PR For Tilapia - 2018 - Beta - PCRD-H003804 PDF

ISSN 0115-7833
PCAARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 98/2018
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The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research
and Development (PCAARRD) is one of the sectoral councils under the Department
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OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Dear Reader,
DOST-PCAARRD is proud to add The Philippines Recommends

for Tilapia to its banner publication line. This publication features
some of the latest technologies in tilapia breeding and farming.
Tilapia is the second most important cultured species in the country.

It helps address the concerns on food security because it is widely
accepted and is suitable for mass production through either grow-out
culture in backyard or commercial scale.
PCAARRD’s Industry Strategic S&T Program (ISP) for Tilapia, aims

to fully harness the potential of the industry by addressing its needs
and problems such as the gap in the quality source of breeders and
fry; poor export competitiveness and the inability to meet the fish size
requirement of the international market; and mass mortalities arising
from poor culture conditions and disease outbreaks.
Some interventions under the ISP contained in this book will help
ensure the steady supply of quality fingerlings from government and
private hatcheries and increase the production capacities of existing
culture systems through innovative management schemes. These will
also help expand the market potential of tilapia.
We hope that you will find this publication a useful and informative
reference material as you venture into your own research and
development studies or into your own tilapia breeding and farming
business.
Very truly yours,
REYNALDO V. EBORA
Acting Executive Director
DOST-PCAARRD
The Philippines
Recommends for
Tilapia
Philippines Recommends Series No. 98
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,
AQUATIC AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD)

Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
2018
i
First Edition 2018
ISSN 0115-7833
Bibliographic Citation:
The Tilapia Technical Committee 2017. The Philippines

recommends for tilapia. Los Baños, Laguna: DOST-
PCAARRD, 2018. 123p. - (Philippines Recommends
Series No. 98/2018)
ii
Foreword
T ilapias are introduced to the Philippines and in several

other countries outside of Africa. Being a cheap source of
protein for human nutrition, it has been farmed in over
100 countries worldwide making it one of the most
commercially important commodities in fisheries and
aquaculture.
Although tilapia is relatively easy to propagate and culture,
the Philippine tilapia industry needs the necessary boost in
quality and quantity of production outputs. Years of local tilapia
research and development (R&D) works have generated several
innovative field-tested breeding and farming methods, which
when adopted on farm, may help the tilapia industry attain its
goals.
Increased tilapia production from aquaculture is possible if
information on advances in husbandry, genetics, systems (water,
nutrition, and health) management, harvest, and post-production/
processing are effectively disseminated to its end users.
DOST-PCAARRD, with the help of a technical team of
experts, has realized this need and has come up with this updated
compilation containing the latest working technologies in tilapia
breeding and farming.
It is hoped that fish farm technicians, students, fish farm
managers/operators, and aquaculturists will benefit fully from
reading this publication, apply the recommended techniques and
as such, contribute further to the success of the tilapia industry
in the Philippines.
REYNALDO V. EBORA
Acting Executive Director
DOST-PCAARRD
iii
Acknowledgment
P CAARRD would like to thank the members of The

Tilapia Technical Committee 2017 for sharing their valuable
time, effort, and expertise for the successful completion of this
updated publication.
The technical support of Inland Aquatic Resources Research
Division (IARRD), through its Director, Dr. Dalisay DG.
Fernandez and her staff, Dr. Loureeda C. Darvin, Dr. Norida P.
Samson, and Ms. Jobelle Zuraek, in the preparation and review
of the manuscript are likewise acknowledged.
Finally, the Applied Communication Division, headed by
Dir. Marita A. Carlos and her staff, is also recognized and
sincerely appreciated for their efforts in editing, layout, and
publication of the book.
iv
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgment iv
The Tilapia Technical Committee 2017 xi
Glossary of Terms xiii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xv
Introduction 1
Tilapia Strains in the Philippines 1
Commodity Profile 6
Tilapia Consumption 8
Fry Production 10
Breeding Habits of Tilapia 11
Broodstock Management 12
Hatchery Technology 13
Market Outlets and Supply Chain 25

Nursery of Fingerlings 29
Pond Preparation 29
Stocking of Fry in the Nursery Pond 30
Care of Stock in the Nursery 30
Releasing of Fingerlings 32
Cost and Return Analysis 34
Pond Culture 38
Site Selection 38
Pond Construction, Layout, and Design 39
Pond Preparation 43
Feeds and Feeding 50
Pond Care and Maintenance 53
v
Water Management 54
Health Management 54
Preventive Measures against Off-Flavor 61
Grow-Out System 62
Polyculture 63
Harvesting 64
Cost and Return Analysis for Grow-out Pond Culture
of Tilapia 73
Cage Culture 78
Tilapia Cage Culture in the Philippines 78
Fingerling Sourcing, Conditioning, and Transport 78
Acclimatization and Stocking 80
Site Selection 80
Cage Module Design and Layout 81
Culture Techniques 83
Feeds and Feeding 84
Health Management 86
Precautionary Measures against Fish Kill 89
Harvesting 91
Cost and Return Analysis for Grow-out Cage Culture
of Tilapia 100
Postharvest Handling and Processing 104

Postharvest Handling 104
Hygiene and Sanitation 106
Different Product Forms 109
Packaging and Labeling 115
Marketing 117
References 120
vi
List of Tables
1 Top ten tilapia producing countries, 2014 5

2 Annual per capita consumption of tilapia by region,
Philippines, 2012 8
3 Prices (P) of tilapia fry/fingerlings by size from three major
producing centers, 2017 27
4 Average prices (P) of tilapia fry and fingerlings by size from
three major producing centers, 2017 33
5 Profitability analysis of small-scale integrated tilapia
hatchery and nursery operations, 2017 35
6 Guidelines for good pond design and construction 41
7 Considerations in applying organic fertilizer 47
8 Tilapia strains 48
9 Feeding table guide recommended by Collaborative
Research Support Program (CRSP) 52
10 Matrix of common parasites and bacteria found in
tilapia 57
11 Profitability analysis of intensive grow-out culture of
tilapia in ponds 74
12 Profitability analysis of semi-intensive grow-out culture of
tilapia in ponds 76
13 Feeding program 85
14 Profitability analysis of intensive grow-out culture of
tilapia in cages 101
15 Profitability analysis of semi-intensive grow-out culture of
tilapia in cages 102
vii
List of Figures
1 Progression in the 10-year time series plots of annual tilapia

production in the world’s top tilapia producing countries,
1985–1994, 1995–2004, and 2005–2014 2
2 Collection of tilapia fry in hapas 14
3 Production of tilapia fry in ponds 15
4 Aquashade (with GI pipe frames) installed on top of the
breeding pond 20
5 Aquashade installed using low cost frame made of bamboo
poles 20
6 Round-bottomed incubation jars 23
7 Hatchlings rearing trays 23
8 Market channels for hatchery-bred tilapia fry, Philippines,
2017 26
9 Nursery pond layout 29
10 Net divider 31
11 Heavy protozoan (Trichodina spp.) infestation on the body
surface of tilapia fingerlings 31
12 Protozoan (Trichodina spp.) infestation in tilapia fingerlings
31
13 Market channels for nursery grown tilapia fingerlings in the
Philippines, 2017 32
14 Nile and red tilapia fingerlings 34
15 Testing of soil for water retention 38
16 The parallel water supply from the main supply canal 40
17 Making the layout at the proposed tilapia production site
for excavation 41
18 Pond slope 42
19 Supply canal and catch basin 43
20 Drying the pond bottom 44
21 Catfishes are predators in tilapia ponds 45
22 Soft-shelled turtles also prey on tilapias in the rearing
ponds 46
23 Example of inorganic fertilizers 47
24 Conditioning of fingerlings 49
25 Gradual release of fingerlings 49
viii
26 Commercial feeds (phase diets) for tilapia 50
27 Feeding by broadcasting 51
28 Sampling of fish 52
29 Determining the water transparency using a secchi disk 53
30 A meter stick to measure the pond depth 54
31 Water quality test kit and microscope for monitoring of fish
health status 56
32a Darkening of tilapia fingerlings due to Trichodina spp.
infestation 57
32b Gills heavily infested with Trichodina spp. infestation 57
33 Gills fluke in the gill filaments 58
34a Parasitic isopod in the body surface of tilapia 58
34b Tilapia heavily infested by isopods 59
35a Scale loss, fin rot, and ulcer 59
35b Skin hemorrhages 60
35c Bulging of the eyes 60
35d Distended abdomen 60
36 Live fish during partial draining of pond water 64
37 Seining in the pond 64
38 Harvesting fish stocks from a 200 m2 pond 65
39 Total fish harvesting by completely draining the pond 65
40 Market channels for fresh tilapia in the Philippines 67
41 Viajeros transporting tilapia using insulated plastic boxes
with ice, Taal, Batangas, 2015 67
42 Transporting live tilapia in small tanks with aeration facility,
Pampanga, 2016 68
43 Selling live tilapia in wet markets with aeration facility,
Tanauan, Batangas, 2016 69
44 Roadside retailers of live tilapia with aeration facility,
Pampanga, 2016 69
45 Market channels for pond-raised tilapia under intensive
and semi-intensive systems from farmgate to retail prices
in P/kg and marketing margins as percent of buying price,
Philippines, 2017 71
46 Trends in real wholesale prices and real retail prices of tilapia
and real profit margin in tilapia production, Philippines,
1990–2015 72
ix
47 Floating cages in Taal Lake, Batangas 81
48 Monitoring the health status of farmed tilapias 87
49 Observation of abnormal swimming 88
50 Observation of mortalities of farmed tilapias 88
51 Immediate removal of dead fish 89
52 Massive fish kill of cage-cultured tilapia due to oxygen
depletion 90
53 Stocking of tilapia 90
54 Monitoring the feeding activity of the fish to ensure that the
feeds are consumed 91
55 Partial harvest of stocks due to critical level of dissolved
oxygen 92
56 Agitation of water using a motorized boat’s propeller for
emergency aeration 92
57 Market channels for tilapia in the Philippines 93
58 Transport of tilapia using insulated plastic boxes with ice,
Taal, Batangas, 2015 94
59 Transporting live tilapia by small-scale viajeros with
aeration facility, Pampanga, 2016 95
60 Selling live tilapia in wet markets using aerators to keep
the fish alive, Tanauan, Batangas, 2016 95
61 Roadside retailers of live tilapia with aeration facility,
Pampanga 2016 96
62 Market channels for caged tilapia under intensive and semi
intensive systems from farmgate to retail prices in P/kg and
marketing margins as percent of buying price, Philippines,
2017 97
63 Trends in real wholesale prices and real retail prices of tilapia
and real profit margin in tilapia production, Philippines,
1990–2015 99
64 Fresh farm-raised tilapia 103
65 Tilanggit 112
66 Fish kroepeck 113
67 Fish tofu 114
68 Fish longganisa 115
x
The Tilapia Technical Committee 2017
CHAIR
Dr. Maria Rowena R. Eguia

Scientist
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center –
Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC-AQD)
Tigbauan, Iloilo
(Genetics, Broodstock Development, and Fry/Fingerling Production)
MEMBERS/CHAPTER WRITERS
Mr. Wilfredo G. Yap Dr. Ravelina R. Velasco

Executive Director, Santeh Aquaculture Dean, College of Fisheries-CLSU
Science & Technology Foundation, Inc. Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
West Avenue, Quezon City (Broodstock Development and Cage
(Industry Status and Feeds and Feeding) Culture)
Dr. Emmanuel M. Vera Cruz Dr. Joselito R. Somga

Director, Freshwater Aquaculture Supervising Fisheries Research Officer
Center-Central Luzon State BFAR
University (FAC-CLSU) PCA Bldg., Diliman, Quezon City
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija (Disease Management)
(Freshwater and Brackishwater
Pond Culture) Dr. Yolanda T. Garcia
Professor
Ms. Amor G. Diaz University of the Philippines Los
Chief, Postharvest Technology Division Baños-College of Economics
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic and Management
Resources (BFAR) Los Baños, Laguna
PCA Bldg., Diliman, Quezon City (Market Outlets, Supply Chain)
(Postharvest Handling and Processing)
Dr. Nerissa D. Salayo

Scientist
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development
Center (SEAFDEC-AQD)
Tigbauan, Iloilo
(Cost and Return Analysis)
xi
TECHNICAL EDITORS VOLUME EDITOR
Dr. Dalisay DG. Fernandez Mr. Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Director Supervising Science Research
Inland Aquatic Resources Research Specialist
Division (IARRD) Applied Communication Division
DOST-PCAARRD DOST-PCAARRD
Dr. Loureeda C. Darvin

Supervising Science Research
Specialist
IARRD, DOST-PCAARRD
Dr. Norida P. Samson

Science Research Specialist
IARRD, DOST-PCAARRD
xii
Glossary of Terms
Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) – lethal

disease of farmed shrimp
aquashade – shade or roofing material constructed atop a pond
or tank to serve as shield from the sun’s heat rays especially
during the height of summer
benthic – bottom-dwelling
biomass – total mass of organisms in a given area
cilia – minute hairlike organelles found on the surface of certain
cells
detritus – waste or debris of any kind
euryhaline – able to tolerate a wide range of salinities
eutrophic – an adjective describing a pond or lake that is rich in
nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates that promote the
proliferation of algae
eutrophication – excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or
other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land,
which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal
life from lack of oxygen.
extruded diets or feeds – animal or fish feeds produced through
extrusion or the process wherein ingredients are cooked
under pressure with high temperature steam and then shaped
through a die which gives it a unique and uniform shape
gamete – male or female reproductive cell that contains half the
genetic material of an organism
genetic selection – artificial means of choosing individuals/
stocks for breeding/mating for the purpose of improving
the trait(s) or characteristic(s) of the offsprings and/or in
subsequent generations
genome sequence information – details or data on the complete
set of hereditary material (deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA])
within a single cell of an organism
xiii
genomics – a branch of molecular biology that covers the
structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genomes or
complete set of DNA in a single cell of an organism
herbivore – animals that prefer feeds or food of plant origin
heritability – quality or state of being heritable
hormonal sex reversal – inversion of sex/gender of the animal
from female to male or vice versa, using hormones or agents
of synthetic or organic origin that can help hasten the process
isopod – a type of an external parasite found in tilapia
macrophyte – large aquatic plants
microsatellite markers – one of many types of genetic markers
used in characterizing the genetic make-up of an organism
or group of organisms in a population; it is also known as
simple sequence repeat (SSRs) markers used in linkage
analysis or marker assisted selection to find a gene or
mutation responsible for a given trait
operculum – technical word for gill cover
pathogens – disease-causing organisms
pectoral fins – fins found in the mid-lateral side of the fish
planktonic – pertaining to plankton, which is a minute plant or
animal organism in an ocean, lake etc.
protozoan infection – parasitic disease caused by protozoa,
which are microscopic, one-celled organisms that can be
free-living or parasitic in nature
secchi disc transparency – the level of transparency in a water
body as measured using black and white 30 cm circular disk
septicaemia – blood poisoning especially caused by bacteria or
their toxins
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) – a variation in a single
base pair in a DNA sequence
vermicast – worm castings, worm humus, or worm manure
which is the end product of the breakdown of organic matter
by an earthworm
Vibrio – water-borne bacteria that include some pathogens
zooplankton – plankton consisting of minute floating animals
xiv
List of Abbreviations
and Acronyms
ABW - average body weight
AQD - Aquaculture Department
ADB - Asian Development Bank
AGNA - Aquaculture Genetics Network in Asia
AHPND - Acute Hepato Pancreatic Necrosis Disease
BCR - benefit-cost ratio
BE - break-even
BFAR - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
BW - body weight
BEST - Brackishwater Enhanced Saline Tilapia
CALABARZON - Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon
°C - degree centigrade
CP - crude protein
CIRAD - Agricultural Research Center for International
Development
CLSU - Central Luzon State University
CRSP - Collaborative Research Support Program
DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources
EMS - Early Mortality Syndrome
ExCel - Excellent strain that has comparable advantage with
other tilapia strain for Entrepreneurial Livelihood
projects in support to Aquaculture
EU - European Union
FAC - Freshwater Aquaculture Center
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
FaST - Freshwater Aquaculture Center Selected Tilapia
g - gram
GET - Genetically Enhanced Tilapia
GFII - GIFT Foundation International Inc.
GIFT - Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia
GMP - good manufacturing practices
GMT - Genetically Male Tilapia
xv
ICLARM - International Center for Living Aquatic Resource
Management
IDRC - International Development and Research Center
IRR - Internal Rate of Return
ml - milliliter
MIB - Methyl Isoborneol
NFFTC - National Freshwater Fisheries Training Center
NIFTDC - National Institute of Fisheries Technology
Development Center
NPV - Net Present Value
PDP - principal display panel
PE - polyethylene
PP - polypropylene
ppt - parts per thousand
PSA - Philippine Statistics Authority
PVC - polyvinyl chloride
PVDC - polyvinylidene chloride
ROI - Return on Investment
SDP - secondary display panel
SEAFDEC - Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
SR - survival rate
tbsp - tablespoon
tsp - teaspoon
UNDP - United Nations Development Programme
US - United States
USA - United States of America
USD - US dollars
xvi
Introduction
Tilapia is the second most important farmed fish in the Philippines

after milkfish. In 2008 or less than 60 years after it was introduced,
total tilapia production already exceeded 250,000 tons (t) valued at
more than P19 billion. This is remarkable considering that tilapia is not
native to the Philippines and the tilapia industry did not take off after
the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) was introduced
in 1950. In fact, the Mozambique tilapia became unpopular and was
considered a pest that it had to be eradicated from brackishwater
fishponds. The introduction of the faster growing Nile tilapia (O.
niloticus) in 1972, with new management techniques, led to greater
acceptance and interest in tilapia farming.
The ease of propagating tilapia in captivity is part of what
makes tilapia culture attractive. Ironically, this characteristic was
also the main reason why the first introduction using Mozambique
tilapia failed. Its prolific nature invariably led to overcrowding and
stunting as the population exceeded the pond's carrying capacity.
Fortunately, the introduction of the Nile tilapia was followed closely
by the development of the technology to produce all-male stock using
hormone treatment. The introduction of the cage culture technology
soon followed, which expanded culture area beyond valuable
agricultural land and made it unnecessary to utilize land resources.
As the acceptance of and demand for tilapia grew, the scarcity of
fry supply and the deterioration of their growth performance became
two major constraints to a more rapid development of the industry
in the Philippines. From 1986 to 1988, the Philippines was the top
tilapia producer in the world (Fig. 1). However, to sustain the local
industry’s growth, science and technology (S&T) interventions had to
be introduced through a concerted effort to produce an improved strain
using genetic selection.
Tilapia Strains in the Philippines
The Freshwater Aquaculture Center of the Central Luzon

State University (FAC-CLSU) and the Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD)
took the first initiative as part of the Aquaculture Genetics Network
in Asia (AGNA), a network organized by the International
The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 1
Top Tilapia Producers, 1985–1994
Fig. 1. Progression in the 10-year time series plots of annual

tilapia production in the world’s top tilapia producing
countries, 1985–1994, 1995–2004, and 2005–2014. (Data
from FAO Fishstat J, 2016)
2 The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia
Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada. This was
followed closely by that of the then International Center for Living
Aquatic Resource Management (ICLARM), now WorldFish, in
partnership with the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(BFAR) with funding from different multilateral agencies particularly
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Asian Development
Bank (ADB). This resulted in the development of the Genetically
Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT).
When the GIFT Project ended, the GIFT Foundation International,
Inc. (GFII) was formed to continue the breeding operation. GFII
tried to promote and market the strain as a proprietary
technology available only on a royalty basis instead of selling the
breeders outright. This business plan had very few takers and not
long after, the GFII sold the rights on the technology to a Norwegian
company, GENOMAR, which continued the breeding program and
produced the Genomar Supreme Tilapia.
BFAR, as a GIFT partner, continued the genetic
improvement program on its own and launched and actively
promoted the GET-EXCEL tilapia, which is a GIFT-derived
strain. Through a collaboration with the Swansea University
(Swansea, Wales, UK), FAC-CLSU also developed the YY-male
technology for the Genetically Male Tilapia (GMT), which made
the production of all-male stock possible without the need to
administer 17-alpha-methyltestosterone treated feeds to the tilapia fry.
In the mid-1990s, when the Philippine shrimp industry
collapsed due to luminescent vibriosis outbreak, demand for saline-
tolerant tilapia increased when it was discovered that tilapia in
brackishwater ponds deterred the proliferation of Vibrio harveyii,
which causes the disease. This technique became known as the “green
water technology.”
A private company in Negros Occidental developed and marketed
the 'Jewel' tilapia, a hybrid using Oreochromis hornorum male
and Oreochromis mossambicus female. The Mozambique tilapia
female was used for its saline tolerance and the hornorum male to
produce genetically all-male tilapia without the need for hormone-
treated feed. That company, however, had difficulty maintaining
their hornorum and mossambicus purebreds (with hornorum founder
stocks having been imported from the US) and was not able to sustain
their operation.
The interest on a saline-tolerant strain persisted especially among
shrimp growers. This was heightened recently with the emergence
of the Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) earlier
referred to as Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS). It was later
found that the disease requires another Vibrio species, the Vibrio
parahaemolyticus, to become deadly to shrimps. Since the tilapia is
able to control the proliferation of Vibrio harveyii, it was also found
effective against Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
Before AHPND, BFAR already had two simultaneous
efforts to produce saline-tolerant tilapia strains for culture in
abandoned shrimp ponds. One project was done at the National
Freshwater Fisheries Training Center (NFFTC) in the Science
City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija with funding from the Bureau
of Agricultural Research which used four different species
(O. niloticus, O. mossambicus, O. spilurus, and
O. aureus) to produce the Brackishwater Enhanced Saline
Tilapia (BEST). The second was conducted at the BFAR-
National Institute of Fisheries Technology Development Center
(NIFTDC) in Bonuan-Binloc, Dagupan City with assistance from
PCAMRD (now PCAARRD) and the Agricultural Research Center
for International Development (CIRAD). The project used only two
species, O. niloticus and O. mossambicus, to produce the “Molobicus”
strain.
While the breeding programs to produce improved strains/
hybrids resulted in a better performing tilapia industry, the
Philippines still slid from being the top producer to the 5th
highest after China, Egypt, Indonesia, and Bangladesh (Table 1).
After reaching a record production of 268,665 t in 2013, annual
production has steadily declined to only 258,996 t in 2016. Although
the Philippines has maintained its position as one of the top five
tilapia producing countries as of 2014, industry growth has stalled.
From 1994 onwards, China has become the top producer, contributing
1.69 million in 2014 to global tilapia production, despite the fact that
the species is not native to China. Apart from the top five countries,
Brazil, Vietnam, Thailand, Taiwan, and Colombia were the other
major contributors to world tilapia production. At the rate tilapia
industries in Brazil and Vietnam are growing, it is hoped that the
Philippines will not slide further into the 7th position. It is obvious
that genetic improvement is just one facet in tilapia aquaculture
industry development. There is also the need to reduce mortality due

Table 1. Top ten tilapia producing countries, 2014.
Annual Production in Tons (Rank)
Country 1984 1986 1994 2004 2014
China 18,100 34,800 235,940 774,662 1,698,483

Indonesia 29,990 35,059 64,431 139,651 1,040,594
Egypt 12,000 25,000 25,214 199,038 759,601
Bangladesh - - - 283,937
Philippines 30,908 75,769 90,341 145,869 259,198
Brazil - - - - 244,483
Vietnam - - - 69,078 198,728
Thailand 10300 19,245 59,514 160,407 188,946
Taiwan 53090 48,704 47,435 89,275 69,726
Colombia 210 11,084 27,953 58,500
Source: FAO FishStat 2016.
to parasites and diseases as well as provide nutritious but affordable

feeds. The task of increasing the profitability of tilapia farming is a
continuing effort. This can be achieved only with improved hatchery
techniques, promotion of nursery systems to produce post-fingerlings
for stocking, and more efficient farming systems.
Meanwhile, new tools have emerged, this time involving molecular
biology. These biotechnological applications have implications not
only in identifying superior strains but in disease management. The
use of molecular genetic markers (e.g., microsatellite markers, single
nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs], genome sequence information,
etc.) provides opportunities for the development of fast growing and
disease-resistant tilapia strains without the lengthy and trial-and-
error approach inherent in classical breeding. In addition to genomics,
present research on tilapia culture now extends to the behavioral
aspects. All these knowledge, some seemingly basic, are necessary
for the industry to improve and increase the scientific base of tilapia
farming.

Commodity Profile
Tilapia as a global commodity is farmed in more than

100 countries and consists of at least 14 commercially farmed distinct
species and hybrids not counting other cichlids which are known
by other common names. Based on FAO Fishery Statistics, of the
14 species reported, 71% consist of Nile tilapia, 19.2% are not
identified as to species, and 7.8% are Blue Nile hybrids (O. aureus
x O niloticus). The Mozambique tilapia makes up only 0.7%. Each
of all the other species constitutes less than 0.1% of the total world
production. In the Philippines, most of the tilapia produced are
Nile tilapia. It is assumed that those harvested from brackishwater
fishponds in the Philippines and Indonesia consist of Mozambique
tilapia and probably some Nile-Mozambique natural hybrids.
Lately, another species that can be considered new in the
Philippines has emerged. This is the black chin tilapia, Sarotherodon
melanotheron. There is no legal record of its entry to the country.
Being highly saline and able to spawn in full seawater, it is entirely
possible that it could have been unintentionally introduced by
ballast water of ships coming from areas where they are found. It is
now found and caught in the shallow waters of Manila Bay. Due to
its small size, there has been no interest as yet to farm them
deliberately in brackishwater fishponds. However, it seems to
have replaced the Mozambique tilapia as a pest in milkfish ponds
in Pangasinan and Central Luzon. Since it is already present in
Philippine waters, its potential as a crop especially for highly saline
waters is now being considered.
Tilapia is a hardy fish and can withstand considerable handling out
of water. The Nile tilapia is euryhaline, but breeds only in freshwater.
When properly acclimated, they grow at salinity levels above 10 ppt
(parts per thousand), but growth is not as optimal as when reared in
freshwater. In Egypt, Nile tilapia is grown in both freshwater and
brackishwater.
Reviled as an invasive species by environmentalists, the tilapia
family now ranks second only to cyprinids as the most cultured fish
globally. In Africa, where it originated, tilapia culture is still in its
infancy. Even in Egypt, there was not much tilapia farmed up to the
early 1990s. Remarkably, in less than a decade, Egypt was able to
become the third highest producer after China and Indonesia in 2014.
More remarkable is China’s feat as it increased its production level
from less than that of the Philippine production of 25,000 t in the early
1980s to now more than 1.6 million t (Table 1).
Its capacity to rapidly expand highlights the importance and
the potentials of tilapia as a source of animal protein in the global quest
for food security. When grown to large size and filleted, tilapia can
also be marketed as a premium white fish. Its mild tasting lean flesh
is flaky for its somewhat firm texture makes it acceptable for any
dish requiring white fish.
Tilapia is produced in the Philippines mainly for local
consumption. The small size preferred in the domestic market
(200–350 g) means that harvesting can be done in relatively shorter
growing period (4 months). The produce can be sold either fresh,
chilled, or live. On the other hand, a niche market exists locally for
large-sized live red tilapia. The few growers who are into red tilapia
production raise them to 500 g size for delivery to upscale Chinese
restaurants where they are displayed live in aquaria or aerated tanks as
“King Fish” or some other name.
Value-adding in tilapia in the Philippines is limited in terms of
product types and volume and is mostly done in home-scale operations.
In some places, smoking is done but mainly for the immediate locality.
Other product forms are discussed in the section on processing.
There is no figure available on Philippine tilapia exports, but
US import data indicate that a small but highly fluctuating quantity
of tilapia comes from the Philippines. In 2016, US tilapia imports
from the Philippines consisted of 203,048 kg of frozen tilapia and
12,519 kg of fresh fillet with a total value of US$611,951. However
in 2015, the imports consisted only of 1,117 kg of frozen tilapia
worth US$2,850. These figures are minuscule compared to China’s
tilapia export of 121,816 t valued at US$403 Million in 2016 or
even Indonesia’s 6,338 t worth US$43.328 Million in 2016.
However, it shows that there is a market for Philippine tilapia in
the US but Philippine produce have to be competitive with
those of the major tilapia exporters.
The US tilapia market is huge. US tilapia imports reached
600,000 t in live weight equivalent in 2012 with a total value of close
to a billion dollars from only 100,000 t in 2002—a six fold growth in
only ten years. As of 2012, it has a market share of 24.9% in terms of
dollar value, second to salmon which has a market share of 37.5%. In
contrast, catfish comes only third with 10.2%. European Union tilapia

imports are also building up. Ironically even the African continent,
where tilapia originated, is emerging as a market for farmed tilapia
from Asia.
Tilapia Consumption
The national per capita consumption of tilapia in 2012 was

4.8 kg/year (Table 2). It was found to be relatively high among
the Luzon consumers with an average of 6.4 kg/year, followed
by Mindanao consumers with 2.6 kg/year. The annual per capita
consumption among Visayan consumers was only 0.7 kg/year,
which may be due to limited freshwater fish culture areas that
constrain farming and supply of tilapia in the Visayas as indicated
by higher tilapia prices in Western and Central Visayas
(more than P100/kg) as against prices for other marine species
(P31–94/kg). Tilapia prices in Luzon and Mindanao at about
P80/kg is at par with other marine species. Prices are based on current
PSA online statistics. No tilapia prices are available for Eastern
Visayas.
Table 2. Annual per capita consumption of tilapia by region, Philippines,

2012.
Region Per Capita Consumption (kg/yr)
PHILIPPINES 4.767
Luzon Average 6.446

NCR 7.210
CAR 6.835
Ilocos Region 6.955
Cagayan Valley 8.278
Central Luzon 9.694
CALABARZON 6.164
MIMAROPA 0.965
Bicol Region 5.463
Visayas Average 0.695

Western Visayas 1.468
Central Visayas 0.251
Eastern Visayas 0.365

Table 2. (Continued).
Region Per Capita Consumption (kg/yr)
Mindanao Average 2.628

Zamboanga Peninsula 1.336
Northern Mindanao 2.281
Davao Region 1.933
SOCCSKSARGEN 5.924
Caraga 1.36
ARMM 2.937
Source: Philippine Statistical Authority, 2012.

Fry Production
Tilapia can be bred as early as 3 months from the fry stage. Their
ability to naturally spawn in captivity makes tilapia suitable for mass
production. However, despite its high reproductive capacity and the
simplicity of fry production, tilapia has a disadvantage of producing
small number of eggs compared with other freshwater fish species
like carps and catfishes. Under natural fry production systems in
tanks and/or ponds, high fry yield requires a relatively large number
of broodstock and area of spawning units. Given these limitations
associated with natural production, the introduction of more advanced
fry production systems is the key to increase fry yield and fry
production efficiency. Hatchery operations can be a lucrative business
since there is presently a huge demand for tilapia fingerlings.
Depending on the fry production system, natural fry production
poses several limitations and disadvantages, which include: (a) female
breeders spawning asynchronously (or not spawning at the same time)
resulting in the production of fry with mixed ages and sizes, (b) low fry
production per female breeder due to long interval between spawnings,
(c) difficulty in the collection of first-feeding fry stage (especially
in pond enclosure and lake-based cage hatchery systems), (d) high
fry mortality due to cannibalism, and (e) fry production decreasing
with time due to reduced spawning activity associated with declining
amount of natural food apart from ageing broodstock.
Given these limitations, selection and proper management
of broodstock are keys to high fry yield. Recent trends in tilapia
broodstock management have focused on: (a) selection of broodstock
with reproductive advantage using behavioral stress response as a
criterion for higher seed production, (b) removing eggs from the
mouths of incubating females for artificial incubation, (c) conditioning
of broodfish after spawning, (d) regular replacement of broodstock
with conditioned fish for improved spawning synchrony, and (e) use
of aquashade to provide ideal temperature for reproduction during
hot months. This section describes the various systems of broodstock
management for O. niloticus to improve fry yield.

Breeding Habits of Tilapia
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) can become sexually

mature as early as three to four months and breed even at small sizes
(<50 g). However, reproductive cycles of females within a population
are not synchronized. The reproductive cycle is divided into five
periods/phases: (1) nest building and courtship, (2) production and
release of eggs, (3) incubation of eggs, (4) nursing of fry, and
(5) feeding and recovery of broodfish.
At the onset of breeding, the mature fish population naturally seek
out shallow, undisturbed areas with a firm substrate where males tend
to group together. Males are very territorial and they establish and
defend territories within the nesting area. Both sexes can demonstrate
hierarchy. Most of the tilapia species breed in nests established by the
male at the bottom of the pond/tank. In tanks, male tilapias establish
nests by simply clearing an area on the tank bottom that can be seen
as a small circular area devoid of algae. In ponds, the nests appear
as small, shallow, circular dug-out areas. Courtship and release of
eggs are rapid. A mature female visits the nesting area and remains at
the periphery only entering the area when ready to spawn. Females
release the eggs in batches rather than all at the same time. After the
female spawns hundreds to thousands of eggs (depending on size of
the female) in the nest, the male discharges sperm to fertilize the eggs.
After fertilization, the female takes the eggs into her mouth and leaves
the spawning area to look for a place, which is quiet and danger-free.
The eggs hatch within 3–5 days depending on the temperature. During
this incubation period, the female is unable to eat actively, thus slightly
retarding its growth, though they may be able to passively filter feed.
Newly hatched fry are retained in the mouth of the females
from 7 to 14 days. Fully developed fry are released, but return to the
mother's mouth when the fry are threatened by predators. Once the
fry are fully released, the female begins intense feeding to replace
the lost weight and energy. Feeding the fish will last for about
2–4 weeks after which the female is ready to spawn again. The
period between production of egg clutches is dependent
on the type of nutrition available to the female fish, i.e., the quality of
food after spawning and the opportunity for courtship and spawning.

Broodstock Management
Broodstock Selection
Selection of broodstock is important in ensuring the quality and

quantity of eggs and fry produced. As a rule, breeders should be
obtained from reliable sources, preferably those maintaining quality
broodstock and known to practice proper broodstock management.
To obtain quality fingerlings, high quality breeders without body
deformities and external signs of diseases should be used. Several
studies on the selection of quality tilapia strains not only with good
growth but also with high reproductive performance have been
conducted. Preliminary study at the FAC-CLSU showed that proactive
breeders have higher seed production output than reactive breeders.
Proactive breeders are those with high stress resistance, determined
using stress coping styles, e.g., eye color pattern and feeding responses
when breeders are exposed to confinement stress. Although this
approach is labor-intensive, this research finding may be beneficial
especially if farm technicians will have the necessary skills to adopt
this method on farm. SEAFDEC/AQD has conducted several studies
comparing reproductive performance in red tilapia strains, however,
further research on the heritability of reproductive parameters such as
egg quality, fecundity, and inter-spawning interval should be made.
Breeder Size and Age
The ideal breeder size for optimum egg and fry production depends
on the age of maturity of the fish. For early maturing strains, the
ideal size at initial stocking in spawning enclosures is 50–150 g and
150–200 g for late maturing strains. The number of eggs produced
increases as the breeders get larger, but they spawn less often when
they get older. Moreover, egg quality deterioration is observed while
breeders become less productive after 1.5 years of spawning hence
it is recommended that broodfish replacement be done after every
1.5 years.

Conditioning and Nutrition
Tilapias generally feed low in the food chain, but their preferred
feeding habits vary with species, from macrophyte feeding to detritus
consumption. They eat a variety of natural food but they also accept
artificially formulated feed. The Nile tilapia are omnivorous (eating
both phyto- and zooplankton) though preferentially it consumes
phytoplankton, which are filtered out of the water and are retained by
mucus in their gill rakers.
The Oreochromis species is greatly affected by the unique
mode of reproduction and egg-hatching. Mouth-brooding female
tilapia deprive themselves of food throughout each period of oral
incubation lasting for 12–30 days. Since females can reproduce
several times per year, there is only a short feeding and recovery
period (7–28 days) between the reproductive cycles. During this
recovery period, the females have to eat voraciously to regain their
energy for growth, which is hampered during reproduction. They also
need to obtain energy to support the next reproductive activity. It is
during the conditioning period that the breeders reared in fertilized
ponds should be fed diets containing 25–30% crude protein (CP) and
30–40% CP for those reared in clear water, given daily at 2–3% of the
BW. The best duration of conditioning for optimal egg/fry output per
unit of spawning area is 15 days.
Hatchery Technology
Egg and fry production from ‘hapas’ or tanks can be done with
ease and can be increased by removing the eggs from the mouth of the
incubating females and by replacing the spawned females, all females,
or all of the breeders with conditioned fish after the seed collection
period. Seed collection at an earlier stage followed by reconditioning,
shortens the interspawning interval resulting in increased productivity
in the female tilapias (Fig. 2). If efficient egg incubators are available,
eggs can be collected as early as every five days after stocking of
conditioned breeders.
In tanks, seeds are collected and breeders are replaced by draining
the tank to a water depth of approximately 30 cm (in case there is no
provision in the tank for a shallow spawner pit) and carefully netting
each female spawner and gently keeping the fish’s mouth open, forcing

Fig. 2. Collection of tilapia fry in hapas.
the eggs to be spitted out into a small basin containing water. Spawned
females are then replaced with rested females from the conditioning
tanks.
For egg and fry production in hapa net cages, hapa breeding
units are designed with narrow widths (1.5–3 m) to ease up
egg and fry collection and removal of breeders. During egg
and fry collection, the collectors located on the opposite length
of the hapa use bamboo pole, which runs under and across the
breeding unit. This makes the collection process easy by having
all the breeders move to one end of the hapa. Spawned females are
replaced with conditioned females from the conditioning hapas.
Although breeder replacement increases seed production, it also
increases hatchery operating cost as more breeders and holding units
need to be maintained. The number of holding units depends on the
frequency of seed collection, period of broodstock conditioning, and
the target production volume of the hatchery.

Traditional Fry Production Systems
1. Natural Recruitment
Tilapias are unique among cultured fishes because they naturally

spawn in any body of freshwater without the need for artificial
inducement. Because of this characteristic, some small-scale fish
farmers rely on natural reproduction, which results in unintentional
recruitment of younger tilapias into the already existing stocks in
the production pond. However, the problems associated with natural
recruitment are overcrowding and stunting of the farmed fish. Stunted
growth of the cultured fish is due to competition for available food and
space between the parents and the recruits. In addition, energy used
for growth is then channelled to gamete production and development.
Another disadvantage of natural recruitment is the uncertain number
of fry/fingerlings produced that is usually lower compared with the fry
production standard.
2. Mixed-age/size Fry Production in Pond
In this fry production system, breeders are stocked in ponds

at 1–2 fish/m2 and with a sex ratio of 2–5 females per male (Fig. 3).
The 1 male (M): 4 female (F) ratio is widely used. Fertilizers are
applied into the ponds using the same rate as in grow-out ponds. Fry
are collected by periodic seining (every 15, 30, 45, or 60 days) using
Fig. 3. Production of tilapia fry in ponds.

fine mesh net. Size of fry harvested is directly related to the interval of
seining. The disadvantage of this system is that fry production usually
declines with time. This is due to cannibalism of smaller fry by larger
recruits and broodfish and the reduced spawning activity associated
with decreasing amount of food and ageing broodstock. The fry
produced are low in yield and are mixed-age and size (most abundant
being 2–4 cm). The broodfish harvested after several spawning periods
are sold and considered as by-products of the system.
3. Fry Production in Pond-based Cages
The use of small dimension breeding hapas (4–12 m2) contributes

to the ease of management. Breeders are stocked at 2–4 fish/m2
and with a sex ratio of 1M:4F as in the previous system. Eggs/fry are
collected 30 days after stocking of breeders by concentrating the fry,
fingerlings, and breeders at one end of the hapa using a bamboo pole.
Size difference of fry and fingerlings harvested is directly related to the
time from broodfish stocking to seed collection.
4. Mixed-age/size Fry Production in Fine-mesh Cages (Hapas) in

Lakes
Seed production in lake-based cages are similar to cage-in-pond

hatchery production. The only difference is that the breeders are
stocked in spawning hapas in open water bodies, such as in lakes. Size
of hapa cages can vary from 3 x 8 x 1 m3 to as big as 5 x 10 x 1 m3 and
can be stocked with breeders at a density of 5 pieces/m2 at a sex ratio
of 1M:4F. Breeders are fed commercial feeds containing CP > 40%,
at a ratio of 2% of fish biomass. The main advantage of such systems
is that the main nourishment of fry comes from planktonic organisms
that occur naturally in the lake especially if the lake is eutrophic,
meaning, it has nutrients enough to promote primary productivity in
the lake. To ensure good survival, swim-up fry (or first swimming
fry), if not harvested daily, are fed ad libitum with artificial diets.
However to increase seed yield, some hatchery operators would check
on mouthbrooding females 21 days after setting up the breeders, collect
eyed-stage eggs and/or yolk-sac fry. The eyed-stage eggs are placed
in artificial incubators for hatching. On the other hand, if artificial

incubators are not available, the cage hatchery operators, just like the
pond or cage-in-pond hatchery operators would scoop out swim up fry
daily from along the inside perimeter or edges of the cages.
5. Mixed-age/size Fry Production in Tanks
In this fry production system, the size of breeding unit varies but
a 100-m3 tank is acceptable. A catch basin is necessary in each tank
to allow easy collection of eggs, fry, and breeders during harvest.
Stocking of breeders from conditioning hapas or tanks can be done
in two ways: by number or by weight. The breeders are stocked at
two or more fish per square meter and with a sex ratio of 1M:4F. The
stocking density can go beyond 2 fish/m2 depending on the rate of
water exchange. The water level in the tank should be maintained
between 0.75–1.0 m to enhance fish reproduction. The fry and
fingerlings are collected by totally draining the tank around two
months after stocking breeders. Fry, fingerlings, and broodfish are
collected from the catch basin. Fry produced are of mixed-age and size
and variation in size increases as the length of time from stocking of
broodfish to collection of fry increases. The seeds are then graded and
stocked directly to the nursery tanks or hapas. Some hatcheries using
smaller tanks install net enclosures inside the tank to ensure ease and
efficiency of seed collection.
Improved Methods of Fry Production
1. Production of Similarly-sized Fry
Breeders are stocked at the same sex-ratio and stocking density as

in the mixed-age/size fry production system, but water in the pond or
tank breeding units are completely drained 1–1.5 months after stocking
breeders. Compared with traditional systems, this system results in
almost synchronized breeding, reduced cannibalism, increased yields,
and size homogeneity (2–3 cm) in the harvested fry. Size homogeneity
occurs because same-sized fry are usually harvested from broodstock
that spawn within almost the same period. In ponds, however, a large
percentage of fry is lost during the harvest.

2. Production of First-feeding Fry
Breeders are stocked in deep or shallow breeding ponds, tanks, or

hapas at similar sex-ratio and density as in the previous system, but
harvesting of fry is done earlier (10–15 days old) when fry have just
started to feed or have just been released from oral incubation. Fry
produced using this system can be used for hormonal sex-reversal as
hormonal feeding for the production of all-male fry should commence
during the first-feeding stage. There are several methods developed in
this system, which include:
(a) Production in Ponds. In this system, the depth of the

breeding pond is 0.5–1 m or more. Fry collection commences
10–15 days after stocking breeders. Collection is done daily,
between 6:00–7:00 AM using a scoop net or dip-net with a
diameter of at least 1 m. During fry collection, the farmer
makes a single route around the pond perimeter. Collection
continues up to day 21 after which the pond is drained for one
day and re-stocked again with conditioned breeders for the
next round of fry production.
(b) Production in tanks. The density of 2–4 fish/m 2 is

recommended. Water level is maintained up to 0.75 m to
enhance fish reproduction. Fry collection is done several times
every day using fine mesh dip-net at the tank periphery. Fry
collection can also be done at night by illuminating the water
surface and scooping the fry attracted to the light.
(c) Production in hapas. Fry are collected from the female's

mouth or from the hapa every 10–15 days. Spawned broodfish
may be exchanged for conditioned fish. This method is easy
and efficient in terms of fry collection.
3. Intensive Seed (Eggs and Fry) Production System
Fertilized eggs and yolk-sac fry are collected from the female's
mouth every 5–10 days and artificially incubated. Spawned females
or all the female spawners are exchanged for conditioned fish. In this
system, seed collection at an earlier stage followed by broodstock

reconditioning shortens the interspawning interval resulting in
increased female productivity. This system is important in fry
production for sex-reversal as hormonal feeding of the fry should
commence within the first 10 days after the swim-up stage.
Tilapia Hatchery Feeds and Feeding
Tilapia feeds mainly on planktonic and benthic animals and in

the process also ingests detritus. They also feed on small organisms
adhering to open surfaces in the aquatic environment, which may
include green and blue green algae and diatoms. As they grow older,
they feed primarily on phytoplankton, which are filtered out of the
water and are retained by mucus in their gill rakers. In an earthen
pond, the natural food may be sufficient to sustain the tilapia fry until
these are harvested. However, at a high stocking density, in a tank
environment or when confined in a hapa net, supplementation with
artificial feed is essential to produce more robust fingerlings.
At an early stage immediately upon starting to feed, tilapia fry
require small feed particle that fits their mouth opening. Fry are
fed fry mash until they reach 5 g. Fry boosters, in the form of micro
pellets containing all nutrients, can also be used. Micro pellets are
more stable and have lower nutrient leaching rate in water. Whether
using fry mash or fry booster, the tilapia fry are fed at least five times
a day every two hours. The amount of feed given daily starts
at 20% of the fry biomass and gradually reduced to 10% of
the biomass once the fishes have reached an ABW of 5 g.
Feeds for tilapia breeders are commercially available. Tilapia
broodstock pellets contain higher CP than grower or finisher pellets.
In case the broodstock pellet is not available, shrimp grower pellets
may be combined with regular tilapia grower pellet on 50–50 basis to
save on cost. Tilapia breeders are fed three times in the daytime at 2%
of biomass per day during the conditioning period.
Use of Aquashade in Seed Production Areas

during Extremely Warm Summer Months
Tilapia seed production is affected by increasing water

temperatures, especially during the hot dry season. When water
temperatures go beyond favorable levels for fish reproduction, use

of aquashade is recommended. FAC-CLSU studies showed that
the installation of a net shading material (with at least 40% shade
effectivity) on top of the pond can reduce water temperature and
significantly increase the spawning rate and seed production more
than twice its usual levels (Fig. 4). Aquashade can reduce the water
temperature by around 4°C during the hottest time of the day.
Aquashade is economically viable. The use of low cost materials,
like bamboo poles and galvanized iron (G.I.) wire, instead of G.I.
pipes for the frame reduces the cost of the aquashade (Fig. 5). In a
500-m2 pond seed production system, payback period of 0.55 year
was realized. The computed payback period can be recovered in
less than a year of production. The return on investment is 180.13%,
meaning for every P1.00 invested, P1.80 is the return after costs are
recovered.
Fig. 4. Aquashade (with GI pipe frames) installed on top of the

breeding pond.
Fig. 5. Aquashade installed using low cost frame made of bamboo

poles.
Important factors to consider to optimize seed production
1. Broodstock condition. Maintenance of breeders condition is

important to optimize seed production. Spawned females
should be conditioned after spawning as they lose weight after
incubating their eggs and larvae, which is a major factor limiting
seed productivity. Conditioned broodfish in "green-water" should
be fed diets containing 25–30% CP and 30–40% CP for those in
clear water. If spawned breeders cannot be separated, adequate
food supply, preferably natural food, in the breeding unit should
be maintained. Early removal of seed from the female's mouth is
also beneficial to the female spawner’s condition as it allows the
fish to eat, hence minimizing body weight loss due to incubation.
2. Efficiency of seed collection. Increased broodstock productivity

and collection efficiency should go hand in hand. In ponds,
increased frequency of seining or dip-netting will increase the
percentage of seed removal from the breeding unit. However
intensive care should be practiced during seed collection to reduce
mortality due to stress. If the breeding unit is completely drained
during seed collection, a method should be devised to ensure
complete or nearly complete seed removal without inducing stress.
The use of hapa-in-pond breeding unit will ease seed removal
and will increase collection efficiency. But this system should be
coupled with efficient artificial incubation system to ensure high
fry yield.
3. Good water quality. Water quality should be maintained within

the desirable range for reproduction. The optimum temperature
range for reproduction is 28°–32°C. Use of aquashade during
summer months is recommended to reduce water temperature.
Prolonged periods of low oxygen levels have a negative effect on
courtship and on the capacity of the female to incubate eggs and
yolk-sac fry. Low dissolved oxygen levels limit active feeding and
affect the ability of the fish to prepare for the next breeding cycle.
Under intensive seed production systems, maintenance of good
water quality for prolonged periods is often difficult in hapas due
to external factors such as eutrophication and overturn in lakes.
Fouling or clogging of nets can cause poor water exchange in
and out of the hapa. This condition requires frequent cleaning or

replacement of the breeding unit. The presence of fish outside the
hapas also affects water quality. High biomass of fish outside the
hapas will reduce plankton resulting in turbid conditions and poor
water quality. Frequent collection of seed also causes turbidity due
to silt and clay particles. One solution to this is to maintain high
phytoplankton biomass through periodic fertilization.
Artificial Incubation of Nile Tilapia Eggs and Hatchlings
Artificial incubation system is advantageous in both commercial

and experimental aquaculture. In commercial fry production, removal
of eggs and yolk-sac fry from incubating female broodfish and
artificially incubating them reduce cannibalism incidence and increase
spawning synchrony and frequency. Breeders will spawn frequently
because of the decreased average inter-spawning interval.
Incubator Designs and Operations
An incubation unit recreates or simulates the condition happening

inside the female's mouth during natural incubation. Eggs of
Oreochromis species are non-adhesive, yolky, about 2.8–5.2 mm,
and sensitive to infection. They do not float and in the absence of
water movement, they sink rapidly to the bottom and clump together
resulting in mass mortality. Developing eggs require sufficient level of
dissolved oxygen and clean water, free of dirt and infective organisms
such as bacteria and fungi. The use of round-bottomed incubators
with downward water flow has been shown to be viable in both a small
or large-scale tilapia hatcheries (Fig. 6). This incubator design can
give good results provided that water quality and flow rates are
regulated. A recirculation system can also be used. In this case, sand
and gravel filter or UV sterilizer should be included in the system to
ensure good water quality. If these could not be incorporated in the
design, the hatchery caretaker should inspect the incubators for spoiled
eggs and remove them from the incubators as these will harbour
pathogens if not removed and discarded. The required water flow rate
is dependent on the design and size of the incubator and the volume
and stage of egg development. Early stages of egg development are
more tolerant to temperature changes than the latter stages with the
hatching phase being the most critical. Optimum temperature is
28°–29°C where time to hatch is about 3 days.

Rearing of Hatchlings in Trays
Yolk-sac fry (hatchling) stage, which emerges after hatching, is

a delicate stage. To have high survival rates from hatchlings up to
swim-up stage, the hatchlings should be removed from the incubator
and reared in specially designed trays receiving continuous supply
of water (Fig. 7). Each tray measures 40 cm x 25 cm with 5–10 cm
depth. Water depth is maintained at a very shallow level of 3 cm
(Figs. 6 and 7).
Fig. 6. Round-bottomed incubation jars.
Fig. 7. Hatchlings rearing trays.

Factors Contributing to Success in Artificial Incubation
1. Maintenance of good water quality. The water to be used in

artificial incubation should be clean and if possible, devoid of
infective organisms. Use of deepwell water is recommended.
Since bacteria and fungi develop quickly when dead eggs begin
to decompose, it is advised that each incubator should be
inspected daily and dead eggs removed. The incubator
may also be designed with a feature that allows automatic
removal of dead eggs.
2. Age of eggs. During incubation, the early stages in the

development of fertilized eggs are the most delicate phases.
Better survival rates may be observed in eggs set up for hatching
starting from its later stages (e.g., eyed stage). In this case, the
interval between fertilization and hatching to egg collection
should be more than 7 days to ensure collection of 'older' eggs.
3. Density of eggs. Eggs should not be artificially incubated

at very high densities. This is to prevent mass mortalities
due to mechanical damage to the egg chorion due to
friction among moving eggs that are way too many. All the eggs
should be maintained in the water column and egg clumping
should be avoided. The desirable density of eggs in the
incubation system is dependent on the incubator design.
4. Continuous and constant rate of water flow. Maintaining

continuous water flow throughout the incubation period is
critical especially for pre-hatched eggs. Eggs die after only
20 minutes if water flow ceases. In addition, the rate of water
flow in each incubator should be constant. The water flow rate
should not be too slow as this may cause some eggs to settle
and clump together nor too fast for this may produce
mechanical damage to the egg. The required flow rate depends
on the incubator design and the number of eggs to be incubated.
Fewer eggs require low to moderate water flow rate.
5. Breeding and maternal effects. Egg size, clutch size, and

fertilization rates are affected by the size and age of the female

broodstock. Stocking density and sex ratio of breeders also
affect the breeding activity and fertilization rate.
Market Outlets and Supply Chain
Marketing of tilapia fry and fingerlings is a well-established

business in the Philippines. So far, the main source of tilapia fry and
fingerlings are hatcheries found across the country especially in Luzon
and Mindanao regions. Imported fry from Taiwan and Thailand are
generally used only for breeding purposes. However, importation
is not encouraged unless the stocks are to be used in experimental
aquaculture (e.g., selective breeding and/or genetic improvement)
and/or officially documented (with approved permits, etc.) for use
in commercial tilapia aquaculture. Fish stock importations, if not
properly quarantined, may introduce disease pathogens not found
locally. Generally, hatchery operators also serve as extension agents by
providing basic technical support to their new clients who need help in
their grow-out operations.
Many hatchery operators grow their own fry into table-sized tilapia
since most of them are grow-out operators themselves or sell them
to: a) nursery operators who in turn grow them into larger-sized or
advanced fingerlings, b) middlemen who function as fry distributors,
and c) grow-out operators. Fry production in small-scale hatcheries
is often just enough for their own grow-out operations. However,
medium- to large-scale hatcheries produce fry and fingerlings for
commercial sale.
The development of new tilapia strains in the country through
genetic research is fairly advanced. To date, there are at least six new
tilapia strains to choose from, mostly bred by FAC-CLSU, BFAR,
WorldFish and GIFT Foundation International, Inc. Some of these
genetic development efforts are focused on new strains that produce
only male tilapias due to their inherent fast growth, thus achieving
marketable size in shorter period of time. For many of the improved
strains, apart from using conventional selective breeding methods in
developing fast growing strains, hormonal sex reversal is also applied.
Stocks that are sex-reversed are sterile. Several improved stocks with
approved trade names are sex reversed so that these cannot be used by
unaccredited hatcheries as potential broodstock to illegally produce
genetically enhanced seedstock. The establishment of BFAR satellite

hatcheries across the country facilitate the dispersal of improved
strains and quality seedstock in the countryside. Tilapia
genetic research also promotes the development of strains with
correlated beneficial traits, e.g., fast-growing, salt-tolerant strains.
Such strains enable tilapia production in brackishwater
environments, which constitute majority (90%) of the country’s water
bodies.
Market Channels
The market channel for tilapia fry is very short and generally
simple (Fig. 8). Three marketing channels are commonly
observed especially in Luzon. Chain 1 involves the movement
of fry from hatcheries to assemblers/distributors who function as
consolidators of fry harvest from numerous small hatchery operators.
Middlemen, in turn, sell the fry to big grow-out operators in bulk.
In Chain 2, the shortest marketing channel, the hatchery
operator sells directly to the grow-out operator. Chain 3 is
the newest of the three marketing channels, where the hatchery
operator sells the fry to the nursery operators, who in turn rear
them into larger-sized fingerlings before selling them to grow-out
operators. This market chain emerged from the desire of grow-out
operators to shorten the growing period of large-sized tilapia that is
ideal for processing into fillet, i.e., at least 0.6 kg/piece.
Among the three market chains, Chain 2 is common among
small-scale hatchery operators, while Chains 1 and 3 are generally
observed among medium- to large-scale hatcheries. The fry are
either delivered by the hatchery operators or picked up by the
BFAR
Assemblers/Distributors
(1)
Local Hatchery (2) Grow-out Operators
(3)
Nursery Operators
Fig. 8. Market channels for hatchery-bred tilapia fry, Philippines,

2017.
buyers from the farm. Tilapia fry are counted using the 'takal'
method, whereby the fry are scooped using a small container
(either a glass or cup). The fry inside the container are counted
and the total number is used as the base estimate for the fry contained
in each scoop. Buyers are given extra number of fry called ‘pasobra’
(usually ranging from 2% to 15%) to make up for some errors in
the estimate of the fry count. After counting the fry, these are placed
in aerated plastic bags and transported either by boat or jeepneys to
grow-out stations.
Fry Prices
Generally, hatchery operators grow and sell tilapia fry at various

sizes, from size #24 (smallest) to size #12 (largest). Fry/fingerling
size is determined by the mesh size of the nets used to contain the
fish; the lower the mesh size of the nets, the bigger the size of the
tilapia fry/fingerlings. This implies that the fingerlings need to be
bigger so that they cannot pass through the net with the lower mesh
size. The price of tilapia fry/fingerling is customarily proportional to
its size, i.e., larger fry/fingerling commands higher price. Based on
SEAFDEC/AQD’s current pricing system, their smallest size, i.e.,
#22 costs P0.35/piece (Table 3). The fry prices increase by P0.05/
piece as the fry size increases from #20 to #17. Notably, a jump of
P0.15 was observed as the fingerling size grows from #17 to #14.
Similarly, an additional P0.10/piece is added to the fingerling cost as
the size grows from #14 to #12. Interestingly, the price of red tilapia
fry is generally more expensive than its black counterpart by about
twice the price of the latter per piece.
Table 3. Prices (P) of tilapia fry/fingerlings by size from three major

producing centers, 2017.
Fry/Fingerling Size SEAFDEC/AQD FAC/CLSU BFAR
Size 24 - 0.30 0.15

Size 22 0.35 0.40 0.25
Size 20 0.45 0.43 -
Size 17 0.50 0.45 0.35
Size 14 0.65 0.50 0.45
Size 12 0.75 - -

On the other hand, the prices of improved tilapia strains from
FAC-CLSU are generally lower for all sizes than the SEAFDEC/AQD
prices by about 15% except for size #22 wherein the price is higher by
13%. Also, FAC-CLSU does not produce larger fingerling, i.e., size
#12, which is used in growing tilapia for fillet processing. This implies
that the nursery operation for larger fingerlings is left to the private
operators in the Luzon tilapia growing areas.
Local hatcheries are either privately owned or BFAR-operated
as seed dispersal centers. Also, some private hatcheries are BFAR-
accredited, mandated to follow the government prices stipulated in
the BFAR Fisheries Administrative Order No. 205. Since these prices
were determined over a decade ago (August 14, 2000), these are
relatively low compared with the current market prices. Compared
with the FAC-CLSU prices, the BFAR prices are generally 20% lower
for all sizes. The biggest price differential occurs for the smallest size
#24, which is P0.15/piece. Interestingly, there is no BFAR quoted
price for size #20. This suggests that BFAR-accredited hatcheries
can follow their own pricing system for this particular fry size.

Nursery of Fingerlings
Direct stocking of fingerlings into grow-out enclosures was

normally practiced by tilapia farmers for many years until techniques
in nursery farm operations were introduced. A nursery pond/facility is
used to rear recently-hatched aquatic animals for a few weeks to a size
suitable for stocking into a grow-out facility. This is to ensure higher
survival until harvest.
From the breeding hapa or ponds, the fry are collected and stocked
temporarily in nursery tanks, nursery hapas, and/or nursery ponds.
Pond Preparation
Nursery Pond Layout
The nursery pond, which measures 200 m2 is prepared by draining

and drying the pond bottom (Fig. 9). After drying, agricultural lime or
hydrated lime is broadcasted or spread on the pond soil surface at the
rate of 1 kg/100 m2 or 1 t/ha. The lime should be mixed thoroughly
with the soil to attain maximum effectiveness. Water is then introduced
into the pond at a depth of 25–30 cm. Phosphate fertilizer is applied a
week after at the rate of 100–200 kg/ha.
Fig. 9. Nursery pond layout.

Installation of Net Divider
In Pampanga, fish farmers use hapa (or 'garong' in their

native dialect) near the pond bank where they aerate the enclosure
at night (Fig. 10). Aeration is provided especially when the dissolved
oxygen level is low. For a larger pond of 1,000 m2 with a stocking
density of 5 pcs/m2, 20% of the area is enclosed using a net with one
side embedded onto the bottom of the soil.
Stocking of Fry in the Nursery Pond
Collected fry are graded to uniform sizes to reduce cannibalism.

These are stocked into nursery enclosures at 900–1,500/m2 and grown
for one month. Both natural and supplemental feed must be provided
during this time. The fingerlings are fed at 20% of their body weight
for two weeks and the average weight is then noted. The fingerling
survival rate may range from 50% to 75% during the first month.
About 5,000 fingerlings are stocked in the net enclosure at an
average of 25 pcs/m2. Once they reach 2–3 g from a stocking size of
0.22 g, these are released into the larger compartment. The smaller
pond compartment in Figure 10 is the nursery area.
Care of Stock in the Nursery
Proper pond preparation, maintenance of good water quality,

adoption of proper stocking density, feeding, and health management
practices should be implemented even at the nursery phase to ensure
high fish survival at this stage.
Treat the fingerlings with salt bath of 5–10 ppt to control
the population of protozoans and to control the proliferation of
protozoans prior to stocking into grow-out ponds or cages. With such
a treatment, the occurrence of unwanted pathogens, e.g., parasites
(Fig. 11) that will affect their growth and survival (Fig. 12) could be
minimized. For the description, mode of transmission of parasites, and
prevention and control, refer to pond culture section.

Fig. 10. Net divider.
Fig. 11. Heavy protozoan (Trichodina spp.)

infestation on the body surface of tilapia
fingerlings.
Fig. 12. Protozoan (Trichodina spp.) infestation in

tilapia fingerlings.

Releasing of Fingerlings
Prior to removing the divider net or hapa, record the weight and
estimate the remaining fish to compute for percentage (%) survival.
The fingerlings are individually and/or weighed altogether (= in bulk).
The divider is removed to completely release the reared fingerlings.
Nursery operation in the tilapia seedstock supply chain is a new

development that has emerged due to the growing demand of grow-out
operators for bigger-sized fingerlings. This, therefore, created a new
marketing layer in the tilapia supply chain inspired by the desire of
grow-out operators to shorten the culture period to produce large-sized
tilapia for processing into fillet. Various sizes of fry are procured by
nursery operators from hatcheries (size #24 to #20) and are reared into
larger fingerlings (size #17 to #12) before these are sold to the grow-
out operators.
The marketing channel for nursery grown tilapia fingerlings is
shorter than that of the fry chain (Fig. 13). Chain 1 is characterized
by the sale of large-sized fingerlings to assemblers/distributors that
consolidate the harvests of small-scale nursery operators and sell them
to grow-out operators in bulk. On the other hand, Chain 2, which is
the shortest marketing channel, describes the direct flow of fingerlings
from nursery operators to either the pond or cage grow-out operators.
(2)
Pond Grow-out
Operators
(1)
Nursery Assemblers/
Operators Distributors
Cage Grow-out
Operators
(2)
Fig. 13. Market channels for nursery grown tilapia fingerlings,

Philippines, 2017.
Fingerling Prices
On the average, the price of larger fingerlings (sizes #17, #14, and
#12) based on the quotations of the three major producing centers, i.e.,
SEAFDEC/AQD, FAC/CLSU, and BFAR is P 0.50/piece. This average
price is higher by about 61% compared with their smaller counterpart
(#24, #22, and #20), with an average price of P0.33/piece (Table 4).
Larger-sized fingerlings (>20 g) have no standard BFAR price and is
often directly negotiated by buyers and sellers.
Table 4. Average prices (P) of tilapia fry and fingerlings by size from
three major producing centers, 2017.
Fry/Fingerling SEAFDEC FAC/

Size /AQD CLSU BFAR Average
Size 24 - 0.30 0.15 -

Size 22 0.35 0.40 0.25 -
Size 20 0.45 0.43 - -
Average size (fry) 0.40 0.38 0.20 0.33
Size 17 0.50 0.45 0.35 -
Size 14 0.65 0.50 0.45 -
Size 12 0.75 - - -
Average size (fingerling) 0.63 0.48 0.40 0.50
Growth in price
(fry to fingerling) 58% 26% 100% 61%
Tilapia fry are often reared in shallow ponds for at least

2–3 months before they reach the desired fingerling size of #14 and
#12 (Fig. 14). Since sex-reversed tilapia fry grow faster than its non-
sex reversed counterpart, therefore, it takes only around two months
for the former to be reared into larger sized fingerlings. On the other
hand, the non-sex reversed tilapias require about three months to reach
the desired size. Availability of larger fingerlings is generally seasonal.
The smaller sizes (#24 to # 20) that were stocked in the nurseries from
May to August, which is the peak spawning season for tilapia, can only
be harvested as large-sized non-sex reversed fingerlings (#17 to #12)
during the months of September to December. Finally, payments to
nursery operators for small orders are often in cash basis, while bulk
delivery is generally paid through post-dated checks, with a 7-day
maximum grace period.

Fig. 14. Nile and red tilapia fingerlings.
Cost and Return Analysis
Integrated Tilapia Hatchery & Nursery Culture in Ponds
Table 5 shows the profitability analysis of a small-scale tilapia

hatchery and nursery operation. This analysis assumes a 5-year
continuous operation with two spawning cycles per month. Eggs and
fry are collected after 10–14 days from stocking of breeders, and a
fry production cycle of 21–30 days including breeder and material
preparation. There are ten production months per year considering the
conditioning and rest period of breeders.
For investment items, hatchery and nursery operations for tilapia
require tanks and ponds. These facilities will hold the juveniles
produced from 1,600 female broodstocks and 400 male breeders that
are replaced every 1.5 years. Total fry produced per month is 358,400
for 10 productive months per year (Section A). The investment items,
costs, and lifespan are listed in Section B. Total investment cost
amounting to P510,000 is mostly allocated to pond construction,
deep well pump, conditioning tanks, and cost of breeders. While the
pond may be used productively for 5 years, most of the investment
items and equipment have 2.5 years life span, replaceable during the
5-year project duration.
The total variable cost to operate a small-scale tilapia hatchery
and nursery may amount to P43,500/month or P435,000/year.
Wages of one hatchery technician and two fishery aides and cost of

Table 5. Profitability analysis of small-scale integrated tilapia hatchery and
nursery operations, 2017. (Reference: Computations were updated from
Eguia, R.V. and Eguia, M.R.R. 2007a.)
A. Technical Information B. Investment Life Span

Items Cost (P) (years)
Project duration, years 5
Number of breeding cycles Fishpond construction 240,700 5
per month 2 - labor, dig soil & transfer,
Number of production 30 hours 90,000
- PVC elbow pipes 4" 1,200
months year 10
- PVC sanitary sched 40 3,500
Number of fry per female 200 - PE pipe 3”, 4 rolls 30,000
% of female broodstock - Conditioning tanks, 2 units 90,000
that produces fry 80 - Shade/work area 5,000
% available after a month from - Contingencies, 10% of
stocking spawners 70 construction cost 21,000
Production per cycle (size 22) 179,200 Submersible pump 15,000
Price of size 22 fingerlings Deepwell pump 100,000
(P/piece) 0.40 Hapa nets, 10 pcs,
Fry production/month 358,400 10 x 5 x 1 m 26,000 2.5
Total value of fry sales/month 143,360 B-net, 10 pcs, 10 x 5 x 1 m 26,000 2.5
Total value of sales/year, CC-net, 5 pcs, 8 x 3 x 1 m 8,000 2.5
Bamboo poles, 100 pcs 15,000 2.5
10 productive months 1,433,600
Plastic basins, 5 pcs,
50 liters (L) 700 2.5
C. Variable Cost P/Year Plastic pails, 5 pcs, 30 L 6000 2.5
Tilapia breeders (1600 females;
Salary, 1 technician 75,000 400 males) 70,000 1.5
Wages, 2 hatchery aides 100,000 Oxygen tanks, 2 units 8,000
Fuel & electricity 50,000 Total Investment Cost 510,000 5
Broodstock feeds, 10 sacks 70,000
Fry feeds, 12 sacks 90,000
Miscellaneous expenses 50,000 D. Fixed Cost P/Year
Total 435,000
Depreciation 172,927
Rent on land 12,000
Business permit 5,000
Interest on loans, 12% of investment
cost & variable cost 113,400
Total 303,327
E. Profitability Indicators
Total cost, P/year 738,327

Annual commission of workers (2% of gross revenue) 28,672
Annual net income less commission for workers (2% of gross sales) 666,601
Return on investment (ROI) 131%
Payback period 0.61 year
Break-even selling price, P/fry 0.21
Break-even production, minimum number of fry to produce 1,845,817
Net present value (NPV), 5 years project duration, 12% discount rate, P 1,690,133
Internal rate of return (IRR) 129%
Discounted benefit cost ratio (BCR) 4.71
Table 5. (Continued.)
Annual net Internal

F. Sensitivity *Fry Payback Break-even income less Return on rate of Benefit-
Analysis Production period selling price commission investment return cost ratio
Scenarios per month (years) (P/fry) (P) (ROI), % (IRR), % (BCR)
60%; 0.50 307,200 0.54 0.24 766,953 150 149 5.42

@ 70%; 0.40 358,400 0.61 0.21 666,601 131 129 4.71
75%; 0.45 384,000 0.45 0.19 955,113 187 186 6.75
*survival rate, % (SR); selling price of fry per piece

@ refers to the scenario detailed in Tables A–E above.
feeds for breeders and fry comprise the variable cost (Section C).
Section D shows that the total fixed cost at P303,327 is moderately
lower than the variable cost. It comprises costs for depreciation, rent
on land, and interest on capital or loans to fund investment items and
variable cost items. Interest rate on loans or opportunity cost of own
capital is assumed at 12%.
Considering an annual production capacity and sale of 3.58 million
fry, annual gross income is estimated to be P1.434 million. Annual
net income is P666,600 after deducting total cost and 2% of value of
gross sales for commission for workers as generally practiced in the
industry (Section E). With P510,000 cost of investment items, the
expected return on investment (ROI) is 131% and the payback period
is 0.61 year. Breakeven (BE) production to recover total cost is only
1.84 million fry, which is easily attainable considering the 3.58 million
annual fry production capacity. The total production cost per fry or
breakeven selling price is P0.21. With a 5-year project duration, the
tilapia hatchery and nursery business may expect a net present value
(NPV) at P1.69 million, internal rate of return (IRR) at 129%, and
4.71 discounted benefit-cost ratio (BCR).
Results of the sensitivity analysis in Section F show that varying
survival rates of fry after a month from stocking of breeders, and
changes in the selling price of fry will likely lead to changes in the
productivity and profitability parameters. For example, consider a
baseline scenario (marked by @ in Section F) where fry survival
rate (SR) is 70% and selling price is P0.40/fry. The fry production
per month is 358,400 pieces and the other economic indicators are
ROI at 131%, IRR at 129%, and benefit-cost ratio (BCR) at 4.71%.
If the scenario will change, such that SR is lower at 60% and selling
price is higher at P0.50/fry due to lower supply volume, there will be

an expected lower production at 307,200 fry per month. However,
the monetary profitability indicators such as annual net income
(P766,953), ROI (150%), IRR (149%), and BCR (5.42) are higher due
to the higher selling price.
Overall, these profitability indicators suggest that small-scale
tilapia hatchery and nursery operation is an economically-viable
investment option. This is mainly due to high fry production and
survival rates, for as long as good breeders are used. Likewise, there
is high demand for hatchery-produced tilapia fry among the grow-out
farmers who operate throughout the year.

Pond Culture
Tilapia farming in ponds is a very popular method. A pond is a

small area of still fresh water, and no more than 1.8 m deep.
Site Selection
Three major factors are considered in site selection: ecological,

biological and operational, and economic and social factors.
The ecological factors include water quality (good water quality
with less risk of pollution); climate (temperature, humidity, sunshine,
floods, winds); hydrological and soil characteristics (water supply
sources are deepwell, spring, irrigation, rainfed, lakes and reservoir);
agroclimatic condition (dry and wet conditions); and meteorological
information.
Ponds that lose water have high seepage. For tilapia pond culture,
a site with low permeability is preferred. To test for soil texture and
permeability, the squeeze method can be used (Fig. 15). If one is able
to solidly form the soil into a ball, water retention is high.
Fig. 15. Testing of soil for water retention.

The grow-out operations can be any of the following systems,
namely: (a) extensive backyard type which depends on natural
productivity and a stocking density of 2 pieces/m2, (b) semi-intensive
culture system with supplemental feeding and fertilization and a
stocking density of 4–5 pieces/m2, and (c) intensive operation with
complete feeding and aeration at a stocking density of 6–10 pieces/m2.
Also under this consideration is the choice of species to be cultured.
Finally, economic and social factors include development plans
of the area, ownership of the land, peace and order or security,
proximity to market and road connections, availability of skilled labor,
equipment, services, supplies, and public utilities.
Pond Construction, Layout, and Design
Prior to construction work, proper estimates have to be prepared.

This includes cost of materials and the labor.
Ponds may be constructed manually or with the use of earth-
moving machines. The choice depends on the scale of operation and
location.
The elevation of the various structures follows a gravity water
flow. Water flows down from the highest to the lowest point. The pond
bottom of the drainage area should be higher than the drainage canal
bed so that water flows easily.
The canals along the farm’s pond peripheries serve ponds on both
sides and make canal networks reasonably straight and simple. The
main water supply canal is located in the secondary dike where two
pipes are located (Fig. 16). Minimize the number of junctions.
Time of Construction
The best time of the year for constructing ponds in clayey soil is
after the rainy period when the soil is soft. When constructed during
the dry season, the soil is very hard. For swampy and waterlogged
areas, the most desirable time is summer when the area becomes
slightly drier than usual. If a pond is built during early summer, make
sure to remove the weeds before filling the pond.

Fig. 16. The parallel water supply from the main supply canal.
Site Preparation
The pond site should be thoroughly cleared of all the trees and
bushes, including their roots. No wooden material should be left
because these will eventually rot and cause leaks.
Layouting
This operation involves laying out the features of ponds on the

ground in order to mark out the areas from where the soil in the
prospective pond area will have to be dug out and removed (Fig. 17).
Lines are drawn according to the layout, followed by installation of
stakes or posts. Strings are stretched between the top of the stakes
and posts to mark the complete profile of the dike with its correct
height, width and slopes.
Table 6 lists down a summary of guidelines that can be followed
in designing and constructing earthen ponds for tilapia culture.

Fig. 17. Making the layout at the proposed tilapia production site for
excavation.
Table 6. Guidelines for good pond design and construction.
Location Select land with gentle slope and layout ponds to take advantage
of the existing contours
Construction Ponds may be constructed by digging into the ground using a
backhoe; slopes and bottoms must be well packed
Pond depth Depth must be 0.5–1.0 m at shallow end; Sloping to 1.5–2.0 m
at drain end
Pond shape Pond may be rectangular or square
Slopes Construct ponds with 2:1 or 3:1 slopes on all sides
Drainage Gate valves and stand pipes; draining should not take more than
three days
Water supply lines Water supply lines should be sufficient to fill each pond within
three days
Dikes Grass must be planted
Orientation Situate the pond so that the longer axis is parallel to the prevailing
wind direction to take advantage of mixing by wind
Pond Excavation and Construction of Dikes
The excavation work within the area marked for the pond
bottom can be carried out either manually or mechanically. Pond
construction becomes economical if earthen dikes are made around the
pond using the excavated earth from the pond bed. All dikes should
be raised. Soil is dumped layer by layer right across the whole section
with each layer not exceeding 20 cm in thickness.

For example, a pond of 100 m × 40 m (0.4 ha) water area requires
only 3,234 m3 of land area with a dike of 2-m high above ground
level (GL) with side slope ratio of 2:1, and top width of 1.5 m can be
constructed (Fig. 18).
2 meters
H = 1 meter
Slope
Pond bottom
Fig. 18. Pond slope.
Dikes must be well compacted to make them stable, and the

top should be flat to render them accessible to small vehicles when
needed. Short creeping grass is recommended to be grown on the
top and sides of the dike. Trees are not desirable since shade inhibits
the productivity of the pond.
Water Inlet Structure
For small ponds, the best inlet structure is a polyvinyl chloride

(pvc) pipe of about 10 cm diameter with a control tap and a
screen basket (Fig 19.). The downstream end of the pipe should be
30–40 cm above the water level. A sluice is also suitable for this
purpose, especially for larger ponds. A screen is also fixed to check
the entry of undesirable fishes and other aquatic organisms. The pond
elevation should be sloped to where the catch basin (a square concrete)
is located. This serves as catch area during pond draining. If the water
supply is not coming from the main supply canal, water must be
pumped from the supply source into the channel leading to the pond
or even directly into the pond. In that case, the pipe used for water
intake should be securely screened by a fine-meshed net to prevent
undesirable fishes and other aquatic organisms from entering the
pond along with the water.
Maintenance and Repair
Earthen dikes are susceptible to weathering action and need

periodic inspection. Paying attention and solving minor damages
Fig. 19. Supply canal and catch basin.
regularly avoid the chances of more costly repairs later. Soil erosion
from the top of the dike during heavy rains causes formation of small
channels and is an indication that the dike material has not been
properly compacted. The area should be leveled with more soil and
grass should be planted to minimize soil erosion. Rip-rapping may also
be used.
Repairing gates and screens. Check all gates and pipes for broken
slabs and other parts. Repair screens to prevent predators and pests
from entering the pond system.
Repairing dikes. Check all dikes for leakages and seepages.
Pond Preparation
Pond preparation is a first step towards ensuring better production

of tilapias in ponds.
Pond Drying
To eliminate undesirable species and predators, oxidation of

harmful chemical substances, and mineralization of organic matter, it
is recommended to dry the pond bottom until the soil cracks, and until
the soil is firm enough to hold one's weight without sinking (Fig. 20).
It is necessary to remove harmful chemicals for this will adversely
affect tilapia growth and survival.
Fig. 20. Drying the pond bottom.
Tilling of Pond Bottom
Tilling or plowing of bottom soil improves soil quality. The

subsoil is dug out to speed up the oxidation process and the release
of nutrients that are locked in the soil. A shovel or rake is used for
small ponds and a hand tractor is used in tilling large ponds.
Pond Leveling
After tilling, the pond bottom is evened out to remove pot holes
and mounds. Even and level the pond bottom out in a manner that
allows it to slope gradually towards the lowest elevation where the
drainage is located.
Pests, Competition, and Predator Control
Fish production in ponds is commonly affected by some pests

and predators which prey on the cultured fish (Fig. 21). Meanwhile,

Fig. 21. Catfishes are predators in tilapia ponds.
animals that compete for food or space are called competitors and
these are unwanted species that must be eliminated.
Catfish (or ‘hito,’ mudfish or ‘dalag,’ and other fish predators
devour fry and fingerlings during or after stocking. To catch
these predators, drain the pond totally after harvest or before
stocking. Other predators/pests such as snakes, herons, kingfishers,
and other birds also devour fish and fingerlings. Sometimes,
these are also carriers of parasites. Always keep pond banks
and dikes clean to prevent snakes from harboring in the culture
area. Frogs also eat fry and fingerlings and compete with the
fish for space and oxygen. Their population can be controlled by
removing their egg sacs from the pond water. Soft-shelled turtles
are also considered as nuisance in fish ponds as they are known to eat
fingerlings and even destroy hapas and pond dikes (Fig. 22).
Soil Conditioning
Soil analysis is mostly recommended for proper pond preparation

and soil conditioning. It is recommended that pond soils are
analysed for acidity (pH level) at least once a year. Acidic soils
limit the production of natural food, and in extreme cases, can also
kill fish. The ideal pH should not be lower or higher than 7.0. In

Fig. 22. Soft-shelled turtles also prey on tilapias in the rearing ponds.
slightly acidic and alkaline soils, the pH may be adjusted to above

7.0 by washing and flushing the pond bottom.
Broadcast or spread agricultural lime or hydrated lime at
1 kg/100 m2 or 1 t/ha over the drained but moist pond bottom.
Mix the lime thoroughly with the soil for maximum effectiveness.
Allow one week to lapse before applying phosphate fertilizer.
Pond Fertilization
Fertilization is a process that encourages primary productivity or

growth of natural food in fish ponds. Applying fertilizer in ponds to
supply the nutrients needed for plant growth is a fundamental part of
fishpond management. Fish production per unit area can be increased
by proper application of fertilizers.
Either inorganic (Fig. 23) or organic fertilizers such as manure,
compost, or vermicast may be used. The nutrients and organic matter
content of manure helps increase the water holding capacity of the soil,
decrease the rate of evaporation, and increase enzymatic activity, all of
which increase fertility and yield.
Table 7 shows the ideal water quality parameter conditions on
the pond when applying organic fertilizer. In using organic fertilizers
such as chicken manure, the basal application rate is 1–2 t/ha

Fig. 23. Example of inorganic fertilizers.
Table 7. Considerations in applying organic fertilizer.
Water temperature at noon Above 20°C
Secchi disc transparency More than 40 cm
Water pH at sunset Below 9
with a dressing of 100 kg/ha depending on the condition of the pond

water. As for inorganic fertilizers, these are applied at 100–200 kg/ha.
Fertilizer application by broadcasting. In applying inorganic

fertilizers, these should first be dissolved in buckets containing pond
water and then splashed over the whole pond surface.
Do not fertilize a pond if:
• fish production does not depend on the use of natural food;
• the exchange rate of the water is excessive;
• there is too much aquatic vegetation;
• the water is too muddy or dark-colored; and
• water transparency is less than 40 cm.

Source of Fingerlings
In the Philippines, there are over 2,000 small-, medium-, and

large-scale hatchery/nursery operators producing more than one billion
fingerlings per year. There are also improved breeds (Table 8) like
the FaST (FAC Selected Tilapia a.k.a. IDRC strain) and GIFT-
derived strains namely GET-ExCEL, GIFT Malaysia, and GenoMar
Supreme Tilapia. There are saline-tolerant hybrids such as
Molobicus, BEST, and red tilapia strains as well as cold-tolerant
strains, which are the blue tilapia (O. aureus) and Nile tilapia hybrid.
GET-ExCEL and BEST hatcheries are accredited by the BFAR/
National Freshwater Fisheries Technology Center as authorized
producers and distributors of their improved breeds.
The fingerlings are conditioned at least 12–24 hours prior to
dispersal to grow-out farmers (Fig 24). They are placed in hapa-in-
concrete holding tanks with no feeding.
Stocking of Fingerlings
Stocking of uniformly sized fingerlings (Fig. 25) is done before

7 AM or after sundown when the water temperature is low.
Fingerlings must be properly conditioned or acclimatized for
20 minutes before stocking to minimize stress.
Table 8. Tilapia strains.
Tilapia Strains Source Description
GIFT strain From GIFT Foundation Genetically Improved Farmed

International. Inc. and Tilapias (strain developed by
now from GIFTFF WorldFish, FAC-CLSU,
BFAR-NFFTC, UP-MSI and
AKVAFORSK) - no selection
after 1999, re-energized by
Feedmix in 2009
FaST FAC-CLSU FAC Selected tilapia (a.k.a.
IDRC strain)
GET-ExCEL BFAR-NFFTC Excellent strain with Competitive
Advantage for Entre-
preneurial Livelihood
GenoMar Supreme GenoMar Managed by private Norwegian
Tilapia investors
Fig. 24. Conditioning of fingerlings.
Fig. 25. Gradual release of fingerlings.

Feeds and Feeding
Supplemental Feeding
Additional feeds may be needed if plankton growth is not enough

and growth of fish is slow (Fig. 26). Fish growth can be checked by
measuring the weight of fish during scheduled sampling. Feeds are
broadcast into the pond, usually on the same part of the pond in order
to train the fish to feed. An active feeding response is a good indication
of healthy fish.
Type of Feeds
The fry mash feeds is made of 34–45% CP, and is commonly

feed on fish fry. This is usually made in mash form or tiny particles
less than 1 mm in size. The starter feeds are fed to tilapia fingerlings
of 6–50 g in size. The feed crumbles or floating feeds is greater than or
equal to 1 mm in size. On the other hand, grower feeds usually contain
30% protein, and is fed to adult tilapias of 60–120 g in size. It comes
in the form of pellet or floating feeds. The finisher feeds, also known
as the broodstock feeds, have 28% CP.
Fig. 26. Commercial feeds (phase diets) for tilapia.

Feeding Rates
This is the basis for determining the amount of feed to be given to

the fish, and is usually expressed in percentage fish biomass.
Sample Feeding Rates
The feeding begins at a high rate when the fish are small and
then reduced as the fish grow larger.
Method of Feeding
Hand feeding which is done by broadcasting (Fig. 27) is

commonly practiced in rearing tilapia in small ponds, tanks
raceways, or cages where labor is inexpensive.
Sampling
The amount of feed required by growing fish is adjusted by

computing on the basis of the increase in their body weight (Table
9) hence regular fish weight sampling (Fig. 28) is recommended.
To get a representative population, a cast net is thrown to a group of
fishes attracted by feeding. The bulk weight is recorded, the fish are
counted, and the body weight is divided by the number of fish.
Fig. 27. Feeding by broadcasting.

Table 9. Feeding table guide recommended by Collaborative
Research Support Program (CRSP).
Age Ave. Body Feeding Rate Fry

(Week) Wt. (g) (% Biomass) Mash Starter Grower Finisher
0 0.2–1.0 20 +
1 1.1–2.0 15 +
2 3.0–5.0 10 +
3 6.0–9.0 7 +
4 10.0–15.0 7 +
5 16.0–22.0 7 +
6 23.0–30.0 6 +
7 31.0–39.0 6 +
8 40.0–50.0 5 +
9 51.1–65.0 5 +
10 66.0–75.0 4 +
11 76.0–90.0 4 +
12 91.0–120.0 3 +
13 121.0–150.0 3 +
14 151.0–160.0 3 +
15 161.0–200.0 3 +
16 201.0–250.0 2 +
17 251.0 above 2 +
Fig. 28. Sampling of fish.

Pond Care and Maintenance
Water depth in the pond should be monitored and maintained

at a minimum of 1 m. Regular fertilizer application should be
done to maintain production of plankton and water quality. Water
turbidity should also be monitored using a secchi disk. A secchi
disk is a device made of circular piece of plywood with a diameter of
at least 20 cm mounted on a graduated stick that is used to measure
the transparency of the water (Fig. 29). The depth at which the disk
disappears is recorded as the transparency reading of the water.
Monitoring water turbidity may be done 2–3 times for accuracy.
Transparency or visibility should be maintained at 30–40 cm. It is
important to measure turbidity which is actually caused by the presence
of suspended sediments and/or planktonic organisms. Very turbid
or muddy water is not conducive to fish rearing as it limits primary
productivity in tilapia ponds.
The pond should be free from large aquatic plants (e.g.,
'kangkong' and water hyacinth) because they compete with
phytoplankton for nutrients derived from fertilizer application.
Useful aquatic weeds like duck weeds and azolla are eaten by fish.
Dikes should also be regularly cleaned.
Agricultural pesticides are toxic to fish. Pond contamination is
possible if irrigation water is used as the source or if run-off from
Fig. 29. Determining the water transparency using a secchi disk.

adjacent croplands takes place. Tilapia farmers should be alert in
detecting and preventing pond contamination.
Water Management
The water level is maintained up to 1 meter. A labelled meter

stick (Fig 30) is staked at the middle of the pond to allow pond
depth monitoring. When the water level is reduced below what is
required, water should be pumped into the pond. Water is introduced
into the pond for an hour every morning. Water in the pond has to be
maintained at its optimum level of 1 m to counter seepage (in case of
ponds that are prone to leaks) as well as water evaporation especially
during very warm/hot months. Moreover, low or sub-optimal water
levels in ponds are more prone to extreme, uncontrollable temperature
fluctuations, a condition that is not ideal for tilapia culture.
Fig. 30. A meter stick to measure the pond depth.
Health Management
The health of any cultured fish depends heavily on good water

quality, balanced nutrition, and proper husbandry and management
practices. These conditions will greatly boost growth, feed
conversion, and survival efficiency. However, the health of the fish
may be compromised in cases where conditions become undesirable

and stressful due to poor culture environment brought about by
overcrowding, low dissolved oxygen, and high ammonia, such that
even a hardy fish like tilapia cannot tolerate and may predispose them
to diseases.
For a disease to develop and occur, a complex interaction
between three significant factors—the fish or host, the pathogens, and
the culture environment—must take place. The fish or host’s resistance
or susceptibility to a disease may is dependent on the age, sex, species,
immune system, and health status. On the other hand, opportunistic
pathogens can cause adverse effects on the health of the fish when
they build up, multiply, or gain entry to the fish or host.
Whereas the culture environment could provide conditions
either suitable or harmful for the fish. Diseases may develop
as a result of stressful conditions that are not favorable and
may lower fish resistance. Such environmental conditions
are favorable to the proliferation of pathogens and
enhance its virulence.
Good aquaculture practices, when adopted throughout the
culture operation, are important in maintaining good health
in fish stocks. The fish farmers have the responsibility to
implement good aquaculture practices to ensure the quality
and safety of the cultured fish and preserve the integrity of the
aquatic environment. Risk factors that may predispose the fish
to diseases and health problems are overstocking, poor water
quality, overfeeding, improper handling, and other malhusbandry
practices. Fish operators should know how to detect any physical
and behavioral abnormalities exhibited by fish and identify possible
causes that predispose the fish to such condition so that
immediate measures can be instituted. Knowledge of water
quality parameters and good husbandry practices are needed in
maintaining the healthy condition of the fish stocks. The use of
water quality test kits for monitoring water quality parameters and
detection devices such as microscopes (Fig. 31) are useful tools in
fish health management.

Fig. 31. Water quality test kit and microscope for monitoring
of fish health status.
Common Parasites and Bacteria of Tilapia
To enable the farmer to detect fish diseases, external manifestations

(Table 10) must be observed and monitored.
Management Practices for Disease Prevention and Control
Some methods by which diseases in farmed tilapias can be

prevented and/or treated are the following:
• Prepare the ponds properly prior to stocking. Follow the

recommended pond preparation techniques. Proper pond
preparation (such as drying and liming) can also eliminate or
destroy pest and parasites;
• Use healthy and good quality fingerlings from a reliable
source. Make sure that the fingerlings are not infested with
external parasites prior to stocking;
• Minimize stress when transporting and handling the fish
for stocking;
• Follow appropriate stocking density. Overcrowding can
causes stressful conditions that affect the growth and survival
of the fish;
• Maintain good water quality throughout the culture period.
Poor water quality is stressful to fish thus predisposing them
to diseases caused by opportunistic pathogens. Thus, whenever

Table 10. Matrix of common parasites and bacteria found in tilapia.
Parasite/ Gross Signs and Prevention

Bacteria Description Transmission Effects on Fish Diagnosis and Control

Trichodina spp. Protozoan parasites • Infestation is • Darkening of the • Based on gross • Indefinite bath in
Trichodinella spp. having a saucer- spread through body (Fig. 32a) signs and through 40–50 ppm
Tripartiella spp. shaped body with contact with • Abnormal microscopic formalin (4–5 ml
several rings of affected fish, swimming behavior examination of formalin in
cilia on the water, contami- (fish rubs its body parasite by wet 100 liters of
periphery which nated farm on the sides or mounts of gill water), or 2–3%
they use for equipment. bottom of the tank). filaments and salt solution bath Fig. 32a. Darkening of tilapia
mobility. • Affect fish at the • Parasites irritate skin scrapings for 2–5 minutes. fingerlings (arrow)
due to Trichodina spp.
hatchery, nursery, the skin, fins, and • During treatment, infestation.
and grow-out gills (Fig. 32b) fish should be
stages of the and cause observed and
culture period respiratory distress monitored and
• Stressful conditions • It can cause high provided with
such as handling, mortality at the aeration.
poor water quality, early life stage of
and high levels of fish (fingerling).
organic loads Fig. 32b. Gills heavily infested
favor infestation with Trichodina spp.
(shown with red

arrows).

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

57

Gyrodactylus spp. Flatworms on • Infestation spread • Abnormal • Based on gross • Indefinite bath in
(skin fluke) skin and gills through contact swimming signs 40–50 ppm formalin
Dactylogyrus spp. (Fig. 33) which with affected behavior • Microscopic (4–5 ml formalin
(gill fluke) affect the nursery, fish and water. • Fish do not eat examination of in 100 L of water)
grow-out, and • Spread is faster well or have no parasite from the • During treatment,
broodstock phases during stressful or little appetite smear of body fish should be
of culture. conditions caused • Excessive mucus surface and gills observed, monitored,
by poor water production and provided with
quality and high • Frayed fins aeration

stocking density • Pale gills
• Rapid movements
of the gill cover
• Young tilapia
(fingerlings and
juveniles) more
susceptible to Fig. 33. Gills fluke in the gill
infestation filaments.

Isopod • A crustacean • Isopods attach • Rubbing of body Physical structure • Place the cages
parasite that themselves to the against objects of the isopod can in areas with no
infests tilapias body of the fish • Loss of appetite be observed sandy or rocky
in cages (Fig. 34a) • Slow growth rate through a microscope. bottom and
• Common during • Transferred from • Young fish more without history
colder months fish to fish through susceptible of isopod
• Frequent in areas contaminated water • Cause considerable occurrences
with clear water damage when they • Avoid stocking Fig. 34a. Parasitic isopod in the
and sandy or lodge in the gill during the colder body surface of tilapia.
rocky bottom cover, gills, and months as young

• Nocturnal, attacks mouth which fish are more

the fish at night greatly affect the susceptible to
respiratory and isopod infestation
feeding functions • Maintain good
of the fish sanitation and
(Fig. 34b) hygiene by
immediate removal
of affected or dead
fish and dispose
properly.
Fig. 34b. Tilapia heavily infested
by isopods. (Photo from
Nenita Kawit)
Bacterial Disease The bacterial • Transmissible • Erratic • Based on gross • Provide an

disease can be through contami- swimming physical optimum culture
caused by nated water, behavior abnormalities environment to the
Streptococcus spp., ingestion or • Presence of gross • Preparation of fish which includes
Edwardsiella spp., through skin or physical abnorma- impression smear maintaining good
Aeromonas gill abrasions lities (Fig. 35a) of the different water quality
hydrophila, and • Carrier animals such as scale loss, organs affected • Avoidance of
other opportunistic like other fish fin rot, ulcerations, such as kidney, overcrowding,
bacteria species can skin hemorrhages liver, and spleen reducing stress
transfer the (Fig 35b), bulging under a microscope during transport Fig. 35a. Scale loss, fin rot, and
infection from of the eyes may help in and handling, and ulcer.
their intestinal (Fig 35c), and demonstrating the proper feeding
The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

contents enlargement or causative agent of and nutrition
• Survivors from distention of the the disease throughout the
59
outbreaks are abdomen (Fig 35d) • The organisms can culture period are

likely hosts of the • Septicaemia be isolated using important to

infection. commonly occurs culture media like prevent bacterial
• Sewage waters during the Brain Heart disease.
could also be advanced stage Infusion Agar • Early detection
source of infection of infection and (BHIA) and can of gross physical
• Stressful conditions significant be characterized abormalities caused
brought about by mortalities may using biochemical by bacterial infection
overstocking, poor occur tests and will also enable Fig. 35b. Skin hemorrhages.
water quality, identification fish operators to
handling trauma, test kits make immediate

poor nutrition, and remedial measures
high organic load such as water
predispose the fish exchange, partial
to bacterial disease or emergency harvest,
isolation, or removal
of affected or dead
fish. Fig. 35c. Bulging of the eyes.

Fig. 35d. Distended abdomen.

possible regularly conduct water exchange to prevent the
build-up of parasites and bacterial pathogens;
• Provide the appropriate feeds and follow the recommended
feeding rates to optimize the growth of the fish;
• Do not overfeed the fish as uneaten feeds will pollute the
culture environment. It is advisable to use floating feeds
because sinking feeds are difficult to monitor whether they
are consumed or not by the fish. Uneaten feeds that sink at the
bottom will also contribute to oxygen depletion since bacteria
require this for decomposition;
• Monitor the health status of the fish stocks to enable early
detection of any physical (such as fin rot, bulging eyes,
ulcerations, and hemorrhages) or behavioral (which is lack of
appetite, gasping for air, abnormal swimming) abnormalities;
• Remove dead fish immediately and dispose by burying; and,
• Use chemicals and veterinary drugs responsibly by
knowing the intended use, when to use, and how to use
them. It is important to have a correct diagnosis to institute
effective treatment and control measures. Misuse of
veterinary drugs particularly antibiotics results in residue
build-up and antimicrobial resistance in fish which may
later be detrimental to human health.
Preventive Measures against Off-Flavor
Off-flavor in fish like tilapia reared in ponds or cages are

associated with substances in the diet, which are absorbed across
the gastrointestinal tract and deposited in the flesh. Diet-related off-
flavors, which are described as "decayed" or "rotten," are the result of
decaying organic matter in the diet. Environment-related off-flavors
developed in fish are either due to accidental water pollution such as
petroleum spills from motors, boats, and tanks or caused by naturally
occurring aquatic microorganisms such as toxic algae during algal
blooms.
The most common environment-related off-flavors are described
as "earthy," "moldy," "muddy," or "musty." These off-flavors, which
have been reported in different fish species, are generally caused
by two compounds, Geosmin and 2-methylsoborneol (2-MIB). The
compounds are metabolites from bacteria such as Streptomyces aureus
and blue green algae (Anabaena, Microcystis, and Oscillatoria) in the
culture environment. When these organisms die, these compounds are
released and can be taken up by the fish body through the gills within a
few hours. Geosmin was reported to have the highest concentration in
the intestine and in decreasing order in the abdomen, skin, and muscle
tissues after it is absorption in the body. Furthermore, Geosmin and
2-MIB are predominately stored in fat tissues and also are not easily
excreted through the feces.
To remove compounds like Geosmin, transfer the fish in clean
flow-through freshwater so as to “depurate” the fish. It was observed
that through this process, geosmin content is removed from different
parts of the fish’s body in 16 days (Yamprayoon 2003).
Regular pond water exchange as well as proper feeding
management can prevent off-flavor in fish.
Grow-out System
Culture Methods
The different methods in rearing fish in general, including tilapias,

are classified according to the type of inputs (such as feed type,
fertilizers, and fish) and the level or intensity (such as amount or rate
of feeding, and stocking density) of the same, in fishfarm operations.
a) Extensive Culture Method

The extensive culture method of tilapia uses natural fish
food present in the ponds with slightly and moderately enhanced
culture system (i.e., organic and/or chemical fertilizer application).
Maximum stocking density is 3 pieces/m2.
b) Semi-intensive Culture Method

This is a combination of fertilization and supplemental feeds.
Maximum stocking density is 5 pieces/m2.
c) Intensive Culture Method

Under this system, complete supplemental feeding of fish,
aeration, and water exchange are done. To support a high fish
stocking density of >5 pieces/m2, feeding, aeration, and water

change should be optimized according to the depth of the rearing
water and other production inputs.
Polyculture
Polyculture is the culture of two or more species in one pond. The

purpose is to maximize the consumption of natural food available
in the culture environment. Tilapia feeds on plankton in the water
column while the shrimp feeds on benthic organisms in the pond
bottom. When artificial feed is given, the tilapia tends to catch the feed
pellets immediately upon administration while it is still in the water
column and will continue to do so as long as feeds are being given.
This leaves many uneaten feed particles to reach the pond bottom and
become available to the shrimps. Polyculture increases the income to
be derived from tilapia farming at a minimum additional cost in the
form of shrimp fry.
In brackishwater fishponds, tilapias may be cultured together
with the jumbo tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, or with the Pacific
white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei. Pond preparation for polyculture
is the same. Once the pond is prepared, the shrimp fry is stocked
ahead of the tilapias. For P. monodon, the stocking density is
5,000–10,000 fry/ha. For P. vannamei, the stocking density is as
high as 40,000–50,000 fry/ha. The shrimps are allowed to grow for
2–3 weeks to reach an average size of about 2–3 g. The shrimps
are expected to subsist on natural food at this time, so good pond
preparation is important. Only then are the tilapia fingerlings stocked
at the rate of 30,000–50,000 pieces/ha. Once the tilapia fingerlings
are stocked, these are fed with tilapia feed at the same rate as in the
tilapia monoculture described in the foregoing section. The shrimp
biomass is not considered in the computation of feeds.
The crop is harvested once the tilapia have reached marketable
size of 200–250 g. Harvesting of P. vannamei may be done using
a seine while partially draining the water before the tilapias are
harvested. However for P. monodon, harvesting is done by totally
draining the pond together with the tilapia. This takes 4–5 months
after stocking depending upon the initial size of the tilapia fingerlings.
For P. monodon, the harvest size is about 20–30 pieces/kg and for
P. vannamei, about 60 pieces/kg.

Harvesting
Harvesting of tilapia (Figs. 36 and 37) is done after 4–5 months

from stocking if the initial size is less than 1 g. However, the culture
period may be shortened to 2–3 months if large-sized fingerlings
(above 20 g) are used. This is preferably done at daybreak to avoid
stress that may cause mortality. Partial harvesting (Fig. 38) is done
by seining the fish while draining the pond water. Total harvesting
(Fig. 39) requires total draining of the pond.
Fig. 36. Live fish during partial draining of pond water.
Fig. 37. Seining in the pond.

Fig. 38. Harvesting fish stocks from a 200 m2 pond.
Fig. 39. Total fish harvesting by completely draining the pond.

Market Channels
The market channel for tilapia as foodfish is relatively short due

to the inherent perishable nature of fresh fish and the high preference
of local consumers for live tilapia. There are generally five distinct
chains (Fig. 40) that characterize the marketing of fresh tilapia
as foodfish. The longest chain consists of four key intermediaries,
namely: (a) brokers; (b) wholesalers or 'viajeros'; (c) wholesalers/
retailers; and (d) retailers. In each stage of the chain, the functions
of these middlemen are well delineated despite the similarity in their
objective, i.e., to facilitate the flow of harvested tilapia from the
farm to the consumers and gain income in the process.
Chain 1 is the shortest and most direct among the five market
channels. where the grow-out operator markets their own produce to
the consumers. This type of marketing arrangement occurs among
microscale or backyard tilapia producers. Either the producer sells
his produce as an ambulant vendor or the consumers purchase the fish
directly from his farm. Under Chain 2, the producer brings his produce
to the market and sells them through a retailer. Sales are either done on
cash basis or credit. Under these scenarios, the consumers are usually
composed of friends, relatives, and neighbours in the community.
Chains 3 and 4 are common among small- to medium-scale
tilapia grow-out operators whose harvests are either delivered to
wholesalers/retailers in the market place or picked up by wholesalers
or viajeros to be transported to nearby towns and municipalities.
These intermediaries normally operate within the municipality where
tilapias are grown. In some instances, the wholesalers finance the
grow-out operation of the small-scale producers in order to ensure the
steady supply of fresh harvest. However, under this arrangement, the
small-scale producers are required to exclusively sell their produce at
pre-agreed price often dictated by the wholesalers.
Tricycles and jeepneys are the common means of transportation
among small-scale viajeros, while large-scale viajeros use bigger
vehicles like trucks. When transporting large quantities of fish
harvest, tilapias are often packed in iced containers (Fig. 41) to
preserve freshness. For long distance travel across provinces, the
trucks are sometimes equipped with refrigeration facilities. Large-

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Producer Broker Consumer
(5) Wholesaler Wholesaler/

(Viajero) Retailer
Retailer
Export and high end

markets
(6) Processor
Localized niche
markets
(Source: Adapted from ADB, 2004)
Fig. 40. Market channels for fresh tilapia in the Philippines.
Fig. 41. Viajeros transporting

tilapia using insulated
plastic boxes with ice,
Taal, Batangas, 2015.
scale consumers often consist of restaurants, school cafeterias, hotels

and other institutional buyers.
Since most consumers near tilapia production areas are often
willing to pay some price premium for live tilapia, transporting the
fish requires live tanks with aerators or oxygen tanks (Fig. 42). At the
market place, sellers often use aerators (Fig. 43) to prolong the life
of tilapia and maximize its price. Incidentally, the price of live tilapia
drops dramatically by about 50% when the fish is no longer alive.

Fig. 42. Transporting live tilapia in small tanks with aeration facility,
Pampanga, 2016.
Fig. 43. Selling live tilapia in wet markets with aeration facility, Tanauan,
Batangas, 2016.

For example, a P110/kg price for live tilapia drops to P70/kg when
the fish dies (based on personal communication with tilapia retailers
in a fish market in Tanauan, Batangas). Roadside sellers also use
aerated tanks to entice passersby to buy (Fig. 44). Occasionally, they
even offer to grill the fresh tilapia for a minimal fee. Another strategy
of grow-out operators in order to maximize the price of tilapia is
through sorting. Some grow-out operators perform manual sorting and
grading according to fish size to take advantage of the price premium
brought about by larger-sized fish. Note that sorting may be done in
conjunction with partial harvesting by using grading nets.
Chain 5 is the longest market channel with the addition of
brokers on top of the viajeros, wholesalers, and retailers. Brokers are
entrepreneurs who facilitate the sourcing and bulk buying for disposal
in the market. They often function as consolidator of tilapia harvest
and offer physical facilities to wholesalers and retailers for fish
handling and price negotiations in the market. In some instances, they
also supply credit to grow-out operators in the form of feeds or funds
for grow-out operation. This type of market chain occurs in large
tilapia markets where fish are often sold on consignment basis with the
brokers being paid by commission of about 5% of gross sales.
Fig. 44. Roadside retailers of live tilapia with aeration facility,

Pampanga, 2016.

Chain 6 is an emerging market channel in the country that caters
to the potential of tilapia as a processed, exportable product in fillet
form. Since fillet processing requires sufficient volume of large-
sized tilapia (minimum 600 g), contract growing among producers
is necessary to assure fish supply. Processed tilapias either as fillet,
smoked, or dried (referred to as 'tilanggit' or 'tilading') are normally
sold in supermarkets and hypermarts and sometimes exported since
the product appeals only to the affluent consumers and are relatively
pricey.
Supply Chain
Depending on the intensity of pond operation, grow-out operators

set aside a profit margin of 14–25% production cost to establish the
farmgate price (Fig. 45). For intensive pond culture, the average
of the production cost per kilogram is P52. Given that the average
farmgate price is P65/kg, the profit margin is computed to be 25%.
At every level of the market channel, an additional 5–13% margin is
added to cover for the profits and transactions costs of the marketing
intermediaries. For example, at the consignacion level, brokers top-up
the farmgate price by 13%, while the viajeros/wholesalers add 5% on
top of the broker’s price. Additional profit margins of 8% and 5% are
further added by the wholesalers and retailers, respectively to arrive at
the consumer price of P87.46/kg.
The pricing system in intensive pond culture suggests that the
farmgate price of P52/kg can potentially increase by 68% before it
reaches the consumers at the retail price of P87.46/kg. On the other
hand, the middlemen’s margin in semi-intensive system is only 53%
since the production cost per kg is higher, i.e., P57/kg. In both cases,
the total gains of the middlemen from their tilapia buy-and-sell
activities are much larger than the margin of the grow-out operators,
i.e., only 14–25%.
Payment is done either in the form of cash, credit, or on
consignment, which is often paid on the same the day after the buyer
has resold the fish or within two days at the longest. The practice of
consignment with delayed payment or credit is fostered by the 'suki'
system, which is common among all layers of the intermediaries.
The suki system highlights the preferential relationship between buyers
and sellers, and is reinforced by social factors like the “compadre

Intensive Semi-intensive
System System
Production Cost
Operators P52.00 P57.00
+25% margin +14% margin
P65.00 P65.00
Farmgate Price +13% margin +13% margin
P73.45 P73.45
Brokers/Consignacion +5% margin +5% margin
Wholesalers/Viajeros P77.12 P577.12

Retailers P83.29 P83.29

Consumers
P87.46 P87.46
Fig. 45. Market channels for pond-raised tilapia under intensive

and semi-intensive systems from farmgate to retail prices
in P/kg and marketing margins as percent of buying price,
Philippines, 2017. (Sources: BFAR Tilapia Roadmap as basis for
the intermediaries shares and ND Salayo, this report for the prices)
system” and “quasi-contract” growing arrangement between buyers

and grow-out operators. In the latter case, tilapia harvests are
committed by the grow-out operators to particular brokers/wholesalers
due to the advance payment for the harvest that they receive. In such
a case, payment is commonly made before the next consignment is
forged. This practice is beneficial to both the buyers and sellers since
the suki system assures both parties with ready supply of and demand
for tilapia, respectively.
Aside from the margins and marketing fees of the intermediaries,
the final retail price is also dependent on several factors, namely:
a) demand and supply situation in the retail market, b) size and degree
of freshness of the fish, and c) supply source (i.e., there are claims that
tilapias from Taal Lake in Batangas taste better than those produced in
other places in Luzon). Moreover, there is an observed seasonality in
the prices of tilapia. Both wholesale and retail prices are relatively high

during the months of off-peak production, i.e., September–February
when temperature is cooler; compared to the peak months of March–
August when prices of tilapia are generally low.
Over the years, it had been observed that the real wholesale and
retail prices of tilapia have been declining (Fig. 46). This suggests
that the supply of tilapia in the market has been steadily increasing
over time, thereby reducing its price. However, the real prices (both
wholesale and retail) have started to pick up since 2008, which could
be interpreted to have been caused by some demand changes in tilapia
consumption. This offers an opportune time for the grow-out operators
to further beef up their production. Nevertheless, the real prices of
tilapia, both real wholesale and retail prices in 2010 onwards have yet
to return to the high of 1990s.
The same trend can be observed in the real margin between real
retail and wholesale prices of tilapia. From 1990 to 2000, the real
margin had been declining at around 8% per annum. However, from
2001 onwards, the real margin had steadily increased by around
2.4%. This is also an indication that tilapia farming is becoming more
profitable in the recent years.
Fig. 46. Trends in real wholesale prices and real retail prices of
tilapia and real profit margin in tilapia production, Philippines,
1990–2015.

Cost and Return Analysis for Grow-out Pond
Culture of Tilapia
Table 11 below shows the profitability analysis of intensive

grow-out culture of tilapia in seven earthen pond compartments
that altogether comprise a 10,500 m2 water pond area. This analysis
considers a 5-year project duration wherein there are two crops
conducted per year (Section A). The investment items altogether
cost P270,000 which is comprised mainly of pond construction
combined with other materials (i.e., harvesting nets, equipment for
water supply, aeration, and electrical set-up) and other structures
and materials. Some equipment have life span until end of the
5-year project duration, while other items are useful for only up to
2.5 years which should be reinvested as needed (Section B).
For intensive culture with stocking density at 10 fingerlings/m2,
variable cost amounted to P1.9 million for two crops in a year. Most
of the variable costs are on feeds (63%) since feeding with commercial
feeds becomes necessary when the cultivated natural food such as
lumut have been consumed. The other variable cost items are wages
(14.7%), fingerlings (8.8%), and other miscellaneous items (Section
C). Fixed cost amounted to P402,974 for 1 year, mostly due to interest
on loans and capital used in the business (64.8%) and other required
items listed in Section D.
Depreciation cost (16%) is fairly low due to very few and low-cost
investment items in pond culture operations. Total cost is estimated at
P2.31 million for 1 year. With annual gross income at P 2.90 million,
annual net income is expected at P 534,856. ROI is estimated at 198%
while payback period is good at 0.45 years. The breakeven price of
tilapia harvest is P 52.00/kg which is close to the average prevailing
market price for pond-grown tilapia at P65/kg. The break-even
production volume is 35,504 kg/year which is only slightly lower
than the production capacity of 44,625 kg/year. Overall, this analysis
showed that intensive culture of tilapia in ponds is highly profitable.
On a 5-year project duration, IRR is computed at 197% and
discounted BCR is 7.14. Sensitivity analysis shown in Section F
suggests reduction in SR to 80% will reduce all profitability indicators.
However, if further reduction in SR to 75% is accompanied by increase
in selling price of tilapia to P70/kg due to lower supply volume in the
market would lead to higher profitability indicators. This could be

Table 11. Profitability analysis of intensive grow-out culture of tilapia in ponds
(Reference: Computations updated from RV Eguia and MR Romana-
Eguia, 2007).
A. Technical Information B. Investment Cost Life Span
(7-pond operation) Items (P) (years)
Project duration 5 years Pond construction cost 200,000 5

Number of ponds, 1,500 m2/pond 7 ponds Harvesting nets 50,000 2.5
Total pond area 10,500 m2 Labor net fabrication 5,000 2.5
Culture period 3–4 months Caretaker’s hut, feed storage
Stocking density 10 pcs/m2 and work space 15,000
Total fingerlings stocked
per crop 105,000 pcs Total Investment Cost 270,000
Price of fingerlings, #14 0.80/pc
Survival rate 85%
Pieces harvest 89,250
Harvest weight or size 250 g/pc
Total harvest, 7 ponds 22,313 kg
Number of crops/year 2 crops
Total harvest/year 44,625 kg
Feed conversion ratio, FCR 1.6
Total feeds used, kg, 2 crops 43,953
Price of feeds, P 28/kg
Farm-gate selling price, P 65/kg
C. Variable Cost P/Year D. Fixed Cost P/Year

(7 ponds) (7 ponds)
Fingerlings 168,000 Rent on land 72,000

Feeds 1,230,684 Depreciation 65,000
Fertilizers, lime, etc. Business permit 5,000
for algae culture 6,000 Interest on loans, 12% of investment
Wages for hired labor 280,000 cost & variable cost 260,974
Harvesting cost & transport cost 89,250 Total 402,974
Fuel & electricity 80,000
Maintenance & repairs
5% of investment cost 13,500
Contingencies (2% of variable
cost) 37,349
Total 1,904,783
Total cost, P/year 2,307,757

Annual gross income, P65/kg 2,900,625
Annual commission for workers, 2% of gross income 58,013
Annual net income less commission, P/year 534,856
ROI 198%
Break-even price, P/kg 52/kg
Break-even production, kg/year 35,504
IRR 197%
BCR 7.14


F. Sensitivity Total Gross Break-even Return on Payback Benefit-
Analysis Harvest income Net Income Price investment Period Cost Ratio
Scenarios* (kg/year) (P/year) per year (P) (P/kg) (ROI), % (years) (BCR)
@ 85%; 65/kg 44,625 2,900,625 534,856 51.71 198 0.45 7.14

80%; 65/kg 42,000 2,730,000 457,607 52.80 169 0.52 6.11
75%; 70/kg 39,375 2,756,250 573,296 54.04 212 0.42 7.65
*Survival rate at harvest (%SR); Farm-gate selling price (P/kg).

@ refers to the scenario detailed in Tables A to E above.
attributed to high consumer demand for tilapia throughout all months

in the Philippines.
Meanwhile, Table 12 shows the cost and returns analysis for semi-
intensive culture of tilapia in ponds. Given the same area of seven
ponds with total water area of 10,500 m2 and with lower stocking
density at 4 pieces/m2, investment items will cost slightly lower at
P217,000. In semi-intensive culture, more fertilizers are used to
enhance algae production to reduce use of formulated pellets. Hence,
variable cost is lower at P775,567 primarily due to less expenses on
feeds and other items associated with lower stocking density. Fixed
cost is also lower at P250,508. With less stocking density, harvest was
only 22.3 t which when sold at P65/kg farm-gate price will result in
P134,175 annual net income. ROI is also lower at 62% and breakeven
price is higher at P57/kg.
For the 5-year project duration, IRR and discounted BCR are
both lower at 55% and is 2.23, respectively. Similarly, the sensitivity
analysis shown in Section E showed that reduction in SR from 85 to
80% will result in lower profitability. However, if decreases in SR
in semi-intensive grow-out culture will be accompanied by increase
in market price of tilapia from P65/kg to P75/kg, profitability will
be improved as shown by higher net income of P149,596 and better
discounted BCR of 2.49.

Table 12. Profitability analysis of semi-intensive grow-out culture of tilapia in
ponds (Reference: Computations updated from RV Eguia and MR
Romana-Eguia, 2007.)

Project duration 5 years Pond construction cost 150,000 5

Number of ponds, 1,500 m2/pond 7 ponds Harvesting nets 50,000 2.5
Total pond area 10,500 m2 Labor net fabrication 5,000 2.5
Culture period 4–5 months Caretaker’s hut, feed storage
Stocking density 4 pcs/m2 and work space 12,000 5
Total fingerlings stocked
per crop 42,000 pcs Total Investment Cost 217,000
Survival rate 85%
Total harvest, 7 ponds 22,313 kg
Farm-gate selling price, P 65/kg

(7 ponds) (7 ponds)
Fingerlings 67,200 Rent on land 72,000

Feeds 493,685 Depreciation 54,400
Fertilizers, lime, etc. Business permit 5,000
for algae culture 14,000 Interest on loans, 12% of investment
Wages for hired labor 100,000 cost & variable cost 119,108
Harvesting cost & transport cost 44,625 Total 250,508
Fuel & electricity 30,000
Contingencies (2% of variable
cost) 15,207
Total 775,567

ROI 62%
IRR 55%
BCR 2.23


@ 85%; 65/kg 17,850 1,160,250 134,175 57.48 62 1.15 2.23

80%; 65/kg 16.800 1,092,000 102,510 58.90 47 1.38 1.70
75%; 70/kg 15,750 1,102,500 149,596 60.50 69 1.06 2.49


Cage Culture
Tilapia Cage Culture in the Philippines

Growing tilapia in cages in natural waters has long been practiced
primarily in countries that utilize lakes, river systems, and even
abandoned mining pools (in the case of Malaysia) for aquaculture.
In the Philippines, tilapias have been farmed in cages in lakes and
dams/water reservoirs, subject to regulations set forth either by
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR),
BFAR, the concerned local government unit in the area, or all of the
aforementioned agencies. In eutrophic lakes like Laguna de Bay which
is nutrient-rich, and as such, has natural food, feeding tilapias with
artificial diets is deemed unnecessary and is not encouraged. Lakes
that are relatively deep with low to nil primary productivity, like the
Taal Lake in Batangas, have been used as well for tilapia farming. But
in Taal Lake, tilapias are stocked at higher densities and are totally
dependent on artificial or pelleted diets. In such circumstances where
intensive farming is practiced, the cage-based farms have to adhere
to good aquaculture practices being promoted particularly by BFAR.
One of the eco-friendly interventions is the use of extruded, floating
fish pellets as feed. This, apart from the regulations pertaining to the
number and size of aquaculture cages and the stocking density in each
cage, has to be strictly followed.

Fingerling Sourcing, Conditioning, and Transport
Buying Tilapia Seedstock
Several studies have been conducted to scientifically determine

and define fry/fingerling quality criteria. Physiological stress tests can
be performed on sample fry/fingerlings but for practical purposes,
one is able to detect good quality seedstock on farm by visually
examining the fry/fingerlings physical attributes and swimming
behavior. Seedstock that do not appear undernourished or emaciated,
would have intact fins (or no eroded fins), no physical signs of diseases
(e.g., fungi manifested by small cottony clusters on the fish’s skin

surface, no lesions or wounds, bulging eyes, etc.), and swim normally
are visual signs of healthy seedstock. To be sure, a farmer could
also ascertain quality from several preliminary batches procured
from known sources at different production cycles. One is able to
monitor which of these batches of tilapias grow well and survive
to marketable size for at least 4–5 months, depending on the feed
inputs. After the farmer has noted which stock grows fast with
relatively high survivability at a reasonable feed conversion ratio,
he should get his next stock from the same farm as he himself has
experienced that this hatchery provides good quality seedstock and
is therefore a reputable seedstock source. Fry or fingerlings from the
hatchery are usually conditioned prior to transport to the farm site.
Conditioning Fry/Fingerlings in the Hatchery
In the hatchery, immediately after the fingerlings are harvested,

the fish meant for transport must be unfed or starved for 24 hours
while stocked in a temporary holding or conditioning tank with
flowing aerated water. Here, the fish are allowed to rest and defecate.
The fingerlings are then packed sans the accumulated fecal wastes, in
oxygenated plastic bags that should ideally have a temperature of as
low as 20°C to reduce the oxygen consumption of the fish while on
transport. Hence, for long distance stock transfers or movement, ice
in separate plastic bags are placed in the transport containers. Oxygen
must be available to the fish in sufficient amounts at all times, which is
why an oxygen tank should be readily available in case there is a need
to refill the transport bags with oxygen. The optimal loading density
(number of fingerlings packed in the transport bags) for land transport
depends on fish size, water temperature, time of day, transport duration,
distance, and road condition. The plastic bags (75 cm x 40 cm size)
must be doubled before putting in water and oxygen at a volume ratio
of 1:1. These bags can hold an estimated 500 pieces of size 17 tilapia
fingerlings.
Transport
There are several ways by which fingerlings are transported

from the hatchery to the cage farming site. If transported by air,
oxygenated transport bags, usually packed with bagged ice, are set
in styrofoam boxes placed inside corrugated cardboard boxes. A

styrofoam box can hold two 20”x 30” plastic bags each containing
250–300 pieces of size fingerlings at 1:3 water and oxygen volume
ratio. This loading density is optimum if the total transport duration
is from 6–8 hours, that is, including land travel to and from the airport.
If transported by land, transport boxes made of marine plywood are
fitted inside a truck or a van. In this case, as many as 20,000 size # 17
fingerlings per ton of water can be loaded in the box. Aeration by way
of portable aerators and/or medical oxygen should be provided.
For fingerlings that are transported from lake-based hatcheries,
stocks are sometimes loaded directly into the hull of a boat in a
compartment with small holes that enable free entry of water into and
out of the boat as it moves along. The boat is prevented from sinking
as water is removed manually or by pump.
Acclimatization and Stocking
Once the fingerlings reach the farm site, the newly transported
stocks are conditioned yet again before these are directly stocked into
the lake cages. The transported fingerlings, usually stocked at optimal
loading densities, are kept in polyethylene transport bags. Before
releasing the stocks inside the netcages, the transport bags with the
fish are placed inside the netcages for acclimatization or conditioning
until the water temperature inside the bags are the same as the water
temperature in the culture enclosure. This is to prevent stress when
the fish are exposed to abrupt temperature changes. Once the water
temperatures in and out of the transport bags become equal, the
fingerlings are released into the rearing cages.
Site Selection
Several factors have to be considered in choosing a suitable site

for cage culture. First, the area should be: (a) in a community that
is relatively safe/secure (in terms of peace and order), (b) proximal
(and accessible by land) to markets to enable easy procurement of
farm supplies and where the farm produce can also be easily sold,
(c) protected from strong winds and waves, (d) near reputable fish
hatcheries that can provide good quality tilapia fingerlings, (e) in a
water area that has good water circulation and is sufficiently rich in
planktonic organisms (brownish, bluish green, or grass green) but
not exceedingly rich in planktons which could be a manifestation of
subsequent algal blooms, (f) in an area that is safe from harmful water
pollutants (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.); and (g) for shallow lakes,
the lake should preferably have sandy to clay loam bottom/substrate,
which is ideal for installing fixed cage bamboo modules.
Cage Module Design and Layout
There are two kinds of cage modules—fixed type and floating

type. In shallow lakes with sandy to clay-loam substrates, fixed
cage modules can be installed using bamboo or palm tree trunks
staked 1–2 m deep into the bottom. Here, the net cages are placed
securely onto the poles and are arranged in a manner that allows
good water circulation. The other type of module is used in deeper
lakes, reservoirs, lagoons, or bays. It mainly consists of netcages, a
module frame made up of either GI pipes or bamboo poles, working
platform, flotation system (e.g., empty polyethylene drums, bamboo
poles, or hard styrofoam blocks), and mooring system (polyethylene
ropes with concrete blocks or specially designed anchors). Although
the floating netcages (Fig. 47) are secured to the frame, these move
Fig. 47. Floating cages in Taal Lake, Batangas.

freely with the water level. The cage modules can either be arranged
in rows, either diagonally or parallel to each other.
Netcage Material, Design, Dimensions, and Fabrication
Netcages are made from a type of a netting material, usually

polyethylene, that is sewn together to form an inverted mosquito net
or a net box that will be suspended from the frame of the cage module.
It may or may not have a net cover but installing a net cover is ideal to
prevent the stocks from accidentally getting out of the netcage when
the water level increases. It can also help minimize poaching. The
mesh and the type of netting material for a fish cage depend on the
purpose for which it is used. If the cage will be used as a spawning
enclosure, a fine-meshed hapa net is used to prevent the escape of
swim-up tilapia fry or fingerlings. On the other hand, if the netcage
is used for tilapia farming, the net mesh selected should be slightly
smaller than the size of the fingerlings to be stocked in the cage. The
types of netting materials are classified according to the mesh size or
the number of knots the nets have within a length of 6 inches of netting
material.
As for the cage size, the dimensions depend on the depth of the
lake water and the type of lake. If the lake is eutrophic (e.g., Laguna
Lake), the depth of the cage will be at least 1 m while in deeper lakes
(e.g., Taal Lake), the cages could be at least 5 m deep. For grow-
out culture, the more common cage size for tilapia farming is from
5 x 10 x 1.5 m3 to 10 x 10 x 1.5 m3. Tilapia farmed in eutrophic
lakes do not need deep cages because the fish normally stay at
the upper layer of the lake water since it is where natural food
organisms produced via photosynthesis are found. Tilapias stocked
in deeper lakes where primary productivity is relatively lower, are
usually dependent on artificial diets, hence the fishfarmers tend to
have deeper or longer cages that can hold more fish. Although it
is not advisable to stock tilapias in high densities in lake cages, to
avoid overfeeding, an automatic feeder can be used. Local trials can
be made where different automatic feeder types can be tried to test
their ability to efficiently dispense feeds.

Culture Techniques
Tilapias can be grown following three rearing systems, namely,

extensive, semi-intensive, or intensive. The system depends on the
level of inputs involved in fish culture. Extensive culture systems
are very traditional and are usually done in earthen ponds where the
rearing water is fertilized to promote algal growth. The same system
is also practiced in cages especially in eutrophic lakes where algae
abound but without the use of fertilizers. In both enclosure types,
tilapias (size # 17 or size # 14 fingerlings) are stocked at a minimum,
meaning at lower densities, usually 2–3 pieces/m2 in ponds while in
cages, the fish can be stocked at 10–15 pieces/m2. As such extensive
systems do not often require artificial diets to boost fish growth since
the natural food in the lake is sufficient. The second system is semi-
intensive where the fish stocking density is higher thus requiring
complete diets. Here, feeds are administered to fish that also have
access to natural food in the culture water. Artificial diets are given
because food is deemed insufficient especially if the stocking density
(4–6 pieces/m2 in ponds or 25–30/m2 in cages) is higher than when
fish are extensively farmed. Finally, intensive tilapia cage farming as
practiced in deeper lakes such as Taal Lake, stocking density has been
regulated at 50/m3. This stocking density has been recommended to
minimize pollution due to unconsumed fish feeds and avoid massive
fish kills. Sustainable aquaculture practices such as the use of non-
polluting, extruded (floating) diets, etc. should be adopted to lessen
the adverse impact on the environment, which if left unregulated, may
compromise the tilapia farming industry.
The mode of farming tilapia in cages can likewise be done by way
of a modular or staggered stocking system. For small-scale farmers,
this will allow them to have a continuous cropping or harvesting
of tilapia, which takes on the average 4–6 months to grow. Another
means of maximizing harvests would be to engage in polyculture, that
is, growing tilapia with other commodities such as giant freshwater
prawns and/or bighead carp.

Feeds and Feeding
As filter feeding herbivores, tilapia may be grown totally on

phytoplankton available in net cages. With natural feeding, the
stocking is limited to a maximum of 1 fish/m2. Even at such low
density, supplemental feeding still may be required to produce
better quality fish.
Supplemental feeding may consist of rice bran, chopped forage
grass such as napier (Pennisetum purpureum), or chopped swamp
cabbage or 'kangkong' (Ipomoea aquatica). Better results are obtained,
however, when complete feeds that are available commercially are
used as supplement. When rice bran is used, it is usually given at the
rate of 10% biomass daily, three times a day. When using fresh plant
materials, these may be given without any restriction as long as the fish
show signs of feeding.
In order for a small cage area to harvest more, it is necessary to
stock at higher densities (>5/m2). This assumes that the cage has a
water depth that can be maintained at one meter and water supply is
adequate for changing as may be required. At such stocking density,
regular feeding using complete feed is essential.
Tilapia feeds are commercially available throughout the country
with different variants. Although all are in pellet form, there are two
different types based on the feed processing technology: pelletized
and extruded. The pelletizer is designed to compress and shape fine
particles into larger pieces. The extruder, on the other hand, is a device
that is designed to continuously cook the feed mixture with steam
under pressure pushing the feed through a long cylindrical chamber by
a screw until it is extruded through a metal die. Because of the higher
pressure and temperature (above 100°C), the feed is more thoroughly
cooked and as a result is more digestible. The extruder also makes it
possible to produce feed pellets with various densities: sinking, slow
sinking, or floating. The pelletizer can make only sinking pellets.
Floating pellets and slow sinking ones are generally slightly priced
higher than the sinkers. The type of feed to use is often the choice
of the farmers based on their previous experience and their financial
capability. However, the use of floaters is recommended for culture in
cages since sinking pellets which are missed by the fish will surely fall
through the mesh of the cage bottom and be wasted. With the slow
sinking variant, the slow descent of the pellets allows the fish to feed
throughout the water column instead of only at the surface. Another

advantage is it is less prone to drift through the mesh of the net siding
when the wind or the current is strong.
To solve the problem of feed loss through wind drift when using
floaters, a feeding net with a mesh size that is small enough to retain
the feeds is installed at the center of the net cage. It is like a floating
net pen that covers only 20–35% of the net cage itself and a depth of
only 50 cm. The feed is introduced only inside the net. Since the net
material does not extend to the bottom, the fish are free to swim inside
to get at the feed.
In earthen ponds, any of the different types of feed variant can
be used. However, in deep ponds, the slow sinking feed has its
advantage. As in the net cages, their slow descent allows the fish to
feed throughout the water column instead of only at the surface so
that only a small percentage manages to reach the pond bottom. Feed
pellets that end up on the bottom of the pond are still available to the
fish but may get covered by mud and silt and may no longer be visible
to the fish.
It is best to start the grow-out phase using advance fingerlings
with ABW of 30 g. With such initial stocking size, it is no longer
necessary to start with fry mash and crumble. Instead, starter feed
can immediately be provided. Then, as the fish grow, the feed shifts
to grower and then to finisher. However, since such size is not readily
available, it is best to allocate a portion of the farm as a nursery
using Size # 24 or Size # 22 fingerlings from the hatchery following
the procedures in the relevant section of this publication.
Whether using ponds or cages, and whether using sinkers,
slow-sinkers, or floaters the amount of feed given and the
frequency may vary slightly from one feed company to another.
However, Table 13 is indicative of what may be found in feed
company guides and brochures.
Table 13. Feeding program.
Daily Amount
Size of Feed of Feed (in % No of Feedings
Fish Type Total Biomass) per Day
30–80 g Starter 7–4% 3x

80–150 g Grower 4–3% 3x
150 g until harvest Finisher 3–2% 3x

Feed only during daytime because the tilapia is a daytime feeder.
The daily amount of feed as computed is only a guide and need
not be given if the fish no longer show active feeding activity.
Moreover, the appetite of the fish is affected by the weather. During
very hot days, they may not respond actively to the presence of
feed. In such case, it is better to skip feeding and resume only when
they become responsive. It is better to underfeed than to overfeed.
Underfeeding may only result in slightly slower growth. On the
other hand when overfed, uneaten feeds decompose which depletes
dissolved oxygen, increases ammonia and sulphides, induces disease
infection, and may result in fish kills.
Health Management
Discussion on the interaction of the host or fish, environment,

pathogens, and risk factors (i.e, overstocking, overfeeding, and poor
water quality) in disease development and the importance of
good aquaculture practices in fish health management, refer to
the Pond Culture section.
It is difficult to implement management interventions to
maintain good environmental condition for tilapia cage farming
in open waters such as lakes as there is no way of controlling the
conditions. However, understanding the risk factors in disease
development will enable fish growers/operators to effectively
implement risk management measures and practices.
Management Practices for Disease Prevention and Control
• Stock healthy and good quality fingerlings from reliable sources.

Ensure that the fish are not infested with external parasites
(protozoan and gill fluke) prior to stocking.
• Minimize stress when transporting and handling the fish for
stocking.
• The appropriate stocking density should be followed as
overcrowding can cause a stressful condition that may affect
the growth and survival of the fish. Stressful condition will also
predispose the fish to opportunistic bacterial pathogens.

• To optimize efficient fish growth, provide proper feeds and follow
the recommended feeding rates.
• Do not overfeed the fish as uneaten feeds will pollute the culture
environment. It is advisable to use floating feeds because sinking
feeds are difficult to monitor. Uneaten feeds that sink at the bottom
will also contribute to oxygen depletion as bacteria require this for
decomposition.
• Regularly monitor the growth and health status (Fig. 48) of the
fish for early detection of any physical abnormalites (fin
rot, bulging eyes, ulcerations, hemorrhages) or behavioral
abnormalities such as lack of appetite, abnormal swimming
(Fig. 49) and mortalities (Fig 50). Early detection of any
abnormalities will help in the identification of possible causes
before control measures are implemented.
• Remove dead fish immediately (Fig. 51) and dispose by burying.
• Use chemicals and veterinary drugs responsibly by knowing
its intended use, when to use, and how to use it. It is important
to have correct diagnosis to have an effective treatment and
control measures. Misuse of veterinary drugs particularly
antibiotics may result in build-up of residues in fish and
antimicrobial resistance, which is of human health importance.
Fig. 48. Monitoring the health status of farmed tilapias.

Fig. 49. Observation of abnormal swimming.
Fig. 50. Observation of mortalities of farmed tilapias.

Fig. 51. Immediate removal of dead fish.
Common Parasites and Bacterial Diseases of Tilapia
For the description, prevention, and control measures of common

parasites and bacterial diseases of tilapia and preventive measures
against off-flavor, refer to the Pond Culture section.
Precautionary Measures against Fish Kill
Massive fish kill of cage-cultured tilapia due to dissolved oxygen

depletion (Fig. 52) can be avoided by the following measures:
• During stocking (Fig. 53), it is important to know the carrying

capacity of the cages as overstocking will cause higher
competition for dissolved oxygen as they grow.
• Do not overfeed the fish as uneaten feeds will pollute the
culture environment. It is advisable to use floating feeds
because sinking feeds are difficult to monitor. Monitor
the feeding activity of the fish to ensure that the feeds are
consumed (Fig. 54) because uneaten feeds due to improper
feeding will sink and accumulate at the bottom and contribute
to oxygen depletion due to decomposition.
• When signs of dissolved oxygen deficiency are observed
and stocks are already of marketable size, partial
Fig. 52. Massive fish kill of cage-cultured tilapia due to oxygen depletion.
Fig. 53. Stocking of tilapia.

Fig. 54. Monitoring the feeding activity of the fish to ensure that the
feeds are consumed.
harvesting (Fig. 55) is recommended to reduce the density

of stocks and to increase the dissolved oxygen level in the
cages.
• Emergency aeration is needed when dissolved oxygen level
reaches below the standard limit or critical level. A motorized
boat can be used for aeration by agitating the water with its
propeller (Fig. 56).
Harvesting
Harvesting tilapia from cages in lakes is similar to what is done

in cage-in-pond hatchery facilities although what are harvested in
the cage hatchery are the eggs/fry/fingerlings from mouthbrooding
tilapias. In harvesting stocks of marketable-size tilapia, a bamboo/
anahaw pole is placed underneath the cage bottom and then the pole is
gradually moved to allow the fish to swim to one section of the cage
where laborers are waiting for the fishes to be scooped out.

Fig. 55. Partial harvest of stocks due to critical level of dissolved oxygen.
Fig. 56. Agitation of water using a motorized boat’s propeller for

emergency aeration.

Market Channels
The market channel for tilapia as foodfish is relatively short due

to the inherent perishable nature of fresh fish and the high preference
of local consumers for live tilapia. There are generally five distinct
chains (Fig. 57) that characterize the marketing of fresh tilapia as
foodfish. The longest chain consists of four key intermediaries,
namely: a) brokers; b) wholesalers or viajeros; c) wholesalers/retailers;
and d) retailers. In each stage of the chain, the functions of these
middlemen are well delineated despite the similarity in their objective,
i.e., to facilitate the flow of harvested tilapia from the cages to the
consumers and gain income in the process.
Chain 1 is the shortest and most direct among the five market
channels, where the grow-out operators themselves market their
own produce to the consumers. This type of marketing arrangement
occurs among small-scale cage operators where the producer sells
his produce directly to consumers as an ambulant vendor. Under
Chain 2, the producer brings his produce to the market and sells them
through a retailer. Sales are either done on cash basis or credit. Under
Chain 1, the consumers are usually composed of friends, relatives and
neighbours in the community who consume tilapia as foodfish.
Chains 3 and 4 are common among small- to medium-scale
tilapia grow-out operators whose harvests are either delivered to
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Producer Broker Consumer
(5) Wholesaler Wholesaler/

(Viajero) Retailer
Retailer
Export and high end

markets
(6) Processor
Localized niche
markets
(Source: Adapted from ADB, 2004)
Fig. 57. Market channels for tilapia in the Philippines.
wholesalers/retailers in the market place or picked up by wholesalers
or viajeros to be transported to nearby towns and municipalities.
These intermediaries normally operate within the municipality where
tilapias are grown. In some instances, the wholesalers finance the
grow-out operation of small-scale producers to ensure the steady
supply of fresh harvest. However, under this arrangement, the small-
scale producers are required to exclusively sell their produce at
pre-agreed price often dictated by the wholesalers.
Tricycles and jeepneys are the common means of transportation
among the small-scale viajeros, while large-scale viajeros use bigger
vehicles like trucks. When transporting large quantities of fish
harvest, tilapias are often packed in iced containers (Fig. 58) to
preserve their freshness. For long distance travel across provinces,
the trucks are sometimes equipped with refrigeration facilities.
Large-scale consumers often consist of restaurants, school cafeterias,
hotels, and other institutional buyers.
Since most consumers near tilapia production areas are often
willing to pay some price premium for live tilapia, transporting the
fish requires live tanks with aerators or oxygen tanks (Fig. 59). At
the market place, sellers often use aerators (Fig. 60) to prolong the
life of tilapia and maximize its price. Incidentally, the price of live
tilapia drops dramatically by about 50% when the fish is no longer
Fig. 58. Transport of tilapia using insulated plastic boxes with ice, Taal
Batangas, 2015.

Fig. 59. Transporting live tilapia by small-scale viajeros with aeration
facility, Pampanga, 2016.
Fig. 60. Selling live tilapia in wet markets using aerators to keep the fish
alive, Tanauan, Batangas, 2016.

alive. For example, in the same fish stall, the P110/kg price of
tilapia usually drops to P70/kg when the fish die (personal
communication with tilapia retailers in Tanauan fish market,
Batangas). Roadside sellers also use aerated tanks to entice passersby
with their live tilapias (Fig. 61). Occasionally, sellers even offer to
grill the fresh tilapia for a minimal fee. Another strategy of grow-out
operators to maximize the price of tilapia is through sorting. Some
grow-out operators perform manual sorting and grading to take
advantage of the price premium brought about by larger-sized fish.
Note that sorting may be done in conjunction with partial harvesting
by using grading nets.
Chain 5 is the longest market channel with the addition of
brokers on top of the viajeros, wholesalers and retailers. Brokers
are entrepreneurs who facilitate the sourcing and bulk buying of the
fish for disposal in the market. They often function as consolidators
of tilapia harvests and offer physical facilities to wholesalers and
retailers for fish handling and price negotiations in the market. In some
instances, they also supply credit to grow-out operators in the form of
feeds or funds for grow-out operation. This type of market chain occurs
in large tilapia markets where fish are often sold on consignment basis
with the brokers being paid by commission of about 5% of gross sales.
Fig. 61. Roadside retailers of live tilapia with aeration facility,

Pampanga, 2016.

Chain 6 is an emerging marketing channel that caters to the
potential of tilapia as a processed product in fillet form. Since fillet
processing requires sufficient volume of large-sized tilapia (minimum
600 g), contract growing among producers is necessary to assure
fish supply. Processed tilapias either as fillet, smoked, or dried
(referred to as 'tilanggit') are normally sold in supermarkets and
hypermarts since the product appeals only to the affluent consumers
and are relatively costly.
Supply Chain
Depending on the intensity of cage operation, grow-out operators

set aside a profit margin of 10–14% production cost to establish the
farmgate price (Fig. 62). For intensive cage culture, the average
Intensive Semi-intensive
System System
Production Cost
Operators P59.00 P57.00
P65.00 P65.00
Farmgate Price +13% margin +13% margin
P73.45 P73.45
Brokers/Consignacion +5% margin +5% margin
Wholesalers/Viajeros P77.12 P577.12

Retailers P83.29 P83.29

Consumers
P87.46 P87.46
Fig. 62. Market channels for caged tilapia under intensive and semi-
intensive systems from farmgate to retail prices in P/kg and
marketing margins as percent of buying price, Philippines, 2017.

production cost per kg is P59. Given that the average farmgate price
is P65/kg, the profit margin is computed to be 10%. At every level
of the marketing channel, an additional 5% to 13% margin is added
to cover for the profits and transaction costs of the marketing
intermediaries. For example, at the consignation level, brokers top-up
the farmgate price by 13% while the viajeros/wholesalers add 5% on
top of the broker’s price. Additional profit margins of 8% and 5% are
further added by the wholesalers and retailers, respectively, to arrive
at the consumer price of P87.46.
The pricing system in the intensive cage culture suggests that the
farmgate price of P59/kg can potentially increase by 48% before it
reaches the consumers at the retail price of P87.46/kg. On the other
hand, the middlemen margin for semi-intensive system is higher,
i.e., 53%, since the production cost per kg is lower, i.e., P59. In both
cases, the total gains of the middlemen from their tilapia buy-and-sell
activities are much larger than the margin of the grow-out operators,
i.e., 10–14%.
Payment is done either in the form of cash, credit, or on
consignment, which is often paid on the same the day after the buyer
has resold the fish or within two days at the longest. The practice of
consignment with delayed payment or credit is fostered by the ‘suki’
system, which is common among all layers of the intermediaries. The
“suki” system highlights the preferential relationship between buyers
and sellers, and is reinforced by social factors like the “compadre
system” and “quasi-contract” growing arrangement between buyers
and grow-out operators. In the latter case, tilapia harvests are
committed by the grow-out operators to particular brokers/wholesalers
due to the advance payment for the harvest that they receive. In such
a case, payment is commonly made before the next consignment is
forged. This practice is beneficial to both the buyers and sellers since
the suki system assures both parties with ready supply of and demand
for tilapia, respectively.
Aside from the margins and marketing fees of the intermediaries,
the final retail price is also dependent on several factors, namely:
a) demand and supply situation in the retail market, b) size and degree
of freshness of the fish, and c) supply source (i.e., there are claims
that tilapias from Taal Lake taste better than those produced in other
places in Luzon). Moreover, there is an observed seasonality in the
prices of tilapia, i.e., both wholesale and retail prices are relatively

high during the months of off-peak production, i.e., September to
February when temperature is cooler; compared to the peak months of
March to August when prices of tilapia are generally low.
Over the years, it has been observed that the real wholesale and
retail prices of tilapia has been declining (Fig. 63). This suggests that
the supply of tilapia in the market has been steadily increasing over
time, thereby depressing its price. However, the real prices (both
wholesale and retail) have started to pick up since 2008, which could
be interpreted to have been caused by some demand changes in tilapia
consumption. This offers an opportune time for the grow-out operators
to further beef up their production. Nevertheless, the real prices of
tilapia, both real wholesale and retail prices in 2010 onwards, have yet
to return to the high of 1990s.
The same trend can be observed in the real margin between real
retail and wholesale price of tilapia. From 1990 to 2000, the real
margin had been declining at around 8% per annum. However, from
2001 onwards, the real margin has steadily increased by around
2.4%. This is also an indication that tilapia farming is becoming more
profitable in recent years.
Fig. 63. Trends in real wholesale prices and real retail prices of
tilapia and real profit margin in tilapia production, Philippines,
1990–2015.

Cost and Return Analysis for Grow-out
Cage Culture of Tilapia
Table 14 shows the profitability analysis of intensive grow-out of

tilapia in cages such as those set up in lakes and other relatively deeper
water bodies suited for cage culture operations. This analysis evaluated
an operation with five cages (size 5 m x 10 m x 5 m depth) with
stocking density as high as 50 fingerlings/m2 and with two croppings
per year. Other technical information are described in Section A
below. The cost of investment items listed in Section B only amounted
to P172,500 with cages that may have a life span of 5 years but
with some other items that may need replacement after 2.5 years.
Variable cost of production per year listed in Section C amounted to
P1.32 million/year, 55% of which are due to feeds, 21% on wages for
labor, 9% on cost of fingerlings, and the rest are due to utilities and
maintenance cost. Fixed cost per year as listed in Section D is about
P254,167, where 70% is due to interest charges either for borrowed
capital or opportunity cost of own capital.
Section E shows that with an annual total cost of P1.57 million
against P1.72 million gross income, the 5-cage intensive culture
operation may expect a fairly moderate annual net income of
P117,309 from two croppings per year. Since the cost of investment
is considerably low at P172,500 due to fewer items required, the
ROI is 68% and the payback period is 1.06 years. The breakeven
price per kg of tilapia produced is P59/kg. Overall, for the 5-year
project duration, the IRR is 68% and discounted BCR at 2.45 shows
that tilapia grow-out in a 5-cage operation is a moderately profitable
investment opportunity. The sensitivity analysis in Section F shows
that profitability indicators decline if SR rates will be reduced to 80%
and price will remain at P65/kg. However, even if SR is reduced
further to 75% but with prices of market-size tilapia improving to
P70/kg due to lower production volume, the profitability indicators
such as net income (P143,760) and ROI (83%) tend to be higher; and
for the 5-year project duration, BCR at 3.0 is also higher.
Meanwhile, Table 15 shows the profitability analysis of semi-
intensive grow-out culture of tilapia in cages. Similarly, the setup
is comprised of five units of 250 m2 cages with a total water area of
1,250 m2. It applies similar technical assumptions as the intensive
operation shown in Section A, except for lower stocking density at
25 fingerlings/m2 because of dependence on natural food typical in

Table 14. Profitability analysis of intensive grow-out culture of tilapia in
cages. (Reference: Computations updated from RV Eguia and MRR
Eguia, 2007.)
(7-cage operation) Items (P) (years)
Project duration 5 years Net cages (1 roll #17 knotless;

Size of cages (5 m x 10 m x 5 m) 250 m2 1 roll #8 nylon rope, 4 rolls
Number of cages 5 #210/18 rope 100,000 5
Total water area of cages 1,250 m2 Net fabrication labor 50,000 2.5
Culture period 4–5 months Bamboo poles 7,500 2.5
Stocking density 50 pcs Caretaker’s hut & feed storage 15,000 5
Total fingerlings stocked Total Investment Cost 172,500
per crop 62,000 pcs
Survival rate 85%
Total harvest, 5 cages 13,281 kg
Farm-gate selling price 65/kg

(7 cages) (7 cages)
Fingerlings 125,000 Rent for culture area 24,000

Wages for hired labor 280,000 Business permit 5,000
Harvesting cost & transport cost 79,688 Interest on loans, 12% of investment
Fuel & electricity 80,000 cost & variable cost 179,167
Maintenance & repairs Total 254,167
Contingencies
(2% of variable cost) 25,893
Total 1,320,556

ROI 68%
IRR 62%
BCR 2.45


@ 85%; 65/kg 26,563 1,726,563 117,309 59.28 68 1.06 2.45

80%; 65/kg 25.000 1,625,000 73,113 60.78 42 1.45 1.53
75%; 70/kg 22,638 1,640,625 143,760 62.47 83 0.91 3.00

Table 15. Profitability analysis of semi-intensive grow-out culture of tilapia in
cages. (Reference: Computations updated from RV Eguia and MRR
Eguia, 2007.)
Project duration 5 years Net cages (1 roll #17 knotless;

Size of cages (5 m x 10 m x 5 m) 250 m2 1 roll #8 nylon rope, 4 rolls
Number of cages 5 #210/18 rope 100,000 5
Total water area of cages 1,250 m2 Net fabrication labor 50,000 2.5
Culture period 5 months Bamboo poles 4,500 2.5
Stocking density 25 pcs Caretaker’s hut & feed storage 12,000 5
Total fingerlings stocked Total Investment Cost 166,500
per crop 31,250 pcs
Survival rate 85%
Harvest weight 250 g/pc
Total harvest, 5 cages 6,641 kg
Farm-gate selling price 65/kg

(5 cages) (5 cages)
Fingerlings 62,500 Rent for culture area 24,000

Wages for hired labor 70,000 Business permit 5,000
Harvesting cost & transport cost 39,844 Interest on loans, 12% of investment
Fuel & electricity 50,000 cost & variable cost 92,703
5% of investment cost 8,325 Total 165,903
Contingencies
(2% of variable cost) 11,883
Total 606,027
Total cost, P/year 771,930

Annual gross income, P65/kg 863,281
ROI 44%
IRR 34%
BCR 1.60

@ 85%; 65/kg 13,281 863,282 74,086 56.82 44 1.41 1.60

80%; 65/kg 12,500 812,500 51,988 58.24 31 1.73 1.33
75%; 70/kg 11,719 820,313 87,311 59.75 52 1.27 1.89

lake environment. Hence, variable cost is lower at P606,027 due to

lower quantities and cost of fingerlings (P62,500) and feeds used
(P363,475) aside from other items (Section C). Fixed cost is also
lower at P165,903 with two croppings per year. As expected with
lower stocking densities, volume of harvest is lower at 13.28 t/year.
And even if total cost is lower at P771,930 and breakeven selling
price or production cost per unit is lower at P57/kg, profitability
indicators such as annual net income and ROI are lower. Moreso,
5-year profitability indicators such as IRR and discounted BCR are
lower at 34% and 1.6, respectively.

Postharvest Handling and Processing
Postharvest Handling
The handling of fish after harvesting and before it reaches the

dining table is important. Consumers want fish as fresh (Fig 64) and
fast as possible because quality deteriorates with time. It is best to
transport live fish wherever possible. Common salt (5 ppt or so) is
often added to reduce stress to the fish for them to survive longer after
harvest and maintain its quality.
The following are guidelines for the fish harvesters and handlers:
1. Tilapia should be kept in appropriate containers (e.g., tintubs

or Styropor boxes) filled with water at 20% of their capacity
to keep them alive for 4–6 hours.
2. Water is changed every so often and the containers are covered
with polyethylene nets or wood to prevent the fish from
jumping out.
3. Smooth, cleanable and shallow receptacles, which are non-
corrosive or made from corrosion resistant material, are ideal
for packing the fish. It is not advisable to use deep or tall
Fig. 64. Fresh farm-raised tilapia. (Source: BFAR-IPRG)

containers like drums, bamboo baskets, or woven baskets
where fish are subject to pressure of excessive filing.
4. The fish should be protected from direct sunlight.
5. Transfer of fish from the pond, cages, or pens should be as
quickly as possible to avoid stress.
Handling of Marketable Fresh Chilled Tilapia
1. Wash the harvested fish with pond water prior to icing and sort
according to size.
2. Place a bamboo screen or seine over the live fish until they
stop flopping or trashing about to prevent physical damage to
the fish, including loss of scales.
3. Use ice slurry to pre-chill the fish at 4°C in the chilling tank
immediately after harvest to maintain quality of harvested fish.
4. Maintain 1:1 ratio of ice to a kilogram of fish or two blocks of
ice for each ton of fish to maintain freshness and delay spoilage.
5. If the fish is to be sold locally, they can be vertically packed heads
up in slatted baskets that are well-ventilated and well-drained.
6. If the fish are to be transported by land to a distant market,
sufficient ice must be used to maintain fish temperature at 0°C.
For longer trips, more ice than fish is needed, more than the usual
1:1 ice to fish ratio.
7. For shipping tilapia on commercial cargo vessels, pack the fish in
rigid wooded containers or in insulated plastic boxes alternately
with a layer of crushed ice.
• The container is usually made of wood or fiberglass. Lay the
fish on top of the crushed ice.
• Spread another layer of crushed ice 5 cm thick on top of the
fish.
• Repeat steps (7.1) and (7.2) until the last layer of fish is 15 cm
thick below the top of the box.
• Place the last layer of crushed ice 15 cm thick on top of the
last layer of fish. The bottom and the top layers of ice should
always be 15 cm thick.
• Do not remove the fish from the container until it reaches
the market place so that the fish can stay fresh in the container
for more than 12 hours.
• Add ice on the top layer of the fishes in the container if
the fishes cannot be sold within 24 hours.

8. For packing and transporting live tilapia fingerlings by plastic
bags, do the following:
• Use only clean water for packing. When using pond water,
hold water for 24 hours in a tank to allow sediments to
settle. Adjust the water salinity according to where the fish is
intended, such as 5 ppt for stocking in freshwater or 25 ppt
for stocking in sea cages or pens.
• Place 2 L of the prepared transport water into each plastic
bag and stock the fingerlings directly into the bag at 100–150
fish per bag for 3–6 cm fingerlings and 50–75 fish per bag for
7–12 cm fingerlings. Use the higher figure for shorter distance
and the lower figure for long distances.
• Inflate the plastic bag with oxygen at approximately two-thirds
of its capacity and immediately twist free end and fasten with
thick rubber band.
• Place each bag inside polystyrene box and put about ½ kg ice
(contained in plastic bag and wrapped in newspaper) on top
of the plastic bag containing the separate fish. Care should be
taken so that the water temperature does not fall below 25°C.
Hygiene and Sanitation
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
Food safety is still the major issue of food processing because

of its health and economic importance. Regulatory authorities and
producers are making major efforts to improve the hygienic quality
of food. The control mechanism for production of safe food is now
directed to safe production systems from the final product control.
Based on this principle, good manufacturing practices (GMP) is being
applied to maintain the certainty of safety in the final product.
GMPs are minimum sanitary and processing requirements
necessary to ensure the production of wholesome food. The following
is the GMP for handling, processing, and product development of
tilapia.

1. Scaling, gutting, and beheading
• Scaling, gutting, and beheading should be carried
out immediately. They should be washed properly to
prevent the onset of bacterial spoilage.
• All guts and entrails should be immediately removed
in the area or it should be quickly disposed to prevent
bacterial accumulation.
Reason: Enzymes are present in the gills of the fish,
which is responsible for the digestion of the food in the
stomach that causes softening of the muscle tissues and
discoloration of the flesh of the fish.
2. Filleting and washing

• Knives should be sharp to ensure faster work and to
achieve a smooth fish flesh.
• Fish for filleting should be kept chilled at 0°–5°C at all
times.
• Filleting and slicing should be done properly. Fillet
should not stay longer in working table and must be
chilled immediately.
Reason: Chilling will reduce the rate of bacterial and
chemical spoilage.
• Washing in potable tap water
Reason: Proper washing will remove slime and surface
bacteria. It should be done quickly to ensure that quality
is maintained.
3. Scraping of meat/mincing or chopping

• Utensils such as chopping boards and knives used must be
non-corrosive and easy to clean and sanitized.
• The fish should be kept in ice and maintained at low
temperature at all times.
Reason: The use of cleaned and sanitized utensils is
necessary to avoid contamination. Keeping the raw
material as close as possible to the temperature of
melting ice will prevent the build-up of microbial growth
to a level that is acceptable.

4. Leaching of minced fish
• Use non-corrosive utensils and containers.
• Water used for leaching should be kept as low as possible
to prevent the growth of microorganisms.
• Salt used in the leaching process should be of food grade
quality.
5. Mixing of ingredients
• Ingredients used should be of food grade quality.
• Equipment used for mixing should be cleaned and
sanitized to avoid contamination.
• In mixing, chilled water should be added gradually.
• Ice must be made from potable water.
• Maximum time of mixing should not exceed 20 minutes.
Reason: Prolonged mixing of ingredients will result in
protein denaturation.
6. Forming into rolls, balls, patties, nuggets, etc.

• Utensils used should be regularly washed and sanitized
after each use.
Reason: Regular washing and cleaning of equipment
will reduce accumulation of bacterial contamination
during the process.
7. Battering and Breading

• Ingredients for battering should be of food grade quality.
• The batter mix should be of the desired consistency and
kept at 10°C.
• Potable water in batter preparation should be used.
• Adequate breading material should be used to ensure
proper coating of the product.
Reason: Keeping the batter mix at 10°C will minimize
bacterial growth. Appropriate breading will give a
uniformly coated product. If coating the fish with butter
is carried out manually, it is desirable that gloves are
worn when directly handling the product. This should be
done to reduce the risk of contamination.

8. Chilling and freezing
• The batter and breaded product should be quickly frozen,
preferably with the use of blast or plate freezer at -40°C.
After freezing, the product should be kept in a cold
storage at -18°C or below if not consumed immediately,
or must be kept in a chest freezer. Thawing should be
avoided.
Reason: Keeping the product at -18°C or below retards
microbial growth and activity thus, prolonging product
quality. Repeated thawing will result in the loss of quality
and possible microbial growth.
Different Product Forms
The tilapia chain’s key customers are classified into three: the
export markets (US and EU); the institutional buyers (hypermarkets
of restaurants/specialty food shops); and the household-level/end-users
or consumers.
Live
Farmed tilapia is sold live and fresh. Generally, household

customers prefer live whole tilapia with firm meat and with the size
of 4–5 pieces/kg (200–250 g/fish). Regular tilapia consumers in
Manila and Southern Luzon are indifferent relative to the source
and skin color of tilapia while consumers in the Northern Luzon
markets such as Pangasinan and Baguio exhibit similar tilapia size
requirements, but they prefer darker-skinned tilapia because they
perceive that these fish have more belly fat and are tastier. Most
of these customers buy tilapia from fish vendors at local public
markets or stalls. Institutional buyers such as hypermarkets normally
require live whole fish with size of 3–4 pieces/kg (250–350 g/fish).
Frozen Whole Gutted
International markets such as the USA and EU are the top

destinations of frozen whole gutted tilapia. In the local markets,
institutional buyers such as specialty shops, restaurants, and food

chains cater these product and its variants to relatively affluent
customers.
Quick frozen tilapia are prepared from sound and wholesome
fish and fit for human consumption. Frozen whole gutted
tilapia is prepared from fresh chilled tilapia, eviscerated
(where the viscera and other organs have been completely
removed), washed with potable water and quickly frozen until
the product temperature has reached -18°C or lower. If glazed,
the water shall be of potable quality. The product is packed
in containers made of suitable films or laminates that are
clean and free from any foreign matter or contaminants and stored at
-18°C or lower.
Frozen Fillet
In cases of specialty shops and food chains, tilapia fillet and

whole frozen are preferred over whole live fish. Specialty restaurants
selling fish soups, tilapia belly, and deep fried tilapia skin absorb
by-products of filleting.
The preparation of fillet requires great care and strict conditions of
hygiene. The following are the steps in filleting and skinning of fish:
1. Lay fish on side. Cut from just behind base of pectoral fin
round the back of the head.
2. Cut towards tail along the line of the dorsal fin. The cut
should only penetrate as far as the backbone.
3. Cut forward to clear fillet from the ribs. The knife should be
held parallel to the rib bones. Cut through the “pin” (small rib)
bones.
4. Cut over the edge of the ribs towards the tail, flatten knife
on to the backbone after finishing cutting over the ribs and
remove the fillet. The fillet should be trimmed to remove any
belly flap or fin present.
5. Turn fish over. Cut just behind the base of the pectoral fin
and round the back of the head.
6. Cut from tail as close to the backbone as possible into the
corner at the back of the neck. Note the angle at which the
head is held. This keeps the backbone flat on the board.
7. Cut forward, parallel to angle of the rib bones, cutting through
the pin bones ad open cut fillet.

8. Cut from behind head over the ends of ribs towards tail.
The knife should be held at an angle to remove flesh from
the center of fish without cutting off fins. On large fish, two
cuts may be required if a short-blade knife is used. Trim
fillet to remove any belly flap or fin.
9. In skinning the fillet, use a thin bladed knife, longer than the
width of the fillet. Cut nick in tail of fillet. Do not remove
knife.
10. Angle knife slightly downwards. Pull the skin across the
knife, while at the same time making slight saw cutting
movements with the knife.
The finished product, with or without skin, are quickly frozen

until the product temperature has reached -18°C or lower at the
thermal center after thermal stabilization. These are packed in
containers made of suitable films or laminates that are clean and
free from any foreign matter or contaminants and then cold stored at
-18°C or lower.
Dried Tilapia ('Tilanggit' or 'Tilading')
The basic principle is to reduce water content and possible

chemical reactions. The most common method of drying is oven-
drying at 100°C or higher for a few hours to reduce the level of
moisture to 8–12%. However, this entails a lot of energy, particularly
electricity. A cheap alternative method of drying fish in the tropics
is sun-drying, which can be done in rural areas. Regions III and IV,
contribute to about 80% of the country’s total tilapia production.
Due to the abundance of tilapia in these regions, tilanggit has been
a local commodity. The term tilanggit (Fig. 65) is derived from
'tilapiang malinggit,' which means small-sized tilapia processed similar
to boneless 'danggit' or rabbitfish. Danggit is the local term used for
dried siganids or rabbitfish, a marine fish.
This product is processed by first washing the fish in clean water.
Remove scales and split the fish by cutting the fish along the dorsal
side from the base of the tail to the tip of the head. Remove the internal
organs. Wash the split fish thoroughly in clean water. Soak in saturated
brine solution (mix 4% salt, 0.05% garlic, and 0.03% black pepper in
potable water). Marinate for 6–8 hours or depending on the size and
saltiness desired in the finished product. Drain fish, arrange on drying

Fig. 65. Tilanggit. (Source: BFAR Region III)
trays, and dry under the sun for 8–10 hours. Cool, pack, and seal in
clean plastic bags, and store in a cool, dry place.
Value-added Products
At present, tilapia is usually consumed as fresh and only small

amount of the total supply is processed into different products.
Development in fish processing have gone a long way. Currently,
the industry is now shifting to value-added product development.
Value-added products are newer versions of some traditional
products although they can be considered new products. They
are developed to enhance the profit derived from raw materials or
semi-processed products. These are developed in response to the
needs of gradually changing consumers’ preference or to improve
profit from dwindling catch.
• Fish Kroepeck
The fish meat (150 g) is ground thoroughly using a silent cutter.

The dry ingredients (188 g all-purpose flour, 188 g cassava flour,
25 g salt, 20 g sugar, 2 g chilli powder, 1 g monosodium glutamate,
and 1 g baking powder) and water (515 ml) are added alternately. Food
color (2 g) is then added to the mixture. The ingredients are mixed
thoroughly until a homogenous mixture is attained. The mixture is then
stuffed into a synthetic casing and is manually tied at both ends using a
string. The stuffed casing is cooked for 60 minutes submerged in water
with a temperature range of 80°–90°C. The cooked mixture is
cooled overnight and sliced into thin sheets using a sharp knife. The
sliced product is sun dried (10% moisture content) for 2–3 days in
trays covered with a fine meshed net to prevent contamination from
insects. The dried product (Fig. 66) is packed in polyethylene plastic
bags and sealed properly to maintain quality. Packed products are
stored at room temperature in a cool, dry place.
Fig. 66. Fish kroepeck. (Source: BFAR-PHTD)

• Fish Tofu
To produce a smooth and homogenous mixture, a silent bowl cutter

is used. Salt (10 g) is added first to the minced fish meat to extract the
salt soluble protein. Tofu (150 g) (Fig. 67) together with the rest of
the ingredients (20 g potato starch, 2 g carrageenan, 15 g egg white,
2 g monosodium glutamate, 20 g sugar) are then added and mixed
until a homogenous mixture is attained. After mixing, form and mold
the mixture into cubes. Allow to set for 20 minutes in a mixing bowl
with lukewarm water. This is to enhance the gelling capacity of the
mixture to prevent it from deforming during cooking. After setting,
cook in water for 20 minutes at 80°–90°C, drain and cool. Pack in
polyethylene plastic bags, seal, and store at freezing temperature (0°C).
Fig. 67. Fish tofu. (Source: BFAR-PHTD)
• Tilapia Longganisa
Cut the tilapia fillet (3 kg) into cubes and pass through the
grinder. Wash minced fish with chilled 0.3% brine solution.
Mix all ingredients (minced tilapia, 1 tbsp fresh garlic,
4 tbsp salt, 1 tbsp ground white pepper, 10 tbsp atsuete,
½ tsp monosodium glutamate, and 1 tsp all spice powder) and
blend well. Insert the mixture stuff manually in a pig casing.
Tie the casing with a cotton thread in equal distance of about
2 inches. Dip the product in hot water (80°–90°C) for 30 minutes.
Cool in running water. Pack the tilapia longganisa (Fig. 68) in
polyethylene plastic bag, seal, and store at freezing temperature (0°C).
• Tilapia Tocino
Cut tilapia fillet (3 kg) into halves. Meanwhile, mix 10 tbsp brown
sugar, salt, 1 cup soy sauce, 1 tbsp garlic powder and 1 tbsp black
pepper powder together to dissolve. Pour the mixture over the fillets
and soak for 6 hours. Drain the fillets and sun or air-dry until dry to
touch. Pack the dried product in polyethylene plastic bags, seal, and
keep frozen for longer storage.

Fig. 68. Fish longganisa. (Source: BFAR-PHTD)
• Fish Nuggets
Grind minced fish meat (750 g) in silent cutter and then add
salt (15 g). Add chopped garlic (10 g), onions (150 g) and continue
grinding. Add the rest of the ingredients (250 g shrimp meat,
80 g wheat flour, 10 g white sugar, 1 g nutmeg, 0.5 g cinnamon, 5 g
monosodium glutamate, 2 tbsp vegetable oil) and grind thoroughly
while gradually adding 1½ cup cold water. Mold into rectangular
shape. Dip nuggets in a cold commercially prepared batter mix in
1:1 ratio (batter mix and cold water). If commercial batter mix is
unavailable, combine 1 cup sifted flour, 1 tsp baking powder and
¾ tsp salt. Beat then add ½ cup milk and 2 eggs. Add ice. Roll in
breadcrumbs. Freeze nuggets and pack in polyethylene plastic bags,
seal, and keep frozen.
Packaging and Labeling
Products must be packaged well to increase shelf life, improve

handling and protection, and ultimately improve marketability.
For practical purposes, the cheapest packaging materials that can
be recommended for tilapia products may either be one of the
following:

• Polyethylene (PE) bags - the most commonly used, heat
sealable, and the cheapest material available in local plastic
retail shops.
• Polypropylene (PP) bags - have better protective properties
and more suitable at high temperature than PE bags, but
should not be used with frozen products.
• Tin cans, glass containers, and retortable pouches are used
for thermally processed products, but the prices of these
containers are generally expensive and largely vary, depending
on the proximity of the regions to the manufacturer of these
containers.
• Other plastic films/bags (e.g., PVC, polyvinylidene chloride
(PVDC), laminates (a combination of different materials
like PE-PVDC, PE-aluminum, etc.) are also available in the
market; but, in most cases, these are not being recommended
because they are generally very expensive.
In choosing the packaging material for tilapia and tilapia-

based products, there are other important properties that should be
considered as follows:
• The package and all other components such as adhesives

and printing materials that usually come in contact with the
product should be odorless and non-toxic.
• The packaging material could be easily sealed during
manufacturing and does not require special sealing equipment;
• If possible, the packaging material must be reusable or
recyclable.
• To assure consumers of the safety and quality of the product
at the time of purchase, tamper resistant features can be added
to the packaged product.
The product packaging should also contain a label. Failure to

display or include in a label some relevant information about the
product simply means misleading the consumers. In the Philippines,
Act 3740, Commonwealth Act No. 46, as amended by Republic
Act No. 7394 requires that all consumer food products sold in the
Philippines, whether they are manufactured locally or are imported,
should indicate the following minimum information:

• registered trade name or brand name;
• registered trade mark;
• registered business name;
• address of the manufacturer, importer, or repacker of the
product;
• active ingredients;
• net quantity of contents, in terms of weight (rounded off to the
nearest tenths, in metric system);
• country of manufacture, if imported; and
• if manufactured, refilled, or repacked under license from a
principal, the label should state the fact.
The information must be placed either in the front panel (i.e.,

the principal display panel (PDP) or that portion of the package
label that is most likely to be seen by the consumers at the time of
purchase) or in the information panel (i.e., the secondary display
panel (SDP) or the label panel immediately to the right of the PDP, as
displayed to consumer). The PDP may contain the trade name or brand
name, active ingredients, and net quantity of contents while the SDP
may contain the following required information: the registered
trade mark; registered business name; address of the manufacturer,
importer, repacker, or refiller; the fact that the product is manufactured,
refilled, or repacked under license from a principal and the name and
address of the latter; and country of manufacture, if the product is
imported.
Marketing
Marketing systems of tilapia in the Philippines is as varied as the

locations of the supply sources. The traditional marketing of tilapia
in some places is relatively simple. Traders normally pick up the
harvested tilapia at the farms. Most tilapia farmers sell their produce
to wholesalers-assemblers. Some sell their produce to retailers,
consumers, and brokers. In Central Luzon, some distributors and
retailers procure tilapia in bulk on unsorted basis. Moreover, there are
some traders that take charge in harvesting the produce and pay all
the expenses during the activity. This practice is very common in the
province of Pampanga. Some traders, particularly wholesalers, finance
small-scale farmers in order to be assured of a steady supply of fish.

Under this arrangement, the farmer is required to sell exclusively to
the trader at a pre-agreed price.
The supermarket phenomenon and more liberalized trading
environment have induced the emergence of market niches such as the
fillet, smoked, dried, and other processed forms.
Export
In international market, the country’s exports of whole frozen

tilapia largely go to the US. Consumption in the US and EU
continued its steady increase through 2007. In the US, currently the
largest international tilapia market for international trade, per capita
consumption of tilapia grew to 518 g. Tilapia solidified its place as
the fifth most popular seafood in the US, pulling further ahead of
the catfishes. The huge demand for frozen fillets and frozen value
added products drove much of that increase.
USA
Total tilapia imports into the US during the first quarter of 2016
were 14% lower in terms of volume and 24% less in value terms
compared with the same period of last year. China dominated the
exports of frozen fillets and whole frozen tilapia to the US. Meanwhile,
Honduras maintains its leadership as the largest exporter of fresh
tilapia. The US is also the top destination of the country’s exports
of tilapia frozen fillet. In 2014, the country exported 1,363 t of the
commodity. In terms of whole frozen tilapia, the country exported
nearly 90 t less in January 2015.
European Union (EU)
Asia remains the main supply source to the EU of frozen whole

tilapia and tilapia fillet, with the top five suppliers being China,
Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and Taiwan Province of China. In total,
the EU imported 6,600 t of tilapia during the first quarter of 2016.
Both categories of frozen fillets and whole frozen tilapia, which take-
up almost equal shares, experienced declines of 7.3% and 26.4%,
respectively. Spain imports the largest volume of tilapia, mostly fillets
although like elsewhere in the EU, imports declined during the first
quarter of 2016.

Outlook
Despite weakening in the major markets, the outlook seems

promising amidst production problems as demand continues to be
strong in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The species is also growing
in importance for food security in the Pacific and West Asia region.

References
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Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon State University, 1997. 67p.
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Oreochromis niloticus (L) at various seed collection frequencies.

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Disclaimer
Trade names, manufacturers, and distributors as mentioned herein,
either directly or indirectly through pictures or other means, shall not
be taken to mean an endorsement or a guarantee of such products or
entities. Morever, recommended technologies and practices contained
herein, constitute the results of research and best information so far
available.
The Cover
Technology unfolding-reaching out,
touching the people's way of life and
their way of doing things, offering
techniques that improve commodity
production. Each recommendation
is a bid to make the venture more
productive and profitable for the crop,
livestock, or tree farmer.
Inside back
cover
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ISSN 0115-7833

PCAARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 98/2018

mailing address PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

Name: Agency/School Affiliation:

Email Address: Contact Number:

Title of Publication: Date:

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK!

DOST-PCAARRD is proud to add The Philippines Recommends

Tilapia is the second most important cultured species in the country.

PCAARRD’s Industry Strategic S&T Program (ISP) for Tilapia, aims

Very truly yours,

Philippines Recommends Series No. 98

Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

The Tilapia Technical Committee 2017. The Philippines

T ilapias are introduced to the Philippines and in several

P CAARRD would like to thank the members of The

Postharvest Handling and Processing 104

1 Top ten tilapia producing countries, 2014 5

1 Progression in the 10-year time series plots of annual tilapia

Dr. Maria Rowena R. Eguia

Mr. Wilfredo G. Yap Dr. Ravelina R. Velasco

Dr. Emmanuel M. Vera Cruz Dr. Joselito R. Somga

Dr. Nerissa D. Salayo

Dr. Dalisay DG. Fernandez Mr. Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Dr. Loureeda C. Darvin

Dr. Norida P. Samson

Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) – lethal

Tilapia is the second most important farmed fish in the Philippines

Tilapia Strains in the Philippines

The Freshwater Aquaculture Center of the Central Luzon

Top Tilapia Producers, 1995–2004

Top Tilapia Producers, 2005–2014

Fig. 1. Progression in the 10-year time series plots of annual

4 The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

Annual Production in Tons (Rank)

Country 1984 1986 1994 2004 2014

China 18,100 34,800 235,940 774,662 1,698,483

Source: FAO FishStat 2016.

to parasites and diseases as well as provide nutritious but affordable

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 5

Tilapia as a global commodity is farmed in more than

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 7

The national per capita consumption of tilapia in 2012 was

Table 2. Annual per capita consumption of tilapia by region, Philippines,

Region Per Capita Consumption (kg/yr)

Luzon Average 6.446

Visayas Average 0.695

8 The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

Region Per Capita Consumption (kg/yr)

Mindanao Average 2.628

Source: Philippine Statistical Authority, 2012.

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 9

10 The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) can become sexually

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 11

Selection of broodstock is important in ensuring the quality and

Breeder Size and Age

12 The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia

The Philippines Recommends for Tilapia 13