaching and learning
learning highlighting a need for guidelines on how to structure perspective [4], [5]. While many guidelines have been introduced
online materials for effective learning. By presenting learning to support developers of print-based materials few have been
theories; behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism, this considered for online learning [5], leaving an urgent need for such
paper will highlight and discuss principles that can be applied to guidelines to be developed [6]. We therefore need to design online
online learning contexts. The implications of these principles will learning materials carefully to ensure they conform to learners'
be discussed to showcase online learning practices where learning characteristics of readiness, intelligence, abilities, tendencies,
is promoted and learners are actively engaged. attitudes and individual differences while supporting them to
achieve the desired learning objectives in less time and with less
CCS Concepts effort and cost.
• Applied computing➝Education➝E-learning. Like print materials, the development of effective online learning
materials should be based upon proven and sound learning
Keywords theories [7]. To effectively engage learners and promote learning,
Online learning; learning theories; online content structuring. the current paper will extract implications from learning theories
before integrating them into online learning contexts. These
1. INTRODUCTION theories include behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Online learning has become an urgent necessity imposed upon us
More specifically, this paper will provide online course designers
by fast changes and developments in educational systems and
with implications for designing high-quality courses that achieve
technology. Traditional methods of education are no longer
desired learning objectives for different learners. Following is a
sufficient to provide learners with the knowledge and skills
review of the theoretical framework of learning theories, which
necessary to work and excel in an era of globalization.
highlights key principles and implications for designing effective
Online learning refers to learning that utilises the Internet to online courses.
deliver content and activities, skills, and tests through the World
Wide Web. [1] Gotschall (2000) describes online learning as any 2. LEARNING THEORIES AND ONLINE
learning that occurs using a computer network and possesses the LEARNING DESIGN
following characteristics: By way of overview, it is possible to describe three broad
• Instruction is delivered via the World Wide Web; theoretical approaches that have contributed towards the human
learning psychology and might have implications for online
• Face-to-face meetings are not required;
learning design: behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
• Students have access to learning materials and assignments at
The following is a review of these learning theories, followed by a
any time and from anywhere [2];
presentation of implications for designing online courses derived
• Communication tools (e.g., email, discussion lists, video from these theories.
conferencing) are often used to encourage collaborative
learning and allow students access to their teachers or 2.1 Behavioural Learning Theory
lecturers at any time [3]; and According to the behavioural learning theory, learning occurs as a
• Interactive multimedia components like videos, animated result of external stimuli with the human mind being like a black
presentations and interactive tutorials are encouraged. box [8]. [9] Skinner (1977) argued that internal mental processes
cannot be proven to know whether a person is learning or not.
Remaining of concern is the most effective ways in which to Ignoring the impact of the thinking processes in the mind, this
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for theory focuses on different behavioural aspects that can be
personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are observed during the learning process. The impact of behavioural
not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that theory on learning was significant as attention was drawn towards
copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy many key principles that have implications in teaching and
otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists,
learning design. The general principles underlying the behavioural
requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions
from [email protected]. theory can be summarised as follows [10]:
ICSET 2019, August 15–17, 2019, Taipei, Taiwan. 1. Describe the behaviour or performance of the learner,
© 2019 Association for Computing Machinery.
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503-7230-5/19/08…$15.00
identify, analyze and divide it into its sub-elements.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3355966.3358412

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2. Provide all the information and educational stimuli in the - Sequencing: sequence learning in
pre-structured learning content, obtained by the learner to stimulus and response actions [15].
achieve this desired behaviour, and divide this information - Pre-assessment: Pre-test the learner to
into separate units or subjects. determine the level of placement in the
3. Formulation of content stimuli in a gradual way: from easy Assessment course.
to difficult, from simple to complex. - Post-assessment: Evaluate students'
4. Provide appropriate reinforcement to strengthen the desired learning in terms of knowledge, skills and
behaviour (feedback). emotions, in light of specific objectives, to
5. Repetition of behaviour to strengthen the link between ensure that they are achieved using
stimuli and responses. appropriate assessment methods for each
6. Pay attention only to the impact of past experiences in learning objective.
learning without the present. - Immediate feedback: To help and guide
7. Pay attention to external and internal motivation and satisfy the learner’s performance, and produce
the need to obtain satisfaction, and achieve the required Feedback the behavioural responses provide
learning. appropriate timely feedback as soon as the
8. Learning is a change in behaviour as a result of information learner responds;
obtained by the individual. - Various feedback: Use different methods
9. Learning is evaluated on the basis of specific behaviour. of providing feedback (i.e., verbal and
nonverbal feedback) as opposed to only
Drawing on the above review of behavioural theory, implications one method.
for designing online courses are determined and presented in
Table 1 below.
Table 1. Implications for designing online courses derived
2.2 Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive learning theories recognize the acquisition of
from behavioural learning theory
meaningful knowledge by helping learners to use mental
processes in organizing and linking new information [16]; such
Course Implications for designing online courses processes include memory, thinking, abstraction, meditation and
design derived from behavioural learning theory motivation. According to the information processing theory,
elements information is received by different senses, processed, and then
- Identify learner’s characteristics related to transferred to short and long-term memory. By attracting the
Learners’ the cognitive, emotional and physical learner’s attention to important and critical information the
characteristics aspects of online courses, as well as their learning process can be enhanced [17]. Cognitive theories,
previous experiences, knowledge and especially dual code theory, support the use of visual forms of
behaviour. learning. This theory assumes that information is stored in one’s
- Determine the content of the online course long-term memory in visual and verbal forms and that this
and analyze it into its components, and information is remembered better than information represented in
Course divide it into units and classes according only one form [18]. Therefore, cognitive theories can be used in
content to a particular theory, taking into account the design of online courses in many ways, especially the visual
structure learner’s characteristics [11]. design of the course content and pages.
- Arrange and format elements of the course
From the above review of cognitive theories, implications for
content in a gradual, scaffolded way: easy
designing online courses are determined and presented in Table 2
to hard, simple to complex; to help the
below.
learner understand and acquire the
material. Table 2. Implications for designing online courses derived
- Formulate the learning objectives from cognitive learning theories.
accurately and present them to the learner
Learning at the beginning of learning, so that they
Course Implications for designing online courses
objectives relate to each subject of the online course
design derived from cognitive learning theories
[12].
elements
- Each objective should include the
- Identify learners’ characteristics
parameters of acceptable performance of
especially their mental abilities and
the learner.
Learners’ cognitive learning methods, their level
- Drill and practice: Provide opportunities
characteristics of intelligence, their common thinking
for practice and repetition, which helps to
patterns, and their previous experiences
master learning, and provide practical
and knowledge.
examples and exercises applied in real
- Clarify the topics of the course; provide
situations [13].
a complete description of the objectives,
- Diagnostic tests: Learners should be able
subjects and strategies.
to skip some parts of the course or repeat
- Analyze the content of the course to its
Instructional it according to their assessment in
components, and divide it into units and
strategies diagnostic tests.
Course classes arranged according to a
- Navigation: The clarity of the way of
content particular sequence or theory, taking into
navigation between course pages and
structure account learners’ characteristics.
elements [14].

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 - Provide maps for the information Instructional - Include activities that take into account
contained in the course, whether linear, strategy individual differences and needs of
hierarchical, or spider-shaped [19]. learners [22].
- Use advance organizers to organise the - Use advance organizers to link learner’s
course content in the main pages of the exciting knowledge with what is being
course, whether these organizers are learnt [23].
presented as text or image. - Use concept maps to provide the “big
- Present important information in the picture” to learners, which will help
centre of the screen. them, comprehend the details of a lesson
- Highlight critical information to attract and in turn facilitate deep processing.
learners' attention using headings and/or - Use pre-instructional questions to
colour [20]. activate the learner’s current knowledge
- Information should be chunked- between and set expectations for learning new
five and nine items on a screen -to Assessment materials.
prevent cognitive overload during - Provide learners with self-check
information processing [21]. questions and exercises with immediate
- Use different modes of presentation feedback throughout a lesson to enable
(textual, visual, animations, video, and them to assess themselves [11].
audio) to facilitate information Motivate learners intrinsically and
processing and accommodate learning extrinsically by[24], [25]:
styles. - Capturing the learner’s attention at the
- Formulate and present learning Motivation & beginning of the lesson and keeping it
Learning objectives to the learners at the feedback throughout the lesson.
objectives beginning of their learning so that these - Informing learners of the importance of
objectives relate to each subject with the lesson and its benefit.
emphasis on thinking and meta- - Informing learners of the lesson’s
cognitive skills. outcomes and provide ongoing
- Learning objectives should include encouragement to complete the lesson.
developing learners' mental abilities and - Providing feedback on learners’
cognitive strategies. performance and allowing them to
contextualize what they are learning by
- Translate, whenever possible, verbal applying the information to real-life
information into visual forms that are contexts.
clear and easy to perceive and
communicate.
- Highlight important information to draw
2.3 Constructivist Learning Theory
Interface and Dominating education today, constructivist learning theories
the learner’s attention.
visual design argue that learning is an active process whereby learners are at the
- To achieve a clear vision for the learner
of the online centre and develop their own understandings; a stark contrast to
and increase the speed of reading
course theories where learners passively receive knowledge.
information on course pages, take into
Constructivist theories posit that learners need to be actively
account the color contrast between the
engaged, whether individually or in small groups, to seek
item and the background.
knowledge and information that will help to develop
- Use reasonably simple graphics and
understanding [26]. However, there is not one view about what
visual forms. Avoid using more than one
constructivist learning is with [27] Phillips (1995) articulating that
animation on a page.
there are many forms of constructivist thinking, including those
- Make sure that convergent objects
that seemingly contradict each other. Cognitive and social
appear in the form of a single group, as
constructivism, however, appear to be the two main views from
it is easier to perceive them as a group or
which others have extended. One main difference is evident
as independent forms, such as displaying
between these two positions with those supporting cognitive
a group of images in a miniature form
constructivism arguing that individuals construct new meaning
that revolves around one meaning, then
within the context of their current knowledge, experience, and
the learner chooses what s/he wants to
environment [28], while more emphasis on the social context of
see in details [11].
the actual learning environment is placed by those supporting
- Balance between written and illustrated
social constructivism. The latter argues that knowledge is not
information on the course pages.
constructed by the individual alone but instead is influenced by
- Organize the course page elements in a
social groups working in a collaborative learning environment and
way that is easy to understand and
the social norms and interpretations that arise from these [29].
discover relationships among and
between them. Applying these learning theories to the online world
constructivism highlights the need to design learning
- Include real-life applications to assist the
environments that are both learner and community-centred. In the
learners to develop personal meaning,
learner-centred learning environments, recognition needs to be
contextualize the information, and
given to building on the conceptual and cultural knowledge that
facilitate deep processing.
students bring with them to the learning experience, linking

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learning to students’ experiences, accepting and exploring Instructional - Encourage communication and foster
multiple perspectives and divergent understandings [28]. Through strategies collaborative learning among students
its characteristics and tools, the World-Wide Web offers a perfect through e-mail, discussion forum, chat
platform from which learner-centeredness can be developed. For programs, and video conferencing.
example, tools such as text, audio, video, self-testing, and Internet - Give learners control of the learning
links, multimedia, and concept maps can be used to support process and allow them to make
learner-centred instruction enabling prior knowledge, cultural decisions about learning goals, with
norms and experiences to be used as a foundation for learning [6]. some guidance from the instructor.
- Give the learners time and opportunities
Designing learning environments that are community-centred are
to reflect on their learning. For example,
central to constructivist approaches to learning [30]. Thus,
implying that learning is strengthened by environments which embed questions about the content
support and value all students' participation whose social norms throughout the lesson.
- Provide interactive learning activities to
encourage collaboration, negotiation of meaning, and search for
promote higher-level thinking while
understanding [28].
providing social presence for students
Through the effective use of online communication tools students and teachers in different ways [33].
studying online can feel less psychological distance between - Use different methods of assessment,
themselves and their peers, resulting in reports that relationships such as individual self-assessment, team
between learners’ perceptions of their social presence and assessment, short tests, projects, research
satisfaction in, and perceived learning from, online courses have groups, electronic files of achievement.
improved [31]. Furthermore, the World Wide Web, through its Assessment
- The assessment should be continuous for
new online interactive communication tools (i.e., social- the student's performance to ensure that
networking sites, wikis, and folksonomies), enables learning to be he or she is prepared to move to other
situated in authentic, real-world problems while linking to local modules or lessons.
communities, thus supporting the tenets of social constructivist - Provide explanations and assistance on
theories. how to use the technology included in
Iimplications for designing online courses are determined from the course, such as e-mail, content
the above review of constructivist learning theories and presented management systems, tools and
in Table 3 below. Reinforcement programs used in the course, which are
& support easily accessible when needed.
Table 3. Implications for designing online courses derived - Provide diverse learning resources, such
from constructivist learning theories. as PowerPoint presentations, flashlights,
Implications for designing online courses written texts, images and animated
Course design derived from constructivist learning graphics.
elements theories - Provide easy to access course content
across the network with speedy
Learners’ - Determine learners’ characteristics, downloads, and fast links.
characteristics especially previous experiences related to - Provide learners with immediate
course requirements. interactive instructions when needed.
- Do not specify content in detail, use key
ideas, and do not specify a compulsory
sequence that learners need to follow. 3. CONCLUSION
- Provide and use information in a Given the complexity of online learning systems, it is necessary to
Course content functional way related to real life. review key learning theories to understand the possible
structure - Provide activities, assignments and implications they have for effective online learning design. From
projects for learners to reach the desired the review herein, it is argued that there is no single learning
content by searching for appropriate theory that can be solely relied upon to design effective online
detailed information from multiple learning systems that achieve the desired learning objectives.
sources linked to real life. Behaviourism focusses on the apparent behaviour of the learner,
- Set general objectives at the beginning of which is subject to observation and measurement without looking
the learning and allow learners to set their into the mental processes behind the occurrence of such behaviour.
Learning
own learning objectives, thus achieving Cognitive learning theory is concerned with the mental processes
objectives
the general objectives of the course. that occur within the learner’s mind and the results this has on
- Make learning meaningful to learners by behaviour. Constructivist theories seek to study methods of
including activities and practical building the learner's knowledge of the world around them based
examples of theoretical information, on their experiences and activities. Therefore, while each of these
which can keep the learners active during theories has its limitations, they are all critical to effective
the learning process resulting in high- learning whether online or face-to-face. Hence, each of these
level processing [32]. theories, along with its key principles, has been explored and its
- Provide interactive online instruction strengths presented in a framework that can be employed in the
where learners take the initiative to learn design of online learning courses, providing online developers
and interact with other learners and the with choices to ensure that the right decisions are made to
instructor, which eventually results in enhance online learning.
constructing their own knowledge.

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