University of Houston – Fall 2020 – Dr. G.

Heier
Modern Algebra I (Math 6302)

Contents

1 Introduction to groups 3
1.1 Basic axioms and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 The symmetric groups Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Group actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Subgroups 8
2.1 Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Centralizers and normalizers, stabilizers and kernels . . . . . 8
2.3 Cyclic groups and cyclic subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Subgroups generated by subsets of a group . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Quotient groups and homomorphisms 11

3.1 Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 More on cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 The isomorphism theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Transpositions and the Alternating Group . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1
4 Group actions 17
4.1 Group actions and permutation representations . . . . . . . . 17

These lecture notes are based on the textbook Abstract Algebra, 3rd
edition, by Dummit and Foote, ISBN 0-471-43334-9. They are provided “as
is” and as a courtesy only. They are for your personal use only and not to
be distributed, sold, copied etc. in any way. I am reserving all rights to the
full extent of applicable laws and regulations.

Part I: Group Theory

1 Introduction to groups

1.1 Basic axioms and examples

Motivation: The notion of a group is relevant to almost all areas of mathe-

matics, including algebra, number theory, geometry, combinatorics, and even
analysis (see textbook, wikipedia). It is an abstraction of, say, the addition
of integers.
Key construction: group action: G × X → X. We will recap the basics (as
in Math 3330) at a higher pace and with a focus on group actions and the
converse direction of Lagrange’s theorem: E.g., if G is a group of order p · q
with p, q distinct primes, then we would like to study the subgroups of order
p, q (they exist!), which is often not done at the undergraduate level.

Definition 1.1. Let G be a set.

i. A binary operation ∗ (also denoted “ ”) on G is a function ∗ : G × G →

G.

ii. ∗ is called associative iff ∀a, b, c ∈ G : a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.

iii. Let a, b ∈ G. We say a, b commute iff a ∗ b = b ∗ a.

iv. We say ∗ is commutative iff all a, b ∈ G commute.

Example 1.2.

2
 • N, Z, Q, R, C with + and ·

• M at(n × m) with matrix addition; M at(n × n) with matrix multipli-

cation;

• {f : R → R} with composition

Remark 1.3. The bottom line is: in order to have a binary operation, we
need to be able to take two elements of a set and get a third element of that
same set.

Definition 1.4. A group is a set G with a binary operation ∗ satisfying

i. ∗ is associative

ii. ∃e ∈ G, called an identity, such that ∀a ∈ G : e ∗ a = a = a ∗ e

iii. ∀a ∈ G∃b ∈ G (called an inverse of a) such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a

Definition 1.5. The group (G, ∗) is called abelian (or simply commutative)
if ∗ is commutative.

Definition 1.6. We say (G, ∗) is a finite group if #G < ∞ as a set.

Example 1.7.

• (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +)

• (Q \ {0}, ·), (R \ {0}, ·), (C \ {0}, ·)

• any vector space with its additive operation

• NOT: (N, +), (Z \ {0}, ·)

• NOT: {f : R → R} with composition

• Very important example: Let Zn = Z/nZ = {[0], [1], . . . , [n − 1]} with

[a] + [b] = [a + b], [a] · [b] = [a · b]. Then (Zn , +) is a group. Moreover,
(Zn \ {[0]}, ·) is a group iff n is a prime number.

Proposition 1.8. Let (G, ∗) be a group.

• e is unique

• For all a ∈ G, there exists a unique inverse b ∈ G such that a ∗ b =

e = b ∗ a. Write a−1 for it.

3
 • For all a ∈ G: (a−1 )−1 = a.
• For all a, b ∈ G : (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1
• Any product a1 ∗ a2 ∗ . . . ∗ ak makes sense because of associativity.
Definition 1.9. Let (A, ∗) and (B, ) be groups. Then the cartesian product
set A × B forms a group with the binary operation ◦ given by:

(a1 , b1 ) ◦ (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 ∗ a2 , b1  b2 ).

We call (A × B, ◦) the direct product group of (A, ∗) and (B, ).

Remark 1.10. We will encounter the semi-direct product later.
Proposition 1.11. Let G be a group. Let a, b ∈ G. Then the equation
a ∗ x = b has a unique solution, namely x = a−1 b. Analogously for y ∗ c = d.
Definition 1.12. The order of a group (G, ∗) is simply the cardinality of
the set G. We write #G or |G| for it.

1.3 The symmetric groups Sn

Let ∅ =
6 Ω be a set. Let SΩ = {f : Ω → Ω bijective}.
Definition 1.13. An element of SΩ is called a permutation of Ω.
Definition 1.14. With the binary operation of composition (“◦”), the set
SΩ forms a group. This group is called the symmetric group of Ω.
Example 1.15. Let Ω = {1, 2, . . . , n}. Then we write Sn for SΩ . An element
f ∈ Sn is described by the data

1 7→ f (1), 2 7→ f (2), . . . , n 7→ f (n).

We mostly write  
1 2 ... n
f (1) f (2) . . . f (n)
for an element f ∈ Sn .
Example 1.16. The permutation f ∈ S5 given by

1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 1, 3 7→ 4, 4 7→ 5, 5 7→ 3
 
1 2 3 4 5
is denoted by
2 1 4 5 3

4
Proposition 1.17. #Sn = n!

Definition 1.18. An element f of Sn is called a cycle if there exists a set

{i1 , i2 , . . . , ir } ⊂ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that

f (i1 ) = i2 , f (i2 ) = i3 , . . . , f (ir−1 ) = ir , f (ir ) = i1

and
f |{1,2,...,n}\{i1 ,i2 ,...,ir } = id .

Definition 1.19. If f is a cycle as above, denote it by (i1 i2 . . . ir ).

Example 1.20.  
1 2 3 4 5
= (2 3 5)
1 3 5 4 2
is a cycle. On the other hand,
 
1 2 3 4 5
4 3 5 1 2

is not a cycle.

Remark 1.21. If f is a cycle, then the inverse is easy to write down:

(i1 i2 . . . ir )−1 = (ir ir−1 . . . i1 ).

Theorem 1.22. Every permutation in Sn can be written as a composition

of mutually disjoint cycles.

Proof. Use induction.

Definition 1.23. The length of the cycle (i1 i2 . . . ir ) is r.

Definition 1.24. A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.

Theorem 1.25. Every cycle can be expressed as a composition of transpo-

sitions.

Proof. Consider the cycle (i1 i2 . . . ir ). Then

(i1 i2 . . . ir ) = (i1 ir ) ◦ (i1 ir−1 ) ◦ . . . ◦ (i1 i2 ).

5
 The above two theorems yield

Corollary 1.26. Every permutation in Sn can be written as a composition

of transpositions.

Definition 1.27. If a permutation can be written as an even number of

transpositions, then we call it even. Otherwise, we call it odd. (This is
well-defined!)

1.6 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms

Definition 1.28. Let (G, ∗) and (H, ) be groups. A map ϕ : G → H with

ϕ(x ∗ y) = ϕ(x)  ϕ(y)

for all x, y ∈ G is called a homomorphism.

Remark 1.29. We often write ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) for the above display.

Definition 1.30. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism. If ϕ is bijective,

then we call ϕ an isomorphism (and G and H are called isomorphic).

Example 1.31.

• m : Z → Z, x 7→ 2x is a homomorphism, but not an isomorphism

• exp : (R, +) → (R>0 , ·) is an isomorphism due to exp(x + y) =

exp(x) exp(y).

• S3 and Z6 are both groups of order 6, but they are not isomorphic, as
S3 is not abelian, while Z6 is abelian.

1.7 Group actions

Definition 1.32. Let (G, ∗) be a group and A a set. A group action of G

on A is a map f : G × A → A (with f (g, a) written as g.a, g · a, ga) such
that

• ∀g1 , g2 ∈ G : ∀a ∈ A: g1 (g2 a) = (g1 g2 )a

• ∀a ∈ A : ea = a

6
Definition 1.33. For g ∈ G, let σg : A → A, a 7→ ga be the map A → A
induced by g.

Proposition 1.34. i. σg is bijective, i.e., it is a permutation of A.

ii. The map ϕ : G → SA , g 7→ σg is a group homomorphism.

iii. Conversely, for an arbitrary group homomorphism ϕ : G → SA , the

map G × A → A, (g, a) 7→ ϕ(g)(a)

Definition 1.35. A group action G × A → A is called faithful if ∀g ∈

G \ {e} : σg 6= idA . Equivalently, if the homomorphism ϕ : G → SA , g 7→ σg
is injective.

Example 1.36. • Let G be the group of invertible n × n matrices over

the reals and A = Rn . Then G acts on A by the usual multiplication
operation between a matrix and a vector.

• Let G be a group and let A = G. Then G acts on itself by left-

multiplication.

2 Subgroups

Motivation: The real number line is a fundamental object in mathematics.

However, in a high school level geometry class, one would most frequently
encounter it as a line in the plane coming with a slope, x and y intercepts,
other points of incidence, etc. The plane serves as an ambient space or
container for the real line. A slight generalization of this situation would
be that of subspaces in vector spaces. This phenomenon is quite frequent in
mathematics: it is often desirable to study a given object as a SUBobject of
a container.

2.1 Definitions and examples

Definition 2.1. Let G be a group. A subset H ⊂ G is called a subgroup of

G if H 6= ∅ and

i. ∀x, y ∈ H : xy ∈ H

ii. ∀x ∈ H : x−1 ∈ H

7
We write H < G for a subgroup. (Note that the book writes H ≤ G).

Example 2.2. • (Z, +) < (Q, +), (Q6=0 , ·) < (R6=0 , ·), {e} < G, G < G

• NOT: (Z+ , +) in (Z, +), as i. is satisfied, but not ii.

Proposition 2.3. H < G iff ∀x, y ∈ H : x · y −1 ∈ H

Proposition 2.4. Let G be a group. Let ∅ =

6 H ⊂ G be a finite subset.
Then (H < G iff ∀x, y ∈ H : x · y ∈ H).

2.2 Centralizers and normalizers, stabilizers and kernels

Definition 2.5. Let G be a group. Let A 6= ∅ be a subset (not necessarily

a subgroup). Then

CG (A) := {g ∈ G | ∀a ∈ A : gag −1 = a}

is called the centralizer of A in G.

Remark 2.6. Since gag −1 = a iff ga = ag, the set CG (A) is the set of
elements in G which commute with all elements of A.

Proposition 2.7. The set CG (A) is a subgroup of G.

Proof. Check it.

Definition 2.8. Let G be a group. Then

Z(G) := CG (G) = {g ∈ G | ∀a ∈ G : gag −1 = a}

is called the center of G.

Definition 2.9. Let G be a group. Let A 6= ∅ be a subset (not necessarily

a subgroup). Then

NG (A) := {g ∈ G | gAg −1 = A}

is called the normalizer of A in G.

Remark 2.10. The centralizer CG (A) is a subgroup of the normalizer

NG (A). The inclusion may be strict.

8
Definition 2.11. Let ϕ : G → G0 be a homomorphism. Then

ker(ϕ) = {g ∈ G : ϕ(g) = e}

is called the kernel of ϕ. Note: ker(ϕ) is always a subgroup of G (check it),

regardless of the nature of the homomorphism.

An important special case is:

Definition 2.12. Let G × X → X be a group action. Let ϕ : G → SX , g 7→

σg as above. Then the kernel of ϕ is

{g ∈ G : σg = idX }

and is called the kernel of the group action.

Definition 2.13. Let G × X → X group action. Let x ∈ X be fixed. Then

Gx := {g ∈ G : gx = x}

is called the stabilizer (or isotropy) of x in G.

Remark 2.14. For all x ∈ X, the stabilizer subset Gx is a subgroup of G

(check it).

2.3 Cyclic groups and cyclic subgroups

Key idea: Let g ∈ G be a group element. Then the subset of all powers of
g, i.e., H := {g n |n ∈ Z}, is natural to consider and forms a subgroup (easy
to check).

Definition 2.15. A group G is called cyclic if there exists g ∈ G such that

G = {g n |n ∈ Z}.

Definition 2.16. If H is a subgroup of G and H is cyclic, then we call H

a cyclic subgroup of G.

Definition 2.17. Let g ∈ G. We define

hgi := {g n |n ∈ Z}

and call g a generator of the cyclic group hgi.

9
Remark 2.18. Note that there may be other generators of hgi besides g.
For example,
(Z, +) = h1i = h−1i.

Theorem 2.19. Let G be a cyclic group of order k ∈ Z>0 . Then

G∼
= Zk .

Proof. Exercise.

Theorem 2.20. Let G be a cyclic group of infinite order. Then

G∼
= Z.

Proof. To be done on HW 1.

Theorem 2.21. Let G be a cyclic group with a subgroup H. Then H is

cyclic.

Example 2.22. G ∼
= Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 11}

• subgroups of order 12: Z12 = h1i = h5i = h7i = h11i

• subgroups of order 6: h2i = h10i

• subgroups of order 4: h3i = h9i

• subgroups of order 3: h4i = h8i

• subgroups of order 2: h6i

• subgroups of order 1: h0i = {0}

2.4 Subgroups generated by subsets of a group

Definition 2.23. If A is an arbitrary subset of a group G, then

hAi := ∩H subgroup containing A H

is called the subgroup of G generated by A. (Check that this a subgroup!)

Definition 2.24. A group G is called finitely generated if there exists a

finite subset A ⊂ G such that hAi = G.

10
3 Quotient groups and homomorphisms

3.1 Definitions and examples

Homomorphisms between groups enjoy the following properties. (Check

them as exercise.) This list could have been given in Section 1.6; the book
sometimes spreads out topics into several distant parts unnecessarily.

Proposition 3.1. Let G, H be groups and ϕ : G → H homomorphism.

Then

i. ϕ(eG ) = eH

ii. ϕ(g −1 ) = (ϕ(g))−1

iii. ϕ(g n ) = (ϕ(g))n

iv. ker(ϕ) is a subgroup of G

v. image (ϕ) is a subgroup of H

Next, we define left and right coset of g with respect to a subgroup N .

Definition 3.2. Let N < G. Let g ∈ G be arbitrary. Then

gN := {gn|n ∈ N }; N g := {ng|n ∈ N }

are called the left and right coset of g with respect to N , respectively.

Definition 3.3. Let N < G. We say N is a normal subgroup of G iff

∀g ∈ G : gN g −1 = N.

Write N
G.

Theorem 3.4. Let N < G. Then the following are equivalent:

i. N
G

ii. NG (N ) = G

iii. ∀g ∈ G : gN = N g

iv. ∀g ∈ G : gN g −1 ⊂ N

11
 The main reason that the property of normality is so valuable is that it
makes the obvious binary operation on left cosets well-defined:

Proposition 3.5. The binary operation on the set of left cosets defined by

gN · hN := (gh)N

is well-defined iff N
G.

Proposition 3.6. If N
G, then we denote the set of left cosets by G/N .

The set G/N is a group with the above multiplication of left cosets.

Definition 3.7. Let N
G. The homomorphism π : G → G/N, g 7→ gN

is called the natural projection homomorphism.

If you are not familiar with it, the proof of the following proposition is a
nice exercise.

Proposition 3.8. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then ker(ϕ)
G.

Example 3.9. Let G = (R, +) and N = (Z, +). It is easy to see that N is
a subgroup. Since G is abelian, N is automatically normal. Then G/N is a
group according to Proposition 3.6. We will see later that G/N is isomorphic
to the group of complex numbers of modulus 1 with multiplication, aka the
unit circle.

3.2 More on cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

Theorem 3.10 (Lagrange). Let G be a finite group. Let H < G. Then

#H|#G. The number of distinct left cosets is #G/#H.

Proof. The key to the proof is the following claim.

Claim 3.11. Any two cosets gH and hH either are equal or disjoint.

Proof of Claim. If g1 H, g2 H are not disjoint, then there exists x ∈ g1 H ∩

g2 H. Write x = g1 h1 = g2 h2 with h1 , h2 ∈ H. Solve for g1 = g2 h2 h−1 1 .
Thus, g1 H = g2 h2 h−1
1 H. Observe that yH = H iff y ∈ H. Therefore, with
y = h2 h−1
1 ∈ H,
g1 H = g2 h2 h−1
1 H = g2 yH = g2 H.

This proves the Claim.

12
 Moreover, note that any left coset gH has the same cardinality as eH =
H, as the map H → gH, h 7→ gh is a bijection (check it). Therefore, by a
standard counting argument, the cardinality of G is equal to the product of
the number of distinct left cosets and #H.

Definition 3.12. We call

|G : H| := #G/#H

the index of the subgroup H in G.

Definition 3.13. Let G be a group. Let g ∈ G. Then define the order of

g to be the order of the cyclic group hgi, which we denote by ord(g) (where
we set ord(g) = ∞ if hgi is not a finite group). If G is a finite group, then
hgi is automatically a finite group and, by Lagrange, ord(g)|#G.

Corollary 3.14. Let G be a group with #G = p, where p is a prime number.

Then G ∼
= Zp .

Proof. Let g ∈ G \ {e}. Then ord(g) ≥ 2 and, by Langrange, ord(g)|p. Since

p is prime, this implies ord(g) = p.

We remark that the obvious converse to Lagrange’s theorem is false in

general:

Remark 3.15. Let G be a finite group and 1 < k < #G with k|#G. Then
there may not exist a subgroup of order k in G. For example, for n ≥ 5,
consider the alternating group

An := {g ∈ Sn |g is even}

with order n! 2 . These groups are known to be simple, which means they
have no non-trivial normal subgroups. In subsection 3.5, we will see that in
general, all subgroups of index 2 are normal. In particular, any subgroup of
An of order 12 n!2 would be normal. Therefore, by the simplicity of An there
cannot be subgroups of order 21 n!
2.

The following partial converses to Lagrange’s theorem do hold.

Theorem 3.16 (Cauchy). Let G be a finite group. Let p be a prime with

p|#G. Then there exists an element g of order p in G and thus a subgroup
of order p, namely hgi.

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Proof. See Section 3.2, exercise 9 (page 96).

The following is a preview of the full-fledged Sylow theorem we will

encounter later.

Theorem 3.17 (Sylow). Let G be a finite group with #G = pα m, where p

is prime, α is a positive integer and p - m. Then G has a subgroup of order
pα .

Proof. The proof will be included in our more general proof later.

Remark 3.18. The assumption of the maximality of the exponent α, which

is expressed by the condition p - m is not necessary in the above Sylow
theorem. This is slightly outside of the scope of what we will cover (see
Chapter 6 in the textbook).

Finally, some interesting considerations based on cosets (see textbook for

proofs and more details).

Definition 3.19. If H, K are subsets (note that I misspoke in the lecture

video when I said subgroups at this point) of a group, define

HK := {hk|h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.

Proposition 3.20. Let H, K be finite subgroups of a (not necessarily finite)

group. Then
#H#K
#(HK) = .
#(H ∩ K)
Note: HK is not necessarily a subgroup in this situation.

The following proposition gives a criterion for when HK is a subgroup.

Proposition 3.21. Let H, K be subgroups of a group. Then HK is a sub-

group iff HK = KH.

Corollary 3.22. If H, Kare subgroups of G and H ⊂ NG (K), then HK is

a subgroup of G.

14
3.3 The isomorphism theorems

Motivation: In Linear Algebra, for a linear transformation T : V → W ,

we have the isomorphism theorem V / ker(T ) ∼
= im(T ). Similar fundamental
isomorphism theorems hold in many settings. It basically says that the kernel
of an appropriate map can be “quotient out” to obtain an isomorphism onto
the image.
Recall that in Proposition 3.8 we learned that the kernel of a group
homomorphism is always normal, i.e., it can always be quotient out. This
then naturally leads us to the following.

Theorem 3.23 (First isomorphism theorem). If ϕ : G → H is a homomor-

phism, then (ker(ϕ)
G and)

G/ ker(ϕ) ∼
= ϕ(G).

15
Example 3.24.

• Let’s revisit Example 3.9. Let ϕ : (R, +) → (C \ {0}, ·) be defined by

ϕ(x) = e2πix . This is a group homomorphism due to the fundamental
exponentiation identity ex+y = ex ey . The image of ϕ consists of all
complex numbers of modulus 1, aka the unit circle S 1 . The kernel
consists precisely of all integers, because 1 = e2πix iff x is an integer.
The isomorphism theorem says:

R/Z ∼
= S1.

Note also that in this formula, algebra and geometry meet in a very
elegant way (my research area is in “algebraic geometry” ...)

• Let k be a positive integer. Let π : Z → Zk be the natural projection

given by π(n) = [n]k . Then

ker(π) = {ak | a ∈ Z} =: kZ

and
Z/kZ ∼
= Zk .

In addition to the first isomorphism theorem, which certainly is the most

prominent one, there are two more:
Theorem 3.25 (Second isomorphism theorem). Let G be a group. Let
A, B < G with A ⊂ NG (B). By Corollary 3.21, AB is a subgroup of G,
B
AB, A ∩ B
A, and

AB/B ∼
= A/A ∩ B.

Theorem 3.26 (Third isomorphism theorem). Let G be a group with normal

subgroups H, K
G. Assume H < K. Then K/H
G/H and

(G/H)/(K/H) ∼
= G/K.

3.5 Transpositions and the Alternating Group

Recall: The alternating group An is the subgroup of Sn consisting of per-

mutations of even degree, i.e., those permutations which can be written as
an even number of transpositions. It is of index 2 in Sn and thus a normal
subgroup of Sn according to the following Proposition.

16
Proposition 3.27. Let H < G be of index 2. Then H
G.

Proof. The two distinct left cosets in this situation are eH = H and g0 H =
G \ H with some arbitrary but fixed g0 ∈ G \ H. Recall that xH = H
iff x ∈ H (and also Hx = H iff x ∈ H). Therefore, for g ∈ G, either
gH = H = Hg or gH = G \ H = Hg. This implies that H is normal by
Proposition 3.4.

Remark 3.28. Why the number “2”? The answer is: 2 is the smallest
prime, and it is this characterization that makes the above propositions
work: in Corollary 4.5, we will obtain the statement of Proposition 3.27
with 2 replaced by “smallest prime dividing the order of G.”

4 Group actions

4.1 Group actions and permutation representations

First, to explain the words in the title of the subsection: In Section 1.7, we
encountered group actions G×A → A as well as the induced homomorphism
from G to the group of permutations of A, which we now call the permutation
representation. (Again, the book probably should have mentioned the name
“permutation representations” already in Section 1.7.)

Proposition 4.1. Let G be a group acting on the set A. The relation on A

given by
a ∼ b ⇔ ∃g ∈ G : a = gb
is an equivalence relation. For each a ∈ A, the number of elements in the
equivalence class of a is |G : Ga |, i.e., the index of the stabilizer Ga in G.

Before the proof of Proposition 4.1, we make the following definitions:

Definition 4.2. Let G be a group acting on A 6= ∅.

i. The equivalence class of a, i.e., Ga := {ga|g ∈ G}, is called the orbit

of a under the G-action.

ii. The action of G on A is called transitive if there exists precisely one

orbit, i.e., ∀a, b ∈ A : ∃g ∈ G : a = bg.

17
Proof of Proposition 4.1. Checking the statement regarding the equivalence
relation is straightforward (check reflexive, symmetric, transitive). We now
prove #Ga = |G : Ga |. Note that the First Isomorphism Theorem cannot
applied here to get a bijection “G/Ga → Ga” as Ga is in general not normal.
Instead, we are going to prove that the map

Ga → {left cosets of Ga }, ga 7→ gGa

is a bijection and thus

Def.
#Ga = #{left cosets of Ga } = |G : Ga |.

i. Well-definedness: if ga = ha, then h−1 ga = a, i.e., h−1 g ∈ Ga . Thus,

hGa = heGa = hh−1 gGa = gGa .

ii. surjectivity: trivial

iii. injectivity: Assume gGa = hGa . Then

h−1 gGa = Ga ⇒ h−1 g ∈ Ga ⇒ h−1 ga = a ⇒ ga = ha.

18