Mechanics

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This article is about an area of scientific study. For other uses, see Mechanic
(disambiguation).
Mechanics (Greek: μηχανική) is the area of physics concerned with the motions
of macroscopic objects. Forces applied to objects result in displacements, or changes of
an object's position relative to its environment. This branch of physics has its origins
in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes[1][2][3] (see History of
classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early modern
period, scientists such as Galileo, Kepler, and Newton laid the foundation for what is
now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical physics that deals with
particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the
speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion
of and forces on bodies not in the quantum realm. The field is today less widely
understood in terms of quantum theory.

Contents

 1Classical versus quantum

 2Relativistic versus Newtonian
 3General relativistic versus quantum
 4History
o 4.1Antiquity
o 4.2Medieval age
o 4.3Early modern age
o 4.4Modern age
 5Types of mechanical bodies
 6Sub-disciplines
o 6.1Classical
o 6.2Quantum
 7Professional organizations
 8See also
 9References
 10Further reading
 11External links

Classical versus quantum[edit]

Part of a series on

Classical mechanics
 Second law of motion

 History
 Timeline
 Textbooks

Branches[hide]
 Applied
 Celestial
 Continuum
 Dynamics
 Kinematics
 Kinetics
 Statics
 Statistical

Fundamentals[show]

Formulations[show]

Core topics[show]

Rotation[show]

Scientists[show]

Categories[show]

 v
 t
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Part of a series on

Quantum mechanics

Schrödinger equation

 Introduction
 Glossary
 History
 Textbooks

Background[hide]
  Classical mechanics
 Old quantum theory
 Bra–ket notation
 Hamiltonian
 Interference

Fundamentals[show]

Effects[show]

Experiments[show]

Formulations[show]

Equations[show]

Interpretations[show]

Advanced topics[show]

Scientists[show]

Categories[show]

 v
 t
 e

Historically, classical mechanics had been around for nearly a quarter century

before quantum mechanics developed. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac
Newton's laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, developed
over the seventeenth century. Quantum mechanics developed later, over the nineteenth
century, precipitated by Planck's postulate and Albert Einstein's explanation of
the photoelectric effect. Both fields are commonly held to constitute the most certain
knowledge that exists about physical nature.
Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-
called exact sciences. Essential in this respect is the extensive use of mathematics in
theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing
them.
Quantum mechanics is of a bigger scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a
sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to
the correspondence principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two
subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle
states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical
physics in the limit of large quantum numbers, i.e. if quantum mechanics is applied to
large systems (for e.g. a baseball), the result would almost be the same if classical
mechanics had been applied. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics
at the foundation level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of
processes at the molecular, atomic, and sub-atomic level. However, for macroscopic
processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are unmanageably
difficult (mainly due to computational limits) in quantum mechanics and hence remains
useful and well used. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful
definition of such quantities as displacement (distance moved), time, velocity,
acceleration, mass, and force. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was
explained from a very different point of view. For example, following the ideas of Greek
philosopher and scientist Aristotle, scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down
because its natural position is in the Earth; the sun, the moon, and the stars travel in
circles around the earth because it is the nature of heavenly objects to travel in perfect
circles.
Often cited as father to modern science, Galileo brought together the ideas of other
great thinkers of his time and began to calculate motion in terms of distance travelled
from some starting position and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of falling
objects increases steadily during the time of their fall. This acceleration is the same for
heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is discounted. The
English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining
force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds close
to the speed of light, Newton's laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of
relativity. [A sentence illustrating the computational complication of Einstein's theory of
relativity.] For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton's laws were superseded
by quantum theory. For everyday phenomena, however, Newton's three laws of motion
remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion.

Relativistic versus Newtonian[edit]

In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Albert
Einstein's general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope
of Newton and Galileo's formulation of mechanics. The differences between relativistic
and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a
body approaches the speed of light. For instance, in Newtonian mechanics, Newton's
laws of motion specify that F = ma, whereas in relativistic mechanics and Lorentz
transformations, which were first discovered by Hendrik Lorentz, F = γma (where γ is
the Lorentz factor, which is almost equal to 1 for low speeds).

General relativistic versus quantum[edit]

Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general
relativity has not been integrated. The two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which
must be overcome in developing a theory of everything.

History[edit]
Main articles: History of classical mechanics and History of quantum mechanics
Antiquity[edit]
Main article: Aristotelian mechanics
The main theory of mechanics in antiquity was Aristotelian mechanics.[4] A later
developer in this tradition is Hipparchus.[5]
Medieval age[edit]
Main article: Theory of impetus

Arabic Machine Manuscript. Unknown date (at a guess: 16th to 19th centuries).

A Musical Toy by Al-Jazari in 12th century

Al-Jazari water device in 12th century

In the Middle Ages, Aristotle's theories were criticized and modified by a number of
figures, beginning with John Philoponus in the 6th century. A central problem was that
of projectile motion, which was discussed by Hipparchus and Philoponus.
Persian Islamic polymath Ibn Sīnā published his theory of motion in The Book of
Healing (1020). He said that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower, and
viewed it as persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it.[6][7]
[8]
 Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called "mayl"), and argued
that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. So he
concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to
the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent. He also claimed that
projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. This conception of motion
is consistent with Newton's first law of motion, inertia. Which states that an object in
motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force. [9] This idea which
dissented from the Aristotelian view was later described as "impetus" by John Buridan,
who was influenced by Ibn Sina's Book of Healing.[10]
On the question of a body subject to a constant (uniform) force, the 12th-century
Jewish-Arab scholar Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (born Nathanel, Iraqi, of
Baghdad) stated that constant force imparts constant acceleration. According to Shlomo
Pines, al-Baghdaadi's theory of motion was "the oldest negation of Aristotle's
fundamental dynamic law [namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion],
[and is thus an] anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical
mechanics [namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration]." [11] The
same century, Ibn Bajjah proposed that for every force there is always a reaction force.
While he did not specify that these forces be equal, it is still an early version of the third
law of motion which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
[12]

Influenced by earlier writers such as Ibn Sina[10] and al-Baghdaadi,[13] the 14th-century

French priest Jean Buridan developed the theory of impetus, which later developed into
the modern theories of inertia, velocity, acceleration and momentum. This work and
others was developed in 14th-century England by the Oxford Calculators such
as Thomas Bradwardine, who studied and formulated various laws regarding falling
bodies. The concept that the main properties of a body are uniformly accelerated motion
(as of falling bodies) was worked out by the 14th-century Oxford Calculators.
Early modern age[edit]
Two central figures in the early modern age are Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
Galileo's final statement of his mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his Two New
Sciences (1638). Newton's 1687 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica provided
a detailed mathematical account of mechanics, using the newly developed mathematics
of calculus and providing the basis of Newtonian mechanics.[5]
There is some dispute over priority of various ideas: Newton's Principia is certainly the
seminal work and has been tremendously influential, and the systematic mathematics
therein did not and could not have been stated earlier because calculus had not been
developed. However, many of the ideas, particularly as pertain to inertia (impetus) and
falling bodies had been developed and stated by earlier researchers, both the then-
recent Galileo and the less-known medieval predecessors. Precise credit is at times
difficult or contentious because scientific language and standards of proof changed, so
whether medieval statements are equivalent to modern statements or sufficient proof, or
instead similar to modern statements and hypotheses is often debatable.
Modern age[edit]
Two main modern developments in mechanics are general relativity of Einstein,
and quantum mechanics, both developed in the 20th century based in part on earlier
19th-century ideas. The development in the modern continuum mechanics, particularly
in the areas of elasticity, plasticity, fluid dynamics, electrodynamics and
thermodynamics of deformable media, started in the second half of the 20th century.

Types of mechanical bodies[edit]

The often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects, including
particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids, parts
of fluids (gases and liquids), etc.
Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics, concern the nature
of the bodies being described. Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure,
treated as mathematical points in classical mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and
shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the particle, adding just a few so-
called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid. These subjects
have both classical and quantum divisions of study.
For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation), is
described by the relativistic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous
movements of an atomic nucleus are described by quantum mechanics.

Sub-disciplines[edit]
The following are two lists of various subjects that are studied in mechanics.
Note that there is also the "theory of fields" which constitutes a separate discipline in
physics, formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether classical fields or quantum
fields. But in actual practice, subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely
interwoven. Thus, for instance, forces that act on particles are frequently derived from
fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles generate fields by acting as
sources. In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles themselves are fields, as described
theoretically by the wave function.
Classical[edit]

Prof. Walter Lewin explains Newton's law of gravitation in MIT course 8.01.[14]

The following are described as forming classical mechanics:

 Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion (kinematics) and forces

(dynamics).
 Analytical mechanics is a reformulation of Newtonian mechanics with an
emphasis on system energy, rather than on forces. There are two main
branches of analytical mechanics:
o Hamiltonian mechanics, a theoretical formalism, based on the
principle of conservation of energy.
o Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical formalism, based on
the principle of the least action.
 Classical statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary classical mechanics to
consider systems in an unknown state; often used to
derive thermodynamic properties.
 Celestial mechanics, the motion of bodies in space: planets, comets,
stars, galaxies, etc.
 Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc.
 Solid mechanics, elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity exhibited by deformable
solids.
 Fracture mechanics
 Acoustics, sound ( = density variation propagation) in solids, fluids and gases.
 Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium
 Fluid mechanics, the motion of fluids
 Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils
  Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both solid and fluid)
 Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids
 Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium
 Applied mechanics, or Engineering mechanics
 Biomechanics, solids, fluids, etc. in biology
 Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms
 Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal gravitation.
Quantum[edit]
The following are categorized as being part of quantum mechanics:

 Schrödinger wave mechanics, used to describe the movements of the

wavefunction of a single particle.
 Matrix mechanics is an alternative formulation that allows considering
systems with a finite-dimensional state space.
 Quantum statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary quantum mechanics to
consider systems in an unknown state; often used to
derive thermodynamic properties.
 Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles
 Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei
 Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc.

Professional organizations[edit]
 Applied Mechanics Division, American Society of Mechanical Engineers
 Fluid Dynamics Division, American Physical Society
 Society for Experimental Mechanics
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers is the United Kingdom's qualifying body
for Mechanical Engineers and has been the home of Mechanical Engineers
for over 150 years.
 International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

See also[edit]
 Applied mechanics
 Dynamics
 Engineering
 Index of engineering science and mechanics articles
 Kinematics
 Kinetics
 Non-autonomous mechanics
 Statics
  Wiesen Test of Mechanical Aptitude (WTMA)

References[edit]
1. ^ Dugas, Rene. A History of Classical Mechanics. New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc,
1988, pg 19.
2. ^ Rana, N.C., and Joag, P.S. Classical Mechanics. West Petal Nagar, New Delhi. Tata
McGraw-Hill, 1991, pg 6.
3. ^ Renn, J., Damerow, P., and McLaughlin, P. Aristotle, Archimedes, Euclid, and the Origin of
Mechanics: The Perspective of Historical Epistemology. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for the
History of Science, 2010, pg 1-2.
4. ^ "A history of mechanics". René Dugas (1988). p.19. ISBN 0-486-65632-2
5. ^ Jump up to:    "A Tiny Taste of the History of Mechanics". The University of Texas at Austin.
a b

6. ^ Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about
motion and its implications for teaching". Physics Education. 40 (2):
141.  Bibcode:2005PhyEd..40..139E. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002.
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Mehdi Amin Razavi (1996). The Islamic intellectual tradition in
Persia. Routledge. p.  72. ISBN 978-0-7007-0314-2.
8. ^ Aydin Sayili  (1987). "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile". Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences.  500  (1): 477–
482.  Bibcode:1987NYASA.500..477S.  doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x.
9. ^ Espinoza, Fernando. "An Analysis of the Historical Development of Ideas About Motion and
its Implications for Teaching". Physics Education. Vol. 40(2).
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Sayili, Aydin. "Ibn Sina and Buridan on the Motion the Projectile". Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences vol. 500(1). p.477-482.
11. ^ Pines, Shlomo (1970). "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah". Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 26–28. ISBN 0-684-10114-9. 
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus
Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].)
12. ^ Franco, Abel B.. "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory". Journal of the History
of Ideas. Vol. 64(4): 543.
13. ^ Gutman, Oliver (2003), Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et Mundi: A Critical Edition,  Brill
Publishers, p. 193,  ISBN  90-04-13228-7
14. ^ Walter Lewin  (October 4, 1999). Work, Energy, and Universal Gravitation. MIT Course
8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 11(ogg) (videotape). Cambridge, MA US:  MIT OCW.
Event occurs at 1:21-10:10. Retrieved  December 23, 2010.

Further reading[edit]
 Robert Stawell Ball (1871) Experimental Mechanics from Google books.
 Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1972). Mechanics and Electrodynamics, Vol.
1. Franklin Book Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-08-016739-8.

External links[edit]
Look up mechanics in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
 iMechanica: the web of mechanics and mechanicians
 Mechanics Definition
 Mechanics Blog by a Purdue University Professor
 The Mechanics program at Virginia Tech
 Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips  from the University of
New South Wales