Chapter 1: Introduction
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
Outline
The Need for Databases
Data Models
Relational Databases
Database Design
Storage Manager
Query Processing
Transaction Manager
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
A Motivating Example
Suppose we are building a system to store
the information about:
students
courses
professors
who takes what, who teaches what
Definition：CTypedPtrList <CObList, CStudent*> m_pDataList;
m _ p D a t a L i s t
∧ ∧
" 1 0 0 1 " " 1 0 0 2 " " 1 0 0 3 " " 1 0 0 4 "
" z h a n g " " w a n g " " l i " " z h a o "
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Requirements
store the data for a long period of time
large amounts (100s of GB)
protect against crashes
protect against unauthorized use
allow users to query/update:
who teaches “CS 173”
insert “Mary” in “CS 311”
allow several (100s, 1000s) users to access
the data simultaneously
allow administrators to change the schema
add information about TAs
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Trying Without a DBMS
Why Direct Implementation Won’t Work:
Storing data: file system is limited
size less than 4GB (on 32 bits machines)
when system crashes we may lose data
password-based authorization insufficient
Query/update:
need to write a new C++/Java program for
every new query
need to worry about performance
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Trying Without a DBMS(Cont)
Concurrency: limited protection
need to worry about interfering with other
users
need to offer different views to different
users (e.g. registrar, students, professors)
Schema change:
entails changing file formats
need to rewrite virtually all applications
consistency：
update several files with same data
Better let a database system handle it
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Management System (DBMS)
DBMS contains the information about a particular
enterprise/organization
Collection of interrelated data
Set of programs to access the data
An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Database Applications:
Banking: transactions
Airlines: reservations, schedules
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases can be very large.
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
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University Database Example
Application program examples
Add new students, instructors, and courses
Register students for courses, and generate class
rosters
Assign grades to students, compute grade point
averages (GPA) and generate transcripts
In the early days, database applications were built
directly on top of file systems
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Drawbacks of using file systems to store data
Data redundancy and inconsistency
Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different
files
Difficulty in accessing data
Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Data isolation
Multiple files and formats
Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)
Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users
Concurrent access needed for performance
Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and
updating it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same
time
Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
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Levels of Abstraction
Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
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View of Data
An architecture for a database system
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Instances and Schemas
Similar to types and variables in programming languages
Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
Physical schema– the overall physical structure of the database
Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular moment
Analogous to the value of a variable
Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
Applications depend on the logical schema
In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Models
A collection of tools for describing
Data
Data relationships
Data semantics
Data constraints
Examples：
Relational model
Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database
design)
Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-
relational)
Semistructured data model (XML)
Other older models:
Network model
Hierarchical model
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Relational Model
All the data is stored in various tables.
Example of tabular data in the relational model Columns
Rows
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A Sample Relational Database
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Database Languages
DML(Data manipulation language) expresses
database queries and updates;
DDL(Data definition language) specifies the
database schema.
They are not two separated languages, they are
usually parts of a single database language.
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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Language for accessing and manipulating the
data organized by the appropriate data model
DML also known as query language
Two classes of languages
Pure – used for proving properties about
computational power and for optimization
Relational Algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
Commercial – used in commercial systems
SQL is the most widely used commercial
language
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SQL
The most widely used commercial DML
language
SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent
language
To be able to compute complex functions SQL is
usually embedded in some higher-level language
Application programs generally access databases
through one of the methods:
Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
Application program interface (e.g.,
ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be
sent to a database
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a
data dictionary
Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
Database schema
Integrity constraints
Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
Authorization
Who can access what
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of
the database:
Logical Design – Deciding on the database
schema. Database design requires that we find
a “good” collection of relation schemas.
Business decision – What attributes should
we record in the database?
Computer Science decision – What
relation schemas should we have and how
should the attributes be distributed among
the various relation schemas?
Physical Design – Deciding on the physical
layout of the database
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Database Design (Cont.)
Is there any problem with this relation?
Can we add one
department
information into
this table directly?
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Design Approaches
Need to come up with a methodology to ensure
that each of the relations in the database is
“good”
Two ways of doing so:
Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
Models an enterprise as a collection of
entities and relationships
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-
relationship diagram:
Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
Formalize what designs are bad, and test
for them
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Object-Relational Data Models
Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
Object Relational Data Models
Extend the relational data model by including
object orientation and constructs to deal with
added data types.
Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types,
including non-atomic values such as nested
relations.
Preserve relational foundations, in particular the
declarative access to data, while extending
modeling power.
Provide upward compatibility with existing
relational languages.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
XML: Extensible Markup Language
Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag
structures made XML a great way to exchange data, not
just documents
XML has become the basis for all new generation data
interchange formats.
A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
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Database Engine
Storage manager
Query processing
Transaction manager
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Storage Management
Storage manager is a program module that
provides the interface between the low-level data
stored in the database and the application programs
and queries submitted to the system.
The storage manager is responsible to the following
tasks:
Interaction with the OS file manager
Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
Issues:
Storage access
File organization
Indexing and hashing
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Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
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Query Processing (Cont.)
Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
Equivalent expressions
Different algorithms for each operation
Cost difference between a good and a bad way
of evaluating a query can be enormous
Need to estimate the cost of operations
Depends critically on statistical information
about relations which the database must
maintain
Need to estimate statistics for intermediate
results to compute cost of complex
expressions
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Transaction Management
What if the system fails?
What if more than one user is concurrently updating
the same data?
A transaction is a collection of operations that
performs a single logical function in a database
application
Transaction-management component ensures that
the database remains in a consistent (correct) state
despite system failures (e.g., power failures and
operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
Concurrency-control manager controls the
interaction among the concurrent transactions, to
ensure the consistency of the database.
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Database Users and Administrators
Database
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Database System Internals
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Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems
is greatly influenced by
the underlying computer system on
which the database is running:
Centralized
Client-server
Parallel (multi-processor)
Distributed
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Terminologies
Data
A symbolic record that describes something
DataBase（DB）
A collection of large amounts of data stored in a computer
over a long period of time, organized and shareable
Database Management System
A data management software between OS and user,
include DDL, DML, database transaction and operation
management, database create and maintain...
Database System
A system consisting of databases, database management
systems, applications, and database administrators that
stores, manages, processes, and maintains data.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History of Database Systems
1950s and early 1960s:
Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provided only sequential access
Punched cards for input
Late 1960s and 1970s:
Hard disks allowed direct access to data
Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
IBM Research begins System R prototype
UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
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History (cont.)
1980s:
Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
Parallel and distributed database systems
Object-oriented database systems
1990s:
Large decision support and data-mining applications
Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
Emergence of Web commerce
Early 2000s:
XML and XQuery standards
Automated database administration
Later 2000s~:
Giant data storage systems BigData
Google
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon,
1.36
.. NoSQL
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 1
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
