Instrumentation and Control 1

Unit 1 - Introduction

This chapter introduces you to the instrumentation, the different measurements

units used, and the explanation why process control is largely focused on
instrumentation. It will help you familiarize yourself with the vocabulary of the
instruments and standards.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of process control and simple process loops

Pretest

1. What is the difference between controlled and manipulated variables?

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Instrumentation and Control 2

2. How many pounds are equivalent to 63 kg? Show your solution on the space
provided below.

3. How many pounds per square inch are equivalent to 38.2 kPa? Give your solution
below.

Thank you for answering this test. Check out page 81 to see if you got it
right. If you think you think you didn’t make it to 5 points then just take
a look back at the previous unit for a while. But if you think you passed
then proceed to the content.
Instrumentation and Control 3

Content

Instrumentation is the basis for process control in industry. However, it comes in

many forms from domestic water heaters and HVAC, where the variable temperature is
measured and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water heater, or heating
system, or electricity to the compressor for refrigeration, to complex industrial process
control applications such as used in the petroleum or chemical industry.
In industrial control a wide number of variables, from temperature, flow, and
pressure to time and distance, can be sensed simultaneously. All of these can be
interdependent variables in a single process requiring complex microprocessor systems
for total control. Due to the rapid advances in technology, instruments in use today may
be obsolete tomorrow, as new and more efficient measurement techniques are constantly
being introduced. These changes are being driven by the need for higher accuracy,
quality, precision, and performance. To measure parameters accurately, techniques have
been developed that were thought impossible only a few years ago.
Process Control
In order to produce a product with consistently high quality, tight process control is
necessary. A simple-to-understand example of process control would be the supply of
water to a number of cleaning stations, where the water temperature needs to be kept
constant in spite of the demand. A simple control block is shown in Fig. 1.1a, steam and
cold water are fed into a heat exchanger, where heat from the steam is used to bring the
cold water to the required working temperature. A thermometer is used to measure the
temperature of the water (the measured variable) from the process or exchanger. The
temperature is observed by an operator who adjusts the flow of steam (the manipulated
variable) into the heat exchanger to keep the water flowing from the heat exchanger at the
constant set temperature. This operation is referred to as process control, and in practice
would be automated as shown in Fig. 1.1b.
Process control is the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the
amplitude of the output parameter from the process and comparing it to the desired or set
level and feeding an error signal back to control an input variable— in this case steam.
See Fig. 1.1b. A temperature sensor attached to the outlet pipe senses the temperature
of the water flowing. As the demand for hot water increases or decreases, a change in the
water temperature is sensed and converted to an electrical signal, amplified, and sent to
a controller that evaluates the signal and sends a correction signal to an actuator. The
actuator adjusts the flow of steam to the heat exchanger to keep the temperature of the
water at its predetermined value.
Instrumentation and Control 4

Figure 1

The diagram in Fig. 1.1b is an oversimplified feedback loop and is expanded in Fig.
1.2. In any process there are a number of inputs, i.e., from chemicals to solid goods. These
are manipulated in the process and a new chemical or component emerges at the output.
The controlled inputs to the process and the measured output parameters from the
process are called variables.
In a process-control facility the controller is not necessarily limited to one variable,
but can measure and control many variables. A good example of the measurement and
control of multivariables that we encounter on a daily basis is given by the processor in
the automobile engine. Figure 1.3 lists some of the functions performed by the engine
processor. Most of the controlled variables are six or eight devices depending on the
number of cylinders in the engine. The engine processor has to perform all these functions
in approximately 5 ms. This example of engine control can be related to the operations
carried out in a process-control operation.
Instrumentation and Control 5

Definitions of the Elements in a Control Loop

Figure 1.4 breaks down the individual elements of the blocks in a process-control
loop. The measuring element consists of a sensor, a transducer, and a transmitter with its
own regulated power supply. The control element has an actuator, a power control circuit,
and its own power supply. The controller has a processor with a memory and a summing

circuit to compare the set point to the sensed signal so that it can generate an error signal.
The processor then uses the error signal to generate a correction signal to control the
actuator and the input variable. The function and operation of the blocks in different types
of

applications will be discussed in Chaps. 11, 12, and 14. The definition of these blocks is
given as follows:
Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct for any
variation between the output level from the set level. In other words, the output of a
process is being continually monitored, the error between the set point and the output
parameter is determined, and a correction signal is then sent back to one of the process
inputs to correct for changes in the measured output parameter.
Instrumentation and Control 6

Controlled or measured variable is the monitored output variable from a process.

The value of the monitored output parameter is normally held within tight given limits.
Manipulated variable is the input variable or parameter to a process that is varied by
a control signal from the processor to an actuator. By changing the input variable the value
of the measured variable can be controlled.
Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable being monitored
by a sensor. Any deviation from this value will generate an error signal.
Instrument is the name of any of the various device types for indicating or measuring
physical quantities or conditions, performance, position, direction, and the like.
Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature, light
intensity, or motion, and have the ability to give a measurable output that varies in relation
to the amplitude of the physical variable. The human body has sensors in the fingers that
can detect surface roughness, temperature, and force. A thermometer is a good example
of a line-of-sight sensor, in that 4 Chapter One Figure 1.4 Block diagram of the elements
that make up the feedback path in a process-control loop. it will give an accurate visual
indication of temperature. In other sensors such as a diaphragm pressure sensor, a strain
transducer may be required to convert the deformation of the diaphragm into an electrical
or pneumatic signal before it can be measured.
Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another, e.g., a
resistance thermometer converts temperature into electrical resistance, or a thermocouple
converts temperature into voltage. Both of these devices give an output that is proportional
to the temperature. Many transducers are grouped under the heading of sensors.
Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a signal without
changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage to a current signal.
Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in response to a
signal from a controller. A typical actuator will be a flow-control valve that can control the
rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal from the controller.
Other types of actuators are magnetic relays that turn electrical power on and off.
Examples are actuators that control power to the fans and compressor in an air-
conditioning system in response to signals from the room temperature sensors.
Controllers are devices that monitor signals from transducers and take the
necessary action to keep the process within specified limits according to a predefined
program by activating and controlling the necessary actuators.
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are used in process-control applications, and
are microprocessor-based systems. Small systems have the ability to monitor several
variables and control several actuators, with the capability of being expanded to monitor
60 or 70 variables and control a corresponding number of actuators, as may be required
Instrumentation and Control 7

in a petrochemical refinery. PLCs, which have the ability to use analog or digital input
information and output analog or digital control signals, can communicate globally with
other controllers, are easily programmed on line or off line, and supply an unprecedented
amount of data and information to the operator. Ladder networks are normally used to
program the controllers.
An error signal is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of the
measured variable.
A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set the level
of the input variable.
Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they are suitable
for transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of information. The
transmitted signal can be in one of the several formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital, analog
voltage, analog current, or as a radio frequency (RF) modulated signal. Digital
transmission is preferred in newer systems because the controller is a digital system, and
as analog signals can be accurately digitized, digital signals can be transmitted without
loss of information. The controller compares the amplitude of the signal from the sensor

to a predetermined set point, which in Fig. 1.1b is the amplitude of the signal of the hot
water sensor. The controller will then send a signal that is proportional to the difference
between the reference and the transmitted signal to the actuator telling the actuator to
open or close the valve controlling the flow of steam to adjust the temperature of the water
to its set value.

Example 1.1 Figure 1.5 shows the block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system.
Identify the following elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator,
Instrumentation and Control 8

(d) the transmitter, (e) the controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g) the
measured variable. (a) The sensor is labeled pressure cell in the diagram. (b) The
transducer is labeled converter. There are two transducers—one for converting
pressure to current and the other for converting current to pressure to operate the
actuator. (c) The actuator in this case is the pneumatic valve. (d) The transmitter is
the line driver. (e) The controller is labeled PLC. (f) The manipulated variable is the
differential pressure developed by the fluid flowing through the orifice plate
constriction. (g) The controlled variable is the flow rate of the liquid. Simple and ideal
process-control systems have been discussed. In practical process control the
scenarios are much more complex with many scenarios and variables, such as
stability, reaction time, and accuracy to be considered. Many of the basic problems
are discussed in the following chapters.
Process Facility Considerations

The process facility has a number of basic requirements including safety precautions
and well-regulated, reliable electrical, water, and air supplies.
An electrical supply is required for all control systems and must meet all standards
in force at the plant. The integrity of the electrical supply is most important. Many facilities
have backup systems to provide an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to take over in
case of loss of external power. Power failure can mean plant shutdown and the loss of
complete production runs. An isolating transformer should be used in the power supply
lines to prevent electromagnetic interference 6 Chapter One Figure 1.5 Process control
with a flow regulator for use in Example 1.1. (EMI) generated by motors, contactors, relays,
and so on from traveling through the power lines and affecting sensitive electronic control
instruments.
Grounding is a very important consideration in a facility for safety reasons. Any
variations in the ground potential between electronic equipment can cause large errors in
signal levels. Each piece of equipment should be connected to a heavy copper bus that is
properly grounded. Ground loops should also be avoided by grounding cable screens and
signal return lines at one end only. In some cases it may be necessary to use signal
isolators to alleviate grounding problems in electronic devices and equipment.
An air supply is required to drive pneumatic actuators in most facilities. Instrument
air in pneumatic equipment must meet quality standards, the air must be dirt, oil,
contaminant, and moisture free. Frozen moisture, dirt, and the like can fully or partially
block narrowed sections and nozzles, giving false readings or complete equipment failure.
Air compressors are fitted with air dryers and filters, and have a reservoir tank with a
capacity large enough for several minutes’ supply in case of system failure. Dry, clean air
is supplied at a pressure of 90 psig (630 kPa⋅g) and with a dew point of 20°F (10°C) below
the minimum winter operating temperature at atmospheric pressure. Additional
Instrumentation and Control 9

information on the quality of instrument air can be found in ANSI/ISA-7.0.01- 1996, Quality
Standard for Instrument Air.
Water supply is required in many cleaning and cooling operations, and for steam
generation. Domestic water supplies contain large quantities of particulates and impurities,
and may be satisfactory for cooling, but are not suitable for most cleaning operations.
Filtering and other similar processes can remove some of the contaminants making the
water suitable for some cleaning operations, but for ultrapure water a reverse osmosis
system may be required.
Installation and maintenance must be considered when locating instruments, valves
and so on. Each device must be easily accessible for maintenance and inspection. It may
also be necessary to install hand-operated valves so that equipment can be replaced or
serviced without complete plant shutdown. It may be necessary to contract out
maintenance of certain equipment or have the vendor install equipment, if the necessary
skills are not available in-house.
Safety is a top priority in a facility. The correct material must be used in container
construction, plumbing, seals, and gaskets to prevent corrosion and failure leading to
leakage and spills of hazardous materials. All electrical equipment must be properly
installed to code with breakers. Electrical systems must have the correct fire retardant for
use in case of electrical fires. More information can be found in ANSI/ISA-12.01.01-1999,
Definitions and Information Pertaining to Electrical Instruments in Hazardous Locations.
Units and Standards

As with all disciplines, a set of standards has evolved over the years to ensure
consistency and avoid confusion. The Instrument Society of America (ISA) has developed
a complete list of symbols for instruments, instrument identification, and process control
drawings, which will be discussed in Chap. 15. Introduction and Review 7 The units of
measurement fall into two distinct systems; first, the English system and second, the
International system, SI (Systéme International D’Unités) based on the metric system, but
there are some differences. The English system has been the standard used in the United
States, but the SI system is slowly making inroads, so that students need to be aware of
both systems of units and be able to convert units from one system to the other. Confusion
can arise over some units such as pound mass and pound weight. The unit for pound
mass is the slug (no longer in common use), which is the equivalent of the kilogram in the
SI system of units whereas pound weight is a force similar to the newton, which is the unit
of force in the SI system. The conversion factor of 1 lb = 0.454 kg, which is used to convert
mass (weight) between the two systems, is in effect equating 1-lb force to 0.454-kg mass;
this being the mass that will produce a force of 4.448 N or a force of 1 lb. Care must be
taken not to mix units of the two systems. For consistency some units may have to be
converted before they can be used in an equation.
Instrumentation and Control 10

Table 1.1 gives a list of the base units used in instrumentation and measurement in
the English and SI systems and also the conversion factors, other units are derived from
these base units.
Example 1.2

How many meters are there in 110 yard?

110 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 330 𝑓𝑡 = (330 × 0.305) 𝑚 = 100.65 𝑚

Example 1.3

What is the equivalent length in inches of 2.5 m?

2.5 𝑚 = (2.5/0.305) 𝑓𝑡 = 8.2 𝑓𝑡 = 98.4 𝑖𝑛

Example 1.4

The weight of an object is 2.5 lb. What is the equivalent force and mass in the SI
system of units?
2.5 𝑙𝑏 = (2.5 × 4.448) 𝑁 = 11.12 𝑁 2.5 𝑙𝑏 = (2.5 × 0.454) 𝑘𝑔 = 1.135 𝑘𝑔

Table 1.2 gives a list of some commonly used units in the English and SI systems,
conversion between units, and also their relation to the base units. As explained above
the lb is used as both the unit of mass and the unit of force.
Instrumentation and Control 11

Hence, the unit for the lb in energy and power is mass, whereas the unit for the lb in
pressure is force, where the lb (force) = lb (mass) × g (force due to gravity).
Example 1.5

What is the pressure equivalent of 18 psi in SI units?

1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 6.897 𝑘𝑃𝑎

18 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = (18 × 6.897) 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 124 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Standard prefixes are commonly used for multiple and submultiple quantities to
cover the wide range of values used in measurement units. These are given in Table 1.3
Instrument Parameters
The accuracy of an instrument or device is the difference between the indicated value and
the actual value. Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to that of a
known standard. Standards can be calibrated devices or obtained from the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
Instrumentation and Control 12

This is the government organization that is responsible for setting and maintaining
standards, and developing new standards as new technology requires it. Accuracy
depends on linearity, hysteresis, offset, drift, and sensitivity. The resulting discrepancy is
stated as a ± deviation from the true value, and is normally specified as a percentage of
full-scale reading or deflection (%FSD). Accuracy can also be expressed as the
percentage of span, percentage of reading, or an absolute value.

Example 1.6
A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case spread in readings is
±4.35 psi. What is the %FSD accuracy?
%𝐹𝑆𝐷 = ± (4.35 𝑝𝑠𝑖/50 𝑝𝑠𝑖) × 100 = ±8.7
The range of an instrument specifies the lowest and highest readings it can
measure, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a range from
−40°C to 100°C.
The span of an instrument is its range from the minimum to maximum scale value,
i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a span of 140°C. When
the accuracy is expressed as the percentage of span, it is the deviation from true
expressed as a percentage of the span.
Reading accuracy is the deviation from true at the point the reading is being taken
and is expressed as a percentage, i.e., if a deviation of ±4.35 psi in Example 1.6 was
measured at 28.5 psi, the reading accuracy would be (4.35/28.5) × 100 = ±15.26% of
reading.

Example 1.7
In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200 lb, the accuracy is given
as ±2.5 percent of a reading. What is the deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings,
and what is the %FSD accuracy?
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 50 𝑙𝑏 = ± (50 × 2.5/100) 𝑙𝑏 = ±1.25 𝑙𝑏
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 100 𝑙𝑏 = ± (100 × 2.5/100) 𝑙𝑏 = ±2.5 𝑙𝑏
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑆𝐷, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, ±5 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑟 ± 2.5% 𝐹𝑆𝐷
Instrumentation and Control 13

The absolute accuracy of an instrument is the deviation from true as a number not
as a percentage, i.e., if a voltmeter has an absolute accuracy of ±3 V in the 10 Chapter
One TABLE 1.3 Standard Prefixes Multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol 1012
tera T 10−2 centi c 109 giga G 10−3 milli m 106 mega M 10−6 micro µ 103 kilo k 10−9
nano n 102 hecto h 10−12 pico p 10 deka da 10−15 femto f 10−1 deci d 10−18 atto a 100-
volt range, the deviation is ±3 V at all the scale readings, e.g., 10 ± 3 V, 70 ± 3 V and so
on.
Precision refers to the limits within which a signal can be read and may be somewhat
subjective. In the analog instrument shown in Fig. 1.6a, the scale is graduated in divisions
of 0.2 psi, the position of the needle could be estimated to within 0.02 psi, and hence, the
precision of the instrument is 0.02 psi. With a digital scale the last digit may change in
steps of 0.01 psi so that the precision is 0.01 psi.
Reproducibility is the ability of an instrument to repeatedly read the same signal over
time, and give the same output under the same conditions. An instrument may not be
accurate but can have good reproducibility, i.e., an instrument could read 20 psi as having
a range from17.5 to 17.6 psi over 20 readings.
Sensitivity is a measure of the change in the output of an instrument for a change in
the measured variable, and is known as the transfer function, i.e., when the output of a
pressure transducer changes by 3.2 mV for a change in pressure of 1 psi, the sensitivity
is 3.2 mV/psi. High sensitivity in an instrument is preferred as this gives higher output
amplitudes, but this may have to be weighted against linearity, range, and accuracy.
Offset is the reading of an instrument with zero input.
Drift is the change in the reading of an instrument of a fixed variable with time.
Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an instrument approaches a
signal from opposite directions, i.e., if an instrument reads a midscale value going from
zero it can give a different reading from the value after making a full-scale reading. This is
due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument by changing its shape in going
from zero to full-scale deflection. Hysteresis is illustrated in Fig. 1.6b.
Instrumentation and Control 14

Example 1.8

Resolution is the smallest amount of a variable that an instrument can resolve, i.e.,
the smallest change in a variable to which the instrument will respond.
Repeatability is a measure of the closeness of agreement between a number of
readings (10 to12) taken consecutively of a variable, before the variable has time to
change. The average reading is calculated and the spread in the value of the readings
taken.
Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a variable
being measured and the output of the instrument over its operating range. Figure 1.7b
shows the pressure input versus voltage output curve for a pressure to voltage transducer
with the best fit linear straight line. As can be seen, the actual curve is not a straight line.
The maximum deviation of +5 psi from linear occurs at an output of 8 V and −5 psi at 3 V
giving a deviation of ±5 psi or an error of ±5 percent of FSD.
The deviation from true for an instrument may be caused by one of the above or a
combination of several of the above factors, and can determine the choice of instrument
for a particular application.

Now that you’ve finished reading the content let’s do a bit of practice.
The best way to learn this is to solve, solve and solve. Do your best to
answer all the exercise problems in Learning Activities. If you think you
missed something out then just read again the content or watch here
____________________.
Instrumentation and Control 15

Learning Activities

1. What force in pounds is equivalent to 385 N?

2. How many joules are equivalent to 27 ft⋅lb of energy?

Instrumentation and Control 16

3. A temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 120°C and an absolute accuracy of

±3°C. What is its FSD percent accuracy?

Now that you’ve had your practice, let us now assess what you have
learned so far. Answer the problem given in the assessment part of this
module.
Instrumentation and Control 17

Assessment

1. A pressure sensor has a range of 30 to 125 kPa and the absolute accuracy is ±2 kPa.
What is its percent full-scale and span accuracy?

2. A spring balance has a span of 10 to 120 kg and the absolute accuracy is ±3 kg. What is
its %FSD accuracy and span accuracy?
Instrumentation and Control 18

3. A flow instrument has an accuracy of (a) ±0.5 percent of reading and (b) 0.5%FSD. If the
range of the instrument is 10 to 100 fps, what is the absolute accuracy at 45 fps?

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