NAME OF INSTITUTION: DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY.

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING.

NAME: EVANS KIPNGETICH.

REGISTRATION NUMBER: E024-01-0841/2017.

TASK:INTERNAL ATTACHMENT FINAL REPORT

ATTACHMENT PERIOD: 21ST JANUARY 2019-

SUBMISSION DATE:
DECLARATION.

I sincerely declare that:

1) I am the sole writer of this report.
2) The details of training and experience contained in this report describes my
participation and knowledge acquired as trainee in this field of Civil
Engineering.
3) All the information contained in this report is certain and correct to the
best of my knowledge.

SIGNATURE: _____________________________________

NAME : _____________________________________

REG. NO : ______________________________________

DATE: ______________________________________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
The internal attachment I had with DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
was a great chance for learning and professional development. I do therefore
consider myself lucky for being part of it.All this was made possible through
cooperation of some people.
I want to take advantage of this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude and
special thanks to Mr.Ngare (My Auto card supervisor), Mr. Nyaga (Plumbing work
supervisor) and all from the Department Civil Engineering.
Others are Mr. Mwangi. C (Mechanical Department), Mr. Njuguna (Electrical
department) and Mr. Julius (GIS Department) who were my supervisors during my
attachment period in their departments. It is my radiant sentiment to place on
record my best regards and deepest sense of gratitude to Mrs. Rose who was our
overall supervisor ensuring smooth running of the attachment and good co-
ordination between different departments indicated above.
I perceive this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will
strive to use the gained skills and knowledge in the best way possible.
CHAPTER ONE.
WEEK ONE: Auto CAD.
TECHNOLOGIST’S NAME: MR.NGARE.

BRIEF ABSTRACT.
The term CAD (Computer Aided Design) applies to a wide range of programs that allows the
user to created drawings, plans, and designs electronically. AutoCAD is one such program and it
main claim to fame is that it is relatively easy to use, it is very comprehensive in its ability to
create 2D and some 3D drawings, and it is very popular. Seventy percent of the CAD users in
the world use AutoCAD.
The initial screen-interface of AutoCAD on start-up.
AutoCAD has a very versatile user interface that allows you to control the program in several
different ways. At the top of the window is a row of menus. Clicking on the Home, Insert, or
Annotate causes another selection of menus to appear. This new selection of commands is
frequently called a Ribbon or a dashboard. You can operate the program by clicking on the
icons in these menus.
Another method of using the program is typing in the command names in the command line
window. This is frequently faster than using drop down menus for frequently used commands
because you do not have to search for the correct menu or icon. You just type in the command
name.
Basic commands in AutoCAD and their Description.
1. Line command.
(a).The ORTHO code.
In drawing lines in AutoCAD, there is need to understand the ORTHO mode. The ORTHO mode
constrains the cursor to horizontal and vertical movement, which helps you draw straight
horizontal and straight vertical line easily.
Every time I need to draw an either vertical or horizontal straight line, I will make sure the
ORTHO mode is activated. The ORTHO icon is located in the Status Bar.
Activating the ORTHO mode.
Just click on the icon to toggle it. If it was OFF before your click, it would turn ON and vice versa.
Now that we know what ORTHO is and how to operate it, we need to make use of it.

Let’s consider drawing a line of 100 units

To draw a line with 100 units:

a) Click on the LINE icon or type line in the command window.

b) Click once on the model space to indicate the starting position of the line.
c) Activate the ORTHO mode if it is not activated.
d) Move the cursor away from the first point in the direction you want the line to have. Since
we are drawing a vertical line, you can only go either upward or downwards.
e) Type 100 on the keyboard and hit on enter key on the keyboard.
2. OFFSET COMMAND
Offset is part of a modifying tool used to create object parallel to the original object.
To offset an object;

a) Click on the OFFSET icon or type a offset on the command window

b) Click on the line you want to offset.

c) Indicate the offset distance.

d) Specify the direction on which to offset then hit ENTER

3. TRIM AND EXTEND COMMAND.

Both Trim and Extend are tools that help modify existing objects. There are some of the tools
you will make use of them most often in a project, where the necessity of learning how to make
use of them as soon as it is convenient.

TRIM in AutoCAD.

This command helps trim objects to meet the edge of other object(s). If I have two lines that
cross each other’s and I want to trim one/both at the point where they intersect, Trim will help
me do it.
To Trim in AutoCAD

1. Click on the TRIM icon in the modify tool bar

2. Select objects that intersect each other’s and hit ENTER
3. Select the part (or parts) to be removed
(ii). EXTEND in AutoCAD.

The Extend command is not much used compared to the Trim command but can be very
helpful at time. It helps extend object(s) to meet the edges of other objects. It is used the same
way Trim is used.

4. CIRCLE COMMAND.

In this post we are going to learn and start drawing circles in AutoCAD. Time has come to move
forward and learn more, I believe it is the right time to learn and see how to use AutoCAD to
draw circles.

The CIRCLE command is an important and a frequently used command, you can judge by its
location and its size.

Drawing circles in AutoCAD.

Drawing an ordinary circle is quite easy in AutoCAD. All you have to do is

1. Click on the CIRCLE icon (shown on the image above)

2. Specify the center of the circle with a click in the model space
3. Specify the radius of the circle with another click or type its dimension of radius in the
command line

5.MOVE and COPY commands.

Move and copy are part of the modification tools available in AutoCAD that are used to
modify an existing object. Moving and copying are frequently needed action when you work
on a CAD project.

(i)TO MOVE an object in AutoCAD.

The MOVE command will help change the location of an object in the drawing area. Notice that
when moving an object, you can activate the ORTHO mode and use the command area to enter
the exact distance you want to move the object with. The ORTHO mode will ensure you are
moving on a straight line. However if you don’t want to move vertically or horizontally straight
you have to deactivate the ORTHO mode

To use the MOVE command

1. Select the object to move (or objects to move)

2. Click on the icon shown on the image above
3. Select the base point with a click (don’t  hold)
 4. Move and drop.

(ii). Copy an object in AutoCAD.

The COPY command works similarly to the Move command at the only difference that it leaves
a copy of the original object in its position. It works as it would in other windows application,
and feel free to use the Ctrl+C and Ctrl+V to copy and paste objects in AutoCAD.

To copy Objects in AutoCAD you need to select them first, and you can as well use the
technique we used above to place the copy at a certain distance and angle from the original
item.

6.MIRROR and ROTATE command.

Here comes MIRROR and ROTATE, two important command in AutoCAD. These command will
be a lot useful to you and will constantly help you to get stuff done the right way.

(I). Mirror.

This command will help create a mirrored copy of a selected objects.

To use the MIRROR command in AutoCAD

1. Select objects
2. Click on the MIRROR icon
3. Specify the first point of mirror line
4. Specify the second point of mirror line
5. Hit Enter.

(ii). ROTATE an object in AutoCAD.

The ROTATE command will simply help rotate object. To rotate an object in AutoCAD

1. Select the object to rotate

2. Click on the ROTATE icon
3. Specify the base point
4. Specify the rotation angle (positive angle for anticlockwise rotation and negative angle
for clockwise rotation) and Hit Enter.

7.CHAMFERING AND FILLETING COMMANDS.

Chamfer and Fillet are two of the most used tools in the Modify ribbon. Fillet helps convert
sharp edges to round edges, Even though this command can be bypassed using Circles and
Trim, its use will still be appreciated seeing how easy getting to the final result get while using
it. Chamfer helps to make a symmetrical slopping edge.

(i). Chamfer in AutoCAD.

To use the Chamfer command

1. Click on the Chamfer icon

2. Type D and Press Enter
3. Specify the first chamfer distance and Press Enter
4. Specify the second chamfer distance and Press Enter
5. Select the first line.
6. Select the second line.

(ii). To use the Fillet command.

1. Click on the fillet command icon.

2. Type R and Press Enter.
3. Specify the fillet Radius and Press Enter.
4. Select the first line.
5. Select the second line.

LAYERS IN AUTOCAD.

Layers are generally independent drawing spaces that stack on top of each other to create an
overall image. Organizing objects in layers is important when you work on big projects
(Architecture for example). You use layers to organize your project in such a way that every
group of similar things are in their own layers.

Importance of layers.

 Layers allow you to easily control properties of a group of objects; line-weight,

color, line-type.
 Layers allow you to turn object or group of objects off, both on screen and on the plot.

Creating layers in AutoCAD.

To create a layer, click on the Layer Properties icon. The following will pop up, click on the
indicated icon to create a new layers. The following shows layers I created for the exercise
above. Each of your layers can be customized, such as having its own Line type, line weight,
transparency and plot Style. Close the windows when you are done creating layers.

Manipulating layers in AutoCAD.

To put an object in a layer, make sure when you are creating that object, its layer is set to
current. If you created an object in the wrong layer, don’t worry, it is possible to put an already
created element in a different layer.

Simply Select the object, Select the layers you want that object in, And Press ESC on your
keyboard.

AUTOCAD PROJECT.

In AutoCAD, we employed several commands; offset, trim, extend, break commands among
others, dimensioning and layering. The first project involved developing a detailed slab as in the
hard-copy drawing given. In addition, to the detailed slab we also developed a detailed
drawings of a stair case and a strip footing. The concepts of AutoCAD were successfully
covered.

GENERAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED.

There were few number of the students who could not access a computer in which an AutoCAD
program had been installed. Some of the computers in the engineering computer lab had
about 8 computers in total did not have AutoCAD program installed where as others had their
own problems as they could not start up.

Secondly, one more assistant is required as learning to work with AutoCAD required the
supervisor being close. One supervisor could not adequately serve us and as many students
seek guidance from him.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

The department under the control of the engineering computer lab should ensure that all
computers are in their correct working condition at all times.

REFERNCES.

1. Ellen Finkelstein, AutoCAD 2013 For Dummies, (2015) 2nd Edition, Wiley
publishers.
2. Prof. Sham Tickoo, Designing with AutoCAD, 2ND Edition, Autodesk Press.
CHAPTER ONE
WEEK TWO: MASONRY.
TECHNOLOGISTS NAME: MR. MWAI.

BRIEF ABSTRACT.
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound
together by mortar. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, building stone
such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, and
cob. Masonry work includes construction with clay bricks, concrete bricks and blocks, clay tiles,
and natural and artificial stone.
Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the
quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can
significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs
masonry is called a mason or bricklayer.
Each year, masons build and repair a wide variety of stone and brick structures, including
retaining walls, steps, stoops, patios, chimneys, mailboxes, and outside home walls. While the
cost of building the same structure out of brick, stone, and mortar is generally more expensive
than building out of wood, brick and stone have a distinctive, classic look and, if constructed
correctly, are extremely durable.
Masonry is used to indicate the art of building a structure in either stones or bricks. The
masonry wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as stones, bricks, concrete, hollow
blocks, cellular concrete and laterite, usually in horizontal courses cemented together with
some form of mortar. The binding strength of mortar is usually disregarded as far as the
strength of the wall is concerned.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MASONRY.

Masonry can be classified into the following categories:

1. Stone masonry.
2. Brick masonry.
3. Hollow block concrete masonry.
4. Reinforced masonry.
5. Composite masonry.

MATERIALS USED IN MASONRY.

1. Bricks.
Bricks are the most common masonry material. Bricks are available in a wide variety of colors
and types. Due to changes in processes, raw materials (such as clay), and kiln temperature, brick
color varies.
2. Mortar.
Mortar is the glue that holds brick, block, and stone together. Different mortar types,
made from different ingredient mixtures, are used for different applications. Depending
on the ingredients, mortar color can also vary dramatically. A skilled repair mason
should custom blend the mortar color to closely match the existing mortar. 
3. DRY SET MASONRY.
The strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the
building material and the mortar; the friction between the interlocking blocks of
masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own. The
blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this
interlocking, and some dry set masonry structures forgo mortar altogether.

BRICK MASONRY.

Bricks are made of different materials and manufactured by different methods, and they can be
used in many different ways in the construction process. All of these factors will influence the
price of the masonry, but the main factors affecting the measurement of brick masonry are the
size of the brick units, the size of the joints between bricks, the wall thickness, and the pattern
of brick bond utilized.
Measurement of bricks is affected by many factors including:
  Size of bricks.
 Size of joints between units.
 Wall thickness.
 Pattern of brick bond applied.

The amount of mortar required is determined from the size of bricks and the thickness of the
mortar joint. Usually brick courses are laid different can be measured by the length as “Extra
Overs”:- the additional cost of material and labour is required.

BONDING IN MASONRY.

Bond is the arrangement of bricks or stones in each course, so as to ensure the greatest
possible interlocking and to avoid the continuity of vertical joints in two successive courses,
both on the face and in the body of a wall.

Bonding is the arrangement of bricks in a structure such as a wall or column. Very broadly,
bricks can be laid as soldiers (standing upright), stretchers (laid lengthwise along the wall) or
headers (laid width wise along the wall).

Bricks are typically laid to an offset pattern to maintain an adequate lap between joints from
one course to the next and to ensure that vertical joints are not positioned above one another
on consecutive courses.

Objectives of bonds

A bond is provided to achieve the following objectives:

(a) The primary objective of providing a bond is to break the continuity of the vertical joints in
the successive courses both in the length and thickness of masonry structure. As a result, the
structure will act as a bounded mass and its load will be transmitted uniformly to the
foundations.
(b) To ensure longitudinal and lateral strength of the structure.
(c) To provide pleasing appearance by laying bricks symmetrically.
(d) To do masonry work quickly by engaging more masons on a job at a time.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction.

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:

a) Stretcher Bond.

b) English Bond.

c) Flemish Bond.
 d) Header Bond.

(a). Stretcher Bond.

Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks are laid with only their
stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of bricks below and above.

Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation of stretcher
bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full width thick brick walls.
They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls such as for the construction half brick
thick partition wall.

Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to stand alone in case of longer
span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure such as brick masonry columns at
regular intervals.

Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed structures as
the outer facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity walls. Other common
applications of such walls are the boundary walls, gardens etc.

(b) Header Bond.

Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header bond is also
known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are placed as headers on the
faces of the walls.

While Stretcher bond is used for the construction of walls of half brick thickness whereas
header bond is used for the construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures
18cm. In header bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To achieve this,
three quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.

(c) English Bond.

English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of header above it,
i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers. Headers are laid centered on the
stretchers in course below and each alternate row is vertically aligned.

To break the continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used in the beginning and end of a wall
after first header. A quoin closure is a brick cut lengthwise into two halves and used at corners
in brick walls.

Features of an English bond.

 (i). Headers and stretchers are laid in alternate courses.
(ii). In each heading course, a queen closer is placed next to quoin header and the
remaining bricks are laid as headers.
(iii). Every alternate header in a course comes centrally over the joint between two
stretchers in the course below.
(iv). The same course will show headers or stretchers on face and back, if the thickness
of the wall is an even multiple of half bricks.
(v). The same course will show headers on the face and stretchers on the back and vice
versa, if the thickness of the wall is an odd multiple of half brick.
(vi). The middle portion of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers.
(vii). Every transverse joint is continuous from face to face.

(d). Flemish Bond.

For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd number of half
bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond.

Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and stretchers
in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in the middle of the
stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course are centered on the
stretcher of course below. Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts with header at the
corner.

For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. Flemish bonds have better appearance but are weaker than
English bonds for load bearing wall construction. Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick
masonry walls, then Flemish bond may be used for better aesthetic view. If the walls have to be
plastered, then it is better to use English bond.

Features of an English bond.

(i) Headers and stretchers are laid alternately in the same course.
(ii) Every header in each course lies centrally over every stretcher of the underlying course.
(iii) In every alternate course a queen closer is placed next to quoin header, so as to provide a
lap of approximately 2 1/4 in.
(iv) Brick bats are to be used in walls having thickness equal to an odd multiple of half brick.

CHECKING BRICK WORK.

Four steps are required to check brickwork as it is being built:

 Gauge - check the height of the course

 Level - make sure the course is level
  Plumb - make sure that the wall is vertical
 Straight - make sure the wall is straight

These checks should be carried out as each course is laid and in this order to ensure that the
previous checks are not 'disturbed'.

(a). Gauge.

When building any wall, it's necessary to keep the courses at the corners at the same height. A
gauge board is used to this. Mark out a piece of timber with marks corresponding to spacing of
one brick height plus the thickness of the bed joint (normally a total of 75cm).

Use the rod at the corner when each course is begun and check that it is at the correct height,
On uneven ground, start by putting a datum peg next to the wall so that the gauge rod can be
easily positioned.

(b). Level.

Use a spirit level to keep the courses level. Remember that the corner bricks have been set to
the correct height, so any adjustment should be by bedding down the bricks in from the corner.
Bricks are not made to very tight tolerances, so don't waste your time trying to get each brick
exactly level, the point is to get the parts of the bricks which touch the underside of the spirit
level, level.

(c).Plumb.

Check that the wall face is vertical by using a spirit level, tap the brick across the wall as
necessary to adjust the brick as necessary. Do not try to do this to both sides of the wall, choose
one side as 'the face' and just plumb that side.

(d). Straight.

Straighten the course by using a straight edge between the points previous plumbed. Tap the
bricks as necessary. Like plumbing the wall, only check the face of the wall, don't try to
straighten both sides.

BRICK WALL PROJECT GUIDE

Step 1: After any necessary foundations have been prepared, the bricks are laid out at both
end of the wall where the pillars will start. Using a string line, a straight guideline is made at
brick height between the two outside bricks.
Step 2: Five shovels full of sand and one of cement are heaped on an old board. The shovel is
turned to mix to a consistent color. A central hollow is created, water then poured and mixed.
This is repeated for a smooth, creamy texture that’s wet but not too loose is obtained.

Step 3: A 1-2cm mortar bed is laid along the string line. Starting at one end, the first brick is
laid and tapped slightly to ‘bed in’. One end of the next brick is then ‘Buttered up’ with mortar
and abut it to the first.

Step 4: At the point where pillars are required to start, a brick side-on is laid to the end of the
wall. As one builds up the wall, each consecutive course of pillar bricks must be laid in the
opposite direction.

Step 5: When building pillars, at certain courses one will need to lay half-bricks. To make a cut,
the brick is placed on its side, the bolster is located at the split point and one strikes the head
firmly with a club hammer. It should split cleanly first time.

Step 6: At least a course higher on the pillars is always build. The string line up is moved up as
one build, bedding it into the mortar on the pillars. For a stretcher bond, the end of each brick
should be over the centre of the one beneath.

Step 7: Vertical mortar joints should be 10mm thick. With standard bricks there should be
75mm from the top of one to the top of that beneath. If the bricks soak up moisture fast, one
may want to ‘joint up’.

Step 8: When one reaches the top of the pillars, he/she may want to add a coping stone to
finish. Alternatively, a pleasant effect may be created at less cost by bedding bricks into the
mortar on their side.

Step 9: To finish the beds, the rounded edge of a brick jointer is used to scrape mortar into the
joints. Starting with the horizontal lines followed the vertical ones – it’s easier to remove any
excess mortar this way.

Step 10: The finished wall is given a gentle brush over and any mortar is cleaned up that has
fallen onto the floor before it dries. One can use water to wash cement away from the floor,
but be sure to keep it away from your newly-built wall!

Procedure for Hand Mixing of Cement Mortar.

1. Take one bag of cement, which has a volume of nearly 0.035m 3.

2. Then measure required quantity of dry sand using a box measure. A box has a volume of
0.035m3. For example if you are preparing a cement mortar of the ratio 1:3 (i.e. 1 part
cement and 3 parts of sand), then for one bag of cement take 3 boxes of sand.
3. First spread the measured amount of sand on a water tight platform or on a steel
trough.
 4. Spread the cement over the sand.
5. Then mix them dry by turning over & over, backward & forward several times by a
shovel, till the mixture looks uniform in colour.
6. Out of this dry cement & sand mix, take out only that amount of mix which can be used
within 30 minutes, and form it into a heap.
7. Make a small depression on top of the heap.
8. Add required amount of water so as to give it required consistency, to the center of the
heap.
9. Mix the whole mass thoroughly for 5 to 10 minutes by means of a shovel.
10. Water of amount 70% of weight of cement is just sufficient to give it necessary
consistency for 1:3 mortar.

1.10 APPLYING CEMENT PLASTER ON WALL SURFACE.

Cement plastering is commonly used as ideal coating for external and internal surface of wall.
Cement plaster is usually applied in a single coat or double coat. Double coat plaster is applied
where thickness of plaster is required to be more than 15 mm or when it is required to get a
very fine finish.

The process of applying a double coat cement plaster on wall surface consists of the following 5
steps.

Step-1-Preparation of surface for plastering

Step-2-Ground work for plaster
Step-3-Applying first coat (or under coat or rendering coat)
Step-4-Applying second coat (or finishing coat or fine coat)

Step-1 (Preparation of Surface for Plastering).

1. All the mortar joints of wall are kept rough, so as to give a good bonding to hold plaster.
2. All the joints and surfaces of the wall are then cleaned with a wire brush, there should
be no oil or grease etc. left on wall surface.
3. If the surface is smooth or the wall to be plastered is old one, then the mortar joint is
raked out to a depth of at least 12 mm to give a better bonding to the plaster.
4. If the projection on the wall surface is more than 12 mm, then it is knocked off, so as to
obtain a uniform surface of wall. This will reduce the consumption of plaster.
5. If there exist any cavities or holes on the surface, then they are filled in advance with
appropriate material.
6. The entire wall is roughened the entire wall to be plastered.
7. Wash the mortar joints and entire wall to be plastered, and keep it wet for at least 6
hours before applying cement plaster.
Step-2 (Ground Work for Plaster).

1. In order to get uniform thickness of plastering throughout the wall surface, first dots are
fixed on the wall. A dot means patch of plaster of size 15 mm * 15 mm and having
thickness of about 10 mm.
2. Dots are fixed on the wall first horizontally and then vertically at a distance of about 2
meters covering the entire wall surface.
3. The verticality of dots is checked, one over the other, by means of plumb-bob.
4. After fixing dots, the vertical strips of plaster, known as screeds, are formed in between
the dots. These screeds serve as the gauges for maintaining even thickness of plastering
being applied.

Step-3 (Applying First Coat or Under Coat or Rendering Coat)

1. In case of brick masonry the thickness of first coat plaster is in general12 mm and in case
of concrete masonry this thickness varies from 9 to 15 mm.
2. The ratio of cement and sand for first coat plaster varies from 1:3 to 1:6.
3. The first coat of plaster is applied between the spaces formed by the screeds on the wall
surface. This is done by means of trowel.
4. The surface is levelled by means of flat wooden floats and wooden straight edges.
5. After leveling, the first coat is left to set but not to dry and then roughen with a
scratching tool to form a key to the second coat of plaster.

Step-4 (Applying Second Coat or Finishing Coat or Fine Coat).

1. The thickness of second coat or finishing coat may vary between 2 to 3 mm.
2. The ratio of cement and sand for second coat plaster varies from 1:4 to 1:6.
3. Before applying the second coat, the first coat is evenly damped.
4. The finishing coat is then applied with wooden floats to a true even surface and using a
steel trowel, it is given a finishing touch.
5. As far as possible, the finishing coat should be applied starting from top towards bottom
and completed in one operation to eliminate joining marks.

After completion of the plastering work, it is kept wet by sprinkling water for at least 7 days in
order to develop strength and hardness.

1.11 RENDERING A BRICK WALL.

Step 1: Preparing the surface

Any paint, laitance, plaster or any other loose material that may prevent good adhesion is
removed with a steel brush. Any brittle mortar in the joints of brick or block walls is also
removed.
To protect the area from spilt render, paths or driveways are covered with black plastic sheets
and any other exposed surfaces one wish to keep clean also masked.

The corner beading is fixed to the external corners of the surface to be rendered using an
approved adhesive ensuring it is straight and plumb to provide a neat rendered finish. A small
amount of render is applied to the inside of the beading, pressing it firmly to the corner and
cleaning off the excess render that is squeezed out.

The surface to be rendered is thoroughly wet with a hose on a light spray setting or using a wet
brush.

Step 2: Mixing the render

4 liters of clean water is added to a wheelbarrow and one bag of render is poured into the
water. It is then mix thoroughly ensuring that the render is lump free and is stiff so that it will
sit on a trowel. The mix is then allowed to stand for 5 minutes so that the polymer chemicals
are activated and then quick stirring of the mix is then done again.

Step 3: Applying the render

If rendering is being done on an existing brick or block wall, the render is worked into the
mortar joints to provide a relatively flat surface, making it easier to apply a subsequent coat of
render.

Starting at the bottom of the surface to be rendered, the render is applied with a steel trowel in
an upward pushing motion ensuring that long, even spreads are used both upwards and across
the surface so as to achieve a consistent and even thickness at a go. Any holes or divots are
filled with the render as one goes. Care is then o not overwork the surface as too much fine
material will be brought to the surface increasing the likelihood of crazing (fine cracking).

Step 4: Finishing the rendered surface

The final layer of render is left to become firm and then finished off with a wooden trowel or
polystyrene float to smooth and finish the surface to the desired texture.

To achieve a different texture, a damp sponge can be used to provide a swirl or use a fine
brush to provide a swept finish ensuring that not too much pressure is applied to the rendered
surface.

Step 5: Curing the rendered surface.

To prevent cracking, the rendered surface is kept moist by spraying it with a mist spray 24 hours
after the wall is finished and this is repeated for 5 days.
1.12 POINTING AND JOINTING.

When bricks have been laid to form a wall the surplus mortar is scrapped flush the surface of
the brick. This type of finish is called a flush finish. Today most brickwork is “jointed” meaning
that the joints are finished as the work proceeds and therefore require no further attention.
Pointing.
This is a term used to describe the process of finishing off joints that are raked out on the day
the brickwork is built. It is carried out after the brickwork is complete.
Pointing may be specified by the client or the architect that the joint should be pointed to
achieve a particular effect using a range of different joint finishes or a different colour may be
used to contrast the finished brickwork.
When pointing new or old brickwork, the joints are raked out to a depth of between 12-15 mm
ready to receive the mortar.
Jointing.
One of the important aspect of jointing up brickwork is to avoid smudging or staining the
surface of the bricks. This type of finish is achieved by scrapping or “ironing out” the joint to the
shape required by using a tool known as a jointer.
The jointer is rubbed along the joints to form a concave or a half-round joint. The cross joints
should always be done first and care is needed when finishing joints at external angles.

1.13 CURING.
Curing is the process by which moist conditions are maintained on the finished concrete
surfaces in order to promote continued hydration of cement. If proper curing is not done,
complete hydration of cement will not take place, which will badly affect the strength of the
concrete.

Importance of curing.

Proper curing of concrete is very much important. Not only concrete but also cement plaster,
brickwork and other works wherever cement as binding material has been used, curing is
required to be done very essentially. However, the importance of curing is furnished below.

 Curing increases the strength of the concrete with time.

 It improves the durability of the concrete.
 It makes concrete water tight by minimizing the cracks developed by shrinkage during
drying.

Time to start and duration of curing:

Curing should be started after completion of final setting of the concrete. Usually concrete
takes 10 hrs. to finally set itself. Though the duration of curing depends upon the grade or mix
proportion of the concrete and type of cement used in the concrete, but it should be done at
least for 7 days from the date of laying concrete.

Methods of Curing.

There are several methods of curing depending upon the nature of the work and the domestic
conditions.There are three main functions of curing:

SUMMARY OF THE MASONRY PROJECT WORK.

The first masonry project involved constructing two four-course brick walls; one with English
bond and the other with the Flemish bond. In the first type of bond i.e the English bond, bricks
were arranged so as to obtain headers and headers. In this kind of bond, a queen closure was
used after the first header in each heading course so as to break the vertical joints in the
successive course.

On the other hand, the Flemish bond consisted of alternate headers and stretchers in the same
course. For each and every course which started with an header, a queen closure was used to
break the vertical joints.

The second masonry project was developing a four-course arched block wall using the stretcher
type of bond in which we arranged the blocks in stretcher courses but breaking vertical joints
using a quoin closure.

Other activities carried out included wall finishes, that is, plastering and rendering. Plastering
was done on the two brick walls whereas the later was done on the block arched wall. In
carried out plastering, we first prepared the surface for plastering, then established the ground
work for plaster after which we applied a first coat followed by the second (finishing) coat.

For the arched wall, dots, that is, a patch of plaster was first fixed on the wall horizontally and
vertically while checking their verticality by means of plumb-bob. For the brick walls, vertical
strips of plaster referred to as screeds were used. These strips ensured even thickness of
plastering being applied.

GENERAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING THE MASONRY PRACTICE.

We undertook the masonry work with least problems. The fine and course aggregates which
are the constituent elements in preparation of concrete were not provided. Instead, we
obtained dried mortar from the demolition of the pre-existing masonry work present
workshop. The mortar, being already used had lost its mechanical properties and therefore we
could not precisely achieved the quality of mortar we would expect.
In addition, the major binders i.e. lime and cement could have been available in order for us to
effectively distinguish their mechanical differences specifically their strength and thus be guided
practically on how to choose a particular type of a binder for a particular purpose.

Thirdly, the masonry workshop being a having relatively smaller open space could not
adequately accommodate all of us (around 84 students total in number). The room was very
crowded and could not get enough space for working. In addition, we could not learn and do it
practically the construction of the foundation especially the columns for any foundation of a
building.

GENERAL RECCOMMENDATIONS.

To ensure that we, the students are trained well with respect to what we shall find there in the
field, I would prefer that the civil engineering masonry workshop be well equipped with both
materials that is aggregates should be readily available as and when required. Secondly, all
binding materials specifically lime and cement being the majorly used in various construction
works should be provided in the workshop.

Furthermore, the department of civil engineering should work towards expanding the masonry
workshop due to the increasing number of students taking the course. Also, foundation of a
building is the main pillar for the building as for it to stand steady on the ground means a firm
and good foundation. Hence, something must be done to ensure that students can create a wall
if for example in an open field, right from foundation and not just building a wall from a
concrete floor.

REFERNCES.

3. Dick Krey, Building with masonry, (2008) 6th Edition, MacMillan publishers.

2. Kenneth J. Nolan, Masonry and Concrete Construction, (2014) 3rd Edition, Prime publishers.

3. Steve Kosma,  Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 15th Edition, EB001, PCA

Engineering Bulletin EB 001, Portland Cement Association , Skokie, IL 2002.
 CHAPTER THREE.
WEEK THREE: PLUMBING.
TECHNOLOGIST’S NAME: MR. NYAGA.

Abstract.
Different types of plumbing pipes are available in building construction works for various
purposes such as water supply, drainage, waste disposal made of different materials. In every
building sufficient quantity of water at required locations to meet various needs of occupants.
So water needs must be properly computed before the construction of structure. The
transmission water is carried through pipes within the structure above and below the ground.
At the same we must compute the proper drainage facilities to drain the wastewater through
pipes.
PLUMBING SYSTEM.
The plumbing system comprises the whole system of pipe fittings and appliances used for water
supply and drainage. In this supply and drainage system different pipes are used for different
purposes which are explained below.
1. Supply or service pipes.
2. Drain pipes or waste disposal pipes.
 1. Supply Pipes or Service Pipes.
The pipes which are leading from the distribution main of water supply to the plumbing system
of a house are known as service pipes. These service pipes are made from the different
materials as classified below.

 Copper pipes.
 Galvanized iron pipes.
 Polythene pipes.
 Lead pipes.
1. Copper Pipes.
When ground water is highly corrosive to metals then copper pipes are used. Copper have a
high corrosive resistance when compared to other pipe metals and they also have considerable
strength, reasonability ductility. They are available in long length in the market. They can bare
high pressure so; these pipes are also used for industrial purposes for heavy flows.
There are two types of copper pipes available namely HEAVY GAUGE and LIGHT GAUGE pipes.
Heavy gauge pipes are used where pressure is very high, like as leading pipe from distribution
main, for large flows etc. Light gauge pipes are used when the pressure does not exceed
0.15N/mm2 that is for internal domestic purposes.
2. Galvanized Iron Pipes.
When compared to copper pipes, G.I pipes or steel pipes are very economical. But they corrode
easily in soft and acid waters. In the other case galvanized iron pipes are much stronger than
copper pipes, so, we can use these pipes in places where chance of corrosion is less or in hard
water areas. Hammering is needed to remove the scales formed by hard water.
3. Poythene Pipes.
Polythene pipes are used for cold water services. Nowadays, plastic pipes dominate the others
by some advantages as follow
 Do not corrode.
 Cheap in cost.
 Less weight.
 Ease of installation.
 Do not require threading.
 Resistant to bacterial scale.
So they are mostly used in the world but they are limited to cold water supplies. The do not
sustain high temperature.
4. Lead Pipes.
Lead pipes have high corrosion resistance, flexibility and hydraulic coefficient of flow. But lead
content in water may lead to poisoning effects which are harmful for people. So, it is not
preferred.
Generally, in a house waste water is produced from different places like kitchen, bathrooms,
e.t.c. These whole waste is does not carried by single pipe instead of different pipes are
arranged to dispose the waste. The types of waste water pipes are described below.
Pipe rigs
If you’re running pipers along wall or concealing then behind or beneath if you must make
contain they’re firmly held in place at regular interval with pipe dips. This will stop them from
creaking or vibrating.
HOW TO RUN NEW SUPPLY OF PIPERS
Moving or modifying elements of you plumbing system of them nearly you need to run. New
pipe work. There are plenty of options for doing this plane the route first and try to keep bends
to a minimum so the water can flow freely.

ALONG THE WALLS.

The easiest and the quickest way of running new pipework is simply to clip the pipes to a
wall .One can buy plastic ducting to hide them or box them in with plywood and timber battens
PIPE FITTINGS
Various types of pipes fittings are available in plumbing systems for different purposes and
functions. A pipe fitting is used in plumbing systems for join multiple pipes of the same size or
different sizes, to regulate the flow or to measure the flow.
They are made of different materials like copper, iron, brass, PVC, etc.
TYPES OFPIPE FITTINGS IN PLUMBING SYSTEMS.
Different pipe fittings and their functions are explained below:
a) Elbow pipe fittings.
Elbows are used to change the direction of flow between two pipes. They are generally
available with an angle 22.5degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees. If pipes are of the same
diameter than normal elbows are used otherwise reducer bends are used.
Elbows are made of different materials. They are generally coming with female threads and we
can fix them by butt or socket welded joint.
b) Reducer pipe fitting.
Reducer is a pipe fitting component which reduces the flow size from larger to smaller by
reducing the size of a pipe. Usually there are two types of reducers available.
One is concentric reducer which is like cone shaped with gradual decreasing around the pipe
but in this case accumulation of air may possible and it results in cavitation.
Other one is eccentric reducer which is having none edge parallel to connecting pipe due to
which air accumulation is not possible.
c) Tee type
Tee type fitting is a component of plumbing system which is in T-shape. It is having one inlet
and two outlets, outlets are arranged at 90 degrees to the main line connection.
It can also be used to combine the flow the flow from two inlets to one outlet. They are also in
different materials and different sizes. If the 3 sides of the T-fitting are similar in size then it is
called as Equal tee otherwise it is called as Unequal tee.
d) Cross-type.
Cross type fitting contains 4 openings in four directions. Then are connected when there are
four pipes meeting at a point. These fittings generate more amount of stress on the pipe as the
temperature change because that are located at the centre of four connection points. Cross
fitting are generally used for sprinkler systems.
e) Coupling.
A coupling is used to connect the pipes of the same diameter. Coupling are also useful if the
pipe is broken or leakage occurs. Generally, there are two types of coupling available,
compression coupling and slip coupling.
Compression coupling is regular coupling which is connected between two pipes and it
prevents leakage by the arrangement of rubber seals on both sides, otherwise glue is provided.
Slip coupling is easier to install and it contains two pipes which are arranged as one into the
other, inner pipe can slide up to some length. So, we can fix long length damaged pipe by slip
coupling.
f) Unions.
Union is a type of fitting, which function as similar to coupling. But, coupling cannot be
removed after fixing but in this case we can remove the union whenever we needed. Union
consist of a nut, male and female ended threads. So, this is also useful for maintaining purpose
of pipe.
g) Adaptors.
If the pipes are not having special ends or plan ends then adaptors make them threaded either
male or female whichever is needed. Adapters are generally used for copper and PVC pipes.
Male adapters contains male threads and female adapters contains female threads.
One end of adapter is plain which is glued or welded or soldered to the plain pipe end.
h) Olets.
Olets are used when there is standard sizes of fittings are not suitable for our requirements.
Sometimes, the inlet pipe is larger than the outlet pipe in T-sections then also olets are used.
There are many types of olets that are available. Some important types of olets are:

 Butt-weldoles.
 Socket weld olets.
 Threaded olets.
 Elbow olet.
 Nipple olet.
i) Plug.
Plug is a plumbing component which is generally used to close pipe opening during inspection
and repairs. Plug generally contains male threads.
j) Cap.
Cap is a type of pipe fitting which function same as the as the plug but the only difference is
that plug contains male threads and cap contains female threads which is crew on the male
thread of the pipe.
They are available in different materials like rubber, copper, steel and plastic.

VALVES IN PIPE FITTINGS.

Valves are compounds in plumbing systems which are used to stop or regulate flow of fluid in
its path. Difference types of valves are available depending up on their application.
Some important types of valves and their application are as tabulated below:

No. Type of valve. Application

1 Gate valve, plug Used for isolation only.
valve and Ball valve
2 Globe valve Used for throttling.
3 Check valve Used for preventing reverse flow (non-
return)
4 Butterfly valve Used for isolation as well as throttling.
5 Diaphragm valve Used for isolation as well as throttling..
Different types of pipe joint in Plumbing.
Types of pipe joints are major components of plumbing system provided to connect multiple
pipes. Pipe joint provided provided should withstand pressure of each pipe.
There are several ways to join pipes, but selection of pipe joint depends upon the pipe size,
pipe material and flow pressure.

TYPES OF PIPE JOINTS IN PLUMBING.

1. Threaded Joint.
Threaded joint means, pipes are connected by screwing with the help of a thread provided for
each pipe. One pipe having internal threads and the other one having threads externally. Cast
iron pipes, copper pipes, PVC and G.I pipes are available with threads.
Threaded joints are available from 6mm diameter to 300mm diameter pipe. They are preferale
for low temperature areas and low pressure flow. In the areas of high temperatures, the joints
may expand and leaked due to the thermal expenses. Installation of the threaded joint is easy
but good maintenance is required.
2. Brazed joint in Pipe.
Brazing is the process of joining pipes using molten filler material at above 840degrees CelsiuS.
Brazing is generally used for joining copper pipes or copper alloy pipes.
The filler material majorly consists of tin which has a great affinity towards copper. But because
of its weak properly tin is added to other materials like nickel, bismuth, silver and copper. The
melting point of the parent material should be higher than the filler metal. Mechanical strength
of brazed joint is low compared to other joint. This type of joint is suitable in moderate range of
temperatures areas.
3. Butt welded joint in Pipes.
When the pipes are of the same diameter butt welding is done to join the pipes. It is the most
common type of welding. Skilled workers are required to install the joint. These joints are
generally used for large commercial and industrial piping systems.
Butt weld provide good strength for the joined and it can resist high pressure because of
smooth and continuous surface inside the joined. Butt weld joins are expensive, to make it
economical .Sometime internal weld backing rings are used which joint the pipe with less
amount of filler material.
 4. Flanged joint in pipe.
Flanged join are used for high pressure flows and for large diameter pipers. It general they are
used for plain end pipes or threaded pipers. Two components are connected by both. At the
piper joint to prevent leakage.
Generally two are modern cost iron strict etc. there are heaving

PLUMBWORK PROJECT.

Our masonry project involved developing a pipe rig as with dimensions indidcated in a
drawing we had been issued. In the drawing, two different sizes off steel pipes were used in
developing the pipe rig; one being ½ inch while the others being ¾ inch size in diameter.

We joined different parts of the pipe rig by means of threads. These threads we developed
manually using the threading machine. Other activities performed were how to develop a
bend on both steel pipes and plastic PVC pipes.

We didn’t encounter any problem during this session.

REFERENCES.

1. B.W Mikey, Plumbing and Mechanical, ( 2012) 4th Edition, Taunton Publishers.
2. L. K Raniwel, Plumbing design and Installation, (2015) 2nd Edition, MacGraw Hill.
 CHAPTER FOUR.

WEEK FOUR: CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.

TECHNOLOGIST’ NAME: MR. MWAI.

1. CARPENTRY.
In building and construction, engineers needs to get the skills of the carpenters to help them
form what has been planned in the blueprint of civil engineering jobs. The works performed by
the carpenters covers many fields of the industry which are closely related to civil engineering
jobs. While the engineers do the planning and sketching of the plan, a carpenter’s job is to
perform work entailing the cutting, shaping and fastening of wood or materials such as
fiberboard that is treated as wood.
Carpenters perform two principle jobs of construction and repair. Their work includes the
erection of wooden building frames, the installation of interior and exterior trim, the building of
concrete forms, and laying of floors.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
Many wood joinery techniques either depend upon the fact that wood is anisotropic: its
material properties are different along different dimensions. This must be taken into account
when joining woods parts together, otherwise the joint is destined to fail.
Gluing boards together with the grain running perpendicular to each other is often the reason
for split boards or broken joints. In modern woodworking, as heating and air conditioning cause
major changes in the moisture content of the wood. All woodworking joints must therefore
take these changes into account and allow for the resulting movement.
THE STRENGTH OF THE WOOD.
Wood is stronger when stressed along the grain (longitudinally) than it is when stressed across
the grain (radially and tangentially). Wood is a natural composite material; parallel strands of
cellulose fibres are held together by a lignin binder. These long chains of fibers make the wood
exceptionally strong by resisting stress and spreading the load over the length of the board.
Furthermore, cellulose is tougher than lignin, a fact demonstrated by the relative ease with
which wood can be split along the grain compared to across it. Different species of wood have
different strength levels, and the exact strength may vary from sample to sample.
WOOD FINISHING.
This refers to the process of refining or protecting a wooden surface, especially in the
production of furniture where typically it represents between 5% and 30% of manufacturing
costs. Finishing is the final step of the manufacturing process that gives wood surface desirable
characteristics, including enhanced appearance and increased resistance to moisture and other
environmental agents. Finishing can also make wood easier to clean and keep it sanitized,
sealing pores that can be breeding grounds for bacteria.
Planning the finish.
Finishing of wood requires careful planning to ensure that the finished piece looks attractive,
performs well in service and meets safety and environmental requirements. Planning for
finishing begins with the design of the furniture. Care should be taken to ensure that edges of
furniture are rounded so they can be adequately coated and are able to resist wear and
cracking.
Careful attention should also be given to the design and strength of wooden joints to ensure
they do not open-up in service and crack the overlying finish. Care should also be taken to
eliminate recesses in furniture which are difficult to finish with some systems, especially UV-
cured finishes.
Planning for wood also involves thinking about the properties of the wood that one is to finish,
as these can greatly affect the appearance and performance of finishes, and also the type of the
finishing system that will give the wood the characteristics one is seeking. For instance, wood
can be bleached to remove the natural colour of the wood and then stained to the desired
colour.
Planning for wood finishing also involves being aware of how the finishing process influences
the end result. For instance, wood should be marked for cutting using a pencil rather than ink,
however, avoid hard or soft pencil. HB is recommended for face work and 2H for joint work.
Also, any excess glue should be carefully removed to avoid further damage to the wood.
SANDING.
Sanding is carried out before finishing to remove defects from the wood surface that will affect
the appearance and performance of finishes that are subsequently applied to the wood. These
defects include cutter marks, scratches, small glue spots, raised grains and indentations.
Sanding should not be used to eliminate larger defects such as gouges, and various forms of
discolourisation. Other forms are used to remove these defects.

2. JOINERY.
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of timber to produce
more complex items. Some wood joints employs fasteners, bindings or adhesives while others
only use wood elements. Wood joinery is one of the most basic concepts in woodworking. If we
didn't have the ability to join two pieces of wood together in a solid fashion, all woodworking
pieces would be sculptures, carved out of a single piece of wood. However, with the many
varied types of wood joinery, a woodworker has a number of different joints in his arsenal from
which to choose, based upon the project. If you master these wood joinery concepts, you'll be
well on your way to becoming a very accomplished woodworker.
There are various woodworking joints in use. Some are stronger than others.
1. Butt Joint.
There is no more basic wood joinery than the butt joint. A butt joint is nothing more than when
one piece of wood butts into another (most often at a right angle, or square to the other board)
and is fastened using mechanical fasteners. This type of joint is often used in wall framing on
construction sites. Learn tips for using a butt joint, as well as when to choose another wood
joinery type.
2. Mitered Butt joint.
A mitered butt joint is nearly the same as a basic butt joint, except that the two boards are
joined at an angle (instead of square to one another). The advantage is that the mitered butt
joint will not show any end grain, and as such is a bit more aesthetically pleasing. However, the
mitered butt joint isn't all that strong. Here, you can learn how to create a clean mitered butt
joint, and when to use this type of wood joinery.
3. Half Lap Joint.
The half lap joint is ideal for some types of furniture making where two pieces of wood need to
be joined in the middle, rather than on the ends. To create this type of joint, a small portion of
the wood is removed in a notch from each of the two boards. The notches then fit together like
a puzzle piece to join the board.
Depending on how tightly the notches are cut, one may not need more than a small amount of
wood glue to hold them together. Obviously, because some of the wood is being removed from
each of the boards, this does not result in a slightly weaker join than some other types.
However, because they allow the joining of boards in the centers, rather than in the centers
rather than in the ends, this can be an ideal way of creating some types of frames.
4. Mortise and Tenon Woodworking Joints
One of the strongest woodworking joints is the mortise and tenon joint. This joint is simple and
strong. Normally you use it to join two pieces of wood at 90-degrees. One end can be inserted
one end of a piece into a hole in the other piece. Normally, one uses glue to make this joint. It
can also may pin or wedge it to lock in place. A quality mortise and tenon joint gives perfect
registration of the two pieces. This is important when building heirloom pieces.

A mortise is a cavity cut into a piece of wood to receive a tenon. A tenon is a projection on the
end of a piece of wood to insert into a mortise. Usually the tenon is taller than it is wide.
Generally, the size of the mortise and tenon relates to the thickness of the pieces. It is good
practice to make the tenon about a 1/3 the thickness of the piece.

5. Tongue and Groove Woodworking Joints

One of the more popular woodworking joints is the edge-to-edge joint, called tongue and
groove. One piece has a slot (groove) cut all along one edge. The other piece has a tongue cut
on the mating edge. As a result, two or more pieces fit together closely. You can use it to make
wide tabletops out of solid wood
When joining two boards square to one another along a long edge, one can simply butt the
joint together and hold it with fasteners. However, the tongue and groove joint is much
stronger and provides more adjoining surface areas, which is particularly useful if you're going
to glue the joint.

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY PROJECT.

Our project for the carpentry and joinery exercise involved coming up with a stool top with
dimensions 330mm by 330mm. Some of the hand tools which we used in setting up our project
included tenon saw, a tri-square, steel tapes and a jack plane. While cutting out a woodwork
joint using a tenon saw, we always followed the marked lines down the wood we threw away.
Also, while using the small nails, we blunted the pointed end of the nail with a hammer before
using it. This ensured that our timber was less likely to split while nailing it. Planning of timber
was done to not only achieve a smooth finish but also to make it slightly smaller in order to fit
with other pieces of wood.
For our project, in joining the frames of the stool top together, we used the miter type of wood
joint whereby the ends of the two pieces of wood were cut at a 45degrees angle.

REFERENCES.
 1. J.W Willey, A manual of carpenters and Joiners,(2007) 5th Edition, The Macmillan
Company.
2. Peter Brett, Carpentry and Joinery, 2nd edition 2 June 2005. Amazon.
3. Sam Allen, Wood Joiner’s Handook, (2014), Sterling Publishers.
4. Carpentry and Joinery, John Brithley, Retrieved on 21st April 2017 from
https://www.thespruce.com/wood-joinery-types-3536631

CHAPTER FIVE.

WEEK FIVE: METAL WORK.

TECHNICIAN NAME: MR. MWANGI.

BRIEF ABSTRACT.
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or
large-scale structures. The term covers a wide range of work from large ships and bridges to
precise engine parts and delicate jewelry. It therefore includes a correspondingly wide range of
skills, processes, and tools.
Metalworking is a science, art, industry and trade. Modern metalworking processes, though
diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes.
Today's machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, useful
work piece.
Metalworking hand tools are hand tools that are used in the metalworking field. Hand tools are
powered solely by the operator.

General metal working processes.

Metalworking generally is divided into the following categories, forming, cutting, and, joining.
Each of these categories contain various processes. Prior to most operations, the metal must be
marked out and/or measured, depending on the desired finished product.
Marking out (also known as layout) is the process of transferring a design or pattern to a work
piece and is the first step in the handcraft of metalworking. It is performed in many industries
or hobbies, although in industry, the repetition eliminates the need to mark out every
individual piece. In the metal trades area, marking out consists of transferring the
engineer's plan to the workpiece in preparation for the next step, machining or manufacture.
Cutting Processes.
Cutting is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a specified geometry by
removing excess material using various kinds of tooling to leave a finished part that meets
specifications. The net result of cutting is two products, the waste or excess material, and the
finished part. In woodworking, the waste would be sawdust and excess wood. In cutting metals
the waste is chips or swarf and excess metal.
Cutting processes fall into one of three major categories. However the main category is chip
producing processes most commonly known as machining.An example of this is drilling a hole in
a metal part.Drilling a hole in a metal part is the most common example of a chip producing
process.
Cutting fluid or coolant is used where there is significant friction and heat at the cutting
interface between a cutter such as a drill or an end mill and the workpiece. Coolant is generally
introduced by a spray across the face of the tool and workpiece to decrease friction and
temperature at the cutting tool/workpiece interface to prevent excessive tool wear. In practice
there are many methods of delivering coolant.
Turning.
Turning is a metal cutting process for producing a cylindrical surface with a single point tool.
The work-piece is rotated on a spindle and the cutting tool is fed into it radially, axially or both.
Producing surfaces perpendicular to the work-piece axis is called facing. Producing surfaces
using both radial and axial feeds is called profiling.
A lathe is a machine tool which spins a block or cylinder of material so that when abrasive,
cutting, or deformation tools are applied to the workpiece, it can be shaped to produce an
object which has rotational symmetry about an axis of rotation. 
Operations that can be performed with a single point tool on a lathe are:
a) Chamfering: Cutting an angle on the corner of a cylinder
b) Parting: The tool is fed radially into the workpiece to cut off the end of a part.
c) Threading: A tool is fed along and across the outside or inside surface of rotating parts to
produce external or internal threads.
d) Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly and parallel to the axis of rotation to create a
round hole.
e) Drilling: Feeding the drill into the workpiece axially.
f) Knurling: Uses a tool to produce a rough surface texture on the work piece. Frequently
used to allow grip by hand on a metal part.
Grinding.
Grinding uses an abrasive process to remove material from the workpiece. A grinding
machine is a machine tool used for producing very fine finishes, making very light cuts, or high
precision forms using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device.
Filing.
Filing is combination of grinding and saw tooth cutting using a file. Prior to the development of
modern machining equipment it provided a relatively accurate means for the production of
small parts, especially those with flat surfaces. The skilled use of a file allowed a machinist to
work to fine tolerances and was the hallmark of the craft.

JOINING PROCESSES.
1. Welding.
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by
causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to
form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint, but sometimes pressure is
used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.

2. Brazing.
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and drawn into a capillary formed by
the assembly of two or more work pieces. The filler metal reacts metallurgicallly with the
workpiece(s) and solidifies in the capillary, forming a strong joint. Unlike welding, the work
piece is not melted.
Brazing has the advantage of producing less thermal stresses than welding, and brazed
assemblies tend to be more ductile than weldments because alloying elements cannot
segregate and precipitate. Brazing techniques include, flame brazing, resistance brazing,
furnace brazing, diffusion brazing, inductive brazing and vacuum brazing.

3. Soldering.
Soldering is a joining process that occurs at temperatures below 450 °C (842 °F). It is similar to
brazing in the way that a filler is melted and drawn into a capillary to form a join, although at a
lower temperature.
Because of this lower temperature and different alloys used as fillers, the metallurgical reaction
between filler and work piece is minimal, resulting in a weaker joint.

4. Riveting.
A rivet is essentially a two-headed and unthreaded bolt which holds two other pieces of metal
together. Holes are drilled or punched through the two pieces of metal to be joined. The holes
being aligned, a rivet is passed through the holes and permanent heads are formed onto the
ends of the rivet utilizing hammers and forming dies (by either cold working or hotworking).
Rivets are commonly purchased with one head already formed.

PAINTING.

Paints are made by mixing and blending three main components:

(a) The pigments

These are finely ground inorganic or organic powders which provide colour, opacity, film
cohesion and sometimes corrosion inhibition.
(b) The binder
Binders are usually resins or oils but can be inorganic compounds such as soluble silicates. The
binder is the film forming component in the paint.
(c) The solvent
Solvents are used to dissolve the binder and to facilitate application at the paint. Solvents are
usually organic liquids or water. Paints are usually applied one coat on top of another and each
coat has a specific function / purpose.

Undercoat: The primer is applied directly onto the cleaned steel surface or, in the case of
duplex systems, the sealed metal coating. Its purpose is to wet the surface and to provide good
adhesion for subsequently applied coats. For primers applied directly to steel surfaces, these
are also usually required to provide corrosion inhibition.
Intermediate Coat: Intermediate coats are applied to ‘build’ the total film thickness of the
system. Generally, the thicker the coating the longer the life. Intermediate coats are specially
designed to enhance the overall protection and, when highly pigmented, decrease permeability
to oxygen and water.
Final coat: The finish coat provides the required appearance and surface resistance of the
system. Depending on the conditions of exposure, it must also provide the first line of defense
against weather and sunlight, open exposure, and condensation.

METALWORK PROJECT.
Metal work project involved developing four stool stands using steel. However, we were to
develop such metallic stool stands from the start but due to lack of necessary materials in the
Mechanical workshop, we were given stool stands to repair.
While repairing such stands, the poorly joined parts were welded Arch welding was used in
which case the steel metal parts were joint using electricity to create enough heat t melt metal,
and the melted metals in which on cooling result in a binding of metals.
After welding there were some lumps of welds which we removed using a grinder. All other
surfaces of the stool stand were thoroughly sanded using an abrasive sandpaper to clean it
before applying a paint. After drying, wooden steel tops were fitted onto the steel stool stands
using screws.

Problems encountered during the session.

The metal work workshop had run out of materials necessary for our project. There were a
shortage of steel materials which we could have used for creating our own projects i.e. each
group of students developing four steel stool stands. As a result, we were only given a single
ready-made stool stand which had been set by students of the previous years though some of
such stands were not in their correct and required condition as some of them were not welded
or joined properly. As a result, we did not practiced adequately in welding. Measurements,
cutting of metals and grinding processes.
Recommendations.
Such challenges can be avoided in future by ensuring that the relevant department keep be
informed. To ensure that as students are attending their department workshop, materials
should be available on time.
REFERENCES.
3. G.M. Mielnik, Metal work science and Engineering ( 2010) 4th Edition, Amazon.
4. Ronald A., Machining and Metalwork, (2012), 7th Edition Primes publishers.
 CHAPTER FIVE.

WEEK SIX: ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS.

TECHNICIAN’S NAME: MR. P.K NJUGUNA.

BRIEF ABSTRACT.
Electrical installation is a functional entity composed of electrical appliances, installation
materials, cables, switchboards, etc. Examples of electrical installations include the fixed
electrical installations, lighting and other electrical systems of a building. The Electrical
Installation course prepares trainees with the knowledge and skills required to work, in the
building electrical environment.
During the electrical installation period of the attachment, we practiced and gain knowledge
and skills in the following areas;
 Cables and several types of electrical joints associated with it.
 Soldering.
 Electrical wiring and installations.
CABLES.

A cable comprises of two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or braided
together to form a single assembly and are used to carry electric currents. Electrical cables are
used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power from
one device to the other.

Equally important is the need to keep the current from flowing in unintended paths rather than
the conductor provided. Electrical insulation (dielectric) is provided to largely isolate the
conductor from other paths or surfaces through which the current might flow. Therefore, it
may be said that any conductor conveying electric signals or power is an insulated conductor.

Joining of electrical cables.

Cable and wires are meant for carrying and transferring electric power and hence are
manufactured with high standards, ensuring maximum efficiency and safety for the purpose.
However these conductors need to be terminated at some place and inevitably involve end
connections and joints across the line.

There are a variety of cable jointing techniques. The joints can made through twisting the wires,
or using mechanical connectors such as crimps. A good joint should be electrically and
mechanically stable, reliable and safe regardless of the method used.

The qualities for a good joint are:

 It should retain the conductivity and the mechanical strength of the conductor on which
the joint is made.
 It should be able to withstand the circuit in normal condition and fault current without
failure.

Types of electrical power cable joints.

1. Married Joint.
A married joint is an electrical joint used for joining multi-stranded cables. The wires are
unstranded, then interlaced with the wires of the other cable and then married
(twisted) together before finally being soldered.
2. Straight through joint.
In this joint, the braiding is cut back to a distance of about 6inches and a shoulder is
neatly formed with a sharp knife. The copper wires are then separated for a length of
about 2 inches from the end and carefully cleaned.
The remainder of the exposed wires are twisted tightly together and the central strand
is cut out as close as possible to the point where the strand commences.
3. Britannia Joint.
The Britannia joint is a form of electrical joint used for bare overhead wires where great
tensile strength is required. The two wires are each tinned, and then each have a short
shoulder bent in them, and are then bound together with tinned wire before the whole
is soldered.
4. Tee-Joint.
A tee joint is an electrical connection used for joining a branch conductor to a main
conductor where the main conductor continuous beyond the branch.
To join stranded cables in Tee form, about 5 inches of the main cable and 7inches of the
branch cable are stranded. About 2inches of the branch cable is twisted up, and the
remainder of the exposed strands are divided into the form of a Y and laid by side so as
 to form two flat strips. The two horns of the Y are then wrapped round the main cables
in the opposite direction.

Soldering.

The mechanical bound initially made that is a joint cannot be mechanically secured unless
the joint is soldered. Soldering is done with the help of a soldering iron.Before soldering, it
is essential to clean the surface and to make it free from dirt and grease. Soldering paste
can then be applied around the joint both at the top and bottom of it.

In soldering, the join tis first heated to a proper temperature with a piece of solder wire: if it
is no properly heated, proper soldering cannot be achieved and if the joint is overheated,
the conductor is weakened and becomes brittle.

The proper temperature is tested with a piece of solder wire, which when placed over the
joint should melt. At that instant, the solder is applied over the whole of the joint severally
until the solder floats or runs over the splice/joint.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS OF JOINTING AND SOLDERING.

 The jointing should be carried out a far as possible in switches, ceiling roses or junction
boxes.
 It should never be done inside the conduit.
 In new installations or repairing works, it should be made strong mechanically as well as
electrically.
 It is preferable to solder the joint.
 The soldered joint should be taped.

Electrical wiring.

The electrical wiring of buildings includes the cabling and associated devices such as switches,
distribution boards, sockets and light fittings. It’s actually the process of connecting various
accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the suppliers’ meter board to home
appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances.

Methods of Wiring and Different Types of Wiring Systems.

Wiring can be done using two methods which are:

a) Joint box system or tee system

b) Loop-in system.

(a). Joint box system.

In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints are
made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts.

This method of wiring doesn’t consume too much cables size.This method is suitable for
temporary installations and it is cheap.

(b). Loop-in system.

This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are connected
in parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually. When a connection is
required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it directly to the
terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed.

The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to
another until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line conductors are looped either in
switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either in switchboard or from light or fan

Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems.

The following are the several types of electrical wiring systems

1. Conduit wiring.
2. Wooden casing and capping wiring
3. PVC sheath wiring
4. Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
5. Cleat wiring.

Conduit Wiring.

In Conduit wiring system, the conduits should be electrically continuous and connected to earth
at some suitable points in case of steel conduit. Conduit wiring is a professional way of wiring a
building. Mostly PVC conduits are used in domestic wiring.

The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when rodents bites the cables
it will cause short circuit).

There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

a) Surface Conduit Wiring.

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring
method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is
installed then with the help of rawal plugs.

b) Concealed Conduit Wiring.

 If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called
concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof
or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. It is
now the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring system
nowadays.

Types of conduits.

Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit
wiring).

(i).Metallic Conduit:These conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.

(ii). Non-metallic conduit: A solid PVC conduit, which is flexible and easy to bend, is used as
non-metallic conduit.

Consumer Control Unit (CCU).

The Consumer Unit, previously called a fuse box, contains these things:

 A main isolating switch. This switches off everything.

 In most cases at least one RCD.
 A fuse for each circuit. This cuts the power to the circuit in the event of high fault
current.
 An earth connection block which connects earth to the earth wires of the various
circuits
 1 or 2 neutral connection blocks which supply the neutral connection to the Neutral
wires of the various circuits

Each fuse supplies one circuit only. One circuit may supply anything from 1 to a large number of
loads.

Different types of light switches.

There are different types of light switches such as the 1 gang switch, 2 gang switch, the
intermediate switch, plate switches and ceiling switches.

'Gang' describes the number of light switches on the plate. It is possible to get more, but it is
very uncommon to have more than three in a domestic setting – this would be called a 3 gang
switch.

The three basic types of switches that are used for domestic purposes are:
  1 Way Switches: If a light switch is '1 way' this means it is just an on/off switch. This is
the simplest type of switch that you can get. The single switch controls a single light (or
lighting circuit).
 2 Way Switches: A '2 way' switch means there is another switch controlling the same
light. These are often used on a stair case, large room with switches by each door.
 Intermediate Switches: If you need to control the lights from three places, say you
have 3 entrances to a large room and need a light switch next to each one, you will need
an intermediate switch. The light(s) can be switched on and off from anyone of 3 places.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION PROJECT.

In our first project, using materials and tools given, we created two types of cable joints;
married joint and Tee-joint. In the married type of cable joint, the multi-stranded cables were
used where we started by first stranding the wires then interlacing with the wires of the other
cable. The main purpose of the Tee joint was connecting pieces of cables for the purpose of
tapping power from an existing cable.

The second project generally involved soldering. A single strand of a copper wire and a tuck nail
were joined together by first melting and then flowing the filler metal into the joint. In ensuring
that soldering was done properly that is to achieve a good soldered joint, we completely
removed any oil, paint on tuck nails through filing. This was done on all tuck nails since a solder
needs a clean surface on which to adhere.

Other important projects, were installations of different switching systems; one way, two way
and intermediate switching systems the with the consumer control unit.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION ATTACHMENT SESSION.

The electrical installation session of the internal attachment was carried out with minimal
problems. The only problem encountered was inadequacy in availability of some hand tools in
the electrical workshop. Our supervisor, Mr. Njuguna cited the same that such tools for
example the stripping knife in which case about four were available was now available in
enough quantities. Sharing of the very few hand tools amongst about 80 students resulted in
slow rate in doing a project. This ended up in many projects by many students, slightly more
than half, ending up uncompleted during submission on the specified time.

RECOMMENDATIONS.
I would suggest that the workshop be assessed on the availability of enough working tools.
More should be bought for those tools found to be insufficient in the workshop. Otherwise, I
really appreciated the cooperation and collaboration between the electrical department and
our civil department.

References.

1. D.W warne, M.A Laughton, Electrical Engineers Reference Book, (2015) 16th Edititon.
Amazon.
2. Michael Neidle, Electrical Installation Technology, (2012) 3rd Edition, Elserver B.V publishers.

CHAPTER SEVEN
WEEK SEVEN: SURVEYING.
TECHNICIAN’S NAME: MR. JULIUS.

STAGES OF SURVEY OPERATIONS.

The entire work-stages of survey operations in civil engineering may be divided into the
following three stages.
1. Fieldwork.
2. Office work.
3. Care and adjustment of instruments.

1. FIELD WORK.
The fieldwork consists of the measurements of all horizontal and vertical distances, horizontal
and vertical angles, elevations and keeping of systematic record of what has been done in the
field book. Fieldwork is further sub-divided into:
(a). Reconnaissance.
During reconnaissance the surveyor examines the area to be surveyed in order to know how
the survey work can be performed in the best possible way.
He will also make a rough sketch of the area showing the station and some permanent features
including the north line. The sketch is not prepared according to the scale but it should
represent the approximate position of different features in the area so that it becomes a good
guide for future work.
[b]Field measurements
The surveys takes all linear and angular measurements with survey instruments. The
measurements includes horizontal and vertical angles. Method of measurements depends upon
the nature of the terrain, type of the instrument and the method of surveying.
(c). Field Record.
All the measurements are recorded in a field book. The field records may be numerical values,
sketches and explanatory notes. Every care is taken to ensure in all the observations otherwise
the survey may be useless. The competency of a surveyor is judged by his field records.

2. OFFICE WORK.
The office work of a surveyor consists three types based on the field record.
(i) Drafting: - This process consists of preparation of plans, longitudinal sections
and cross-sections by plotting. The field measurements to the desired
scale.
(ii) Computing: - This process consists of calculating data necessary for plotting
and determining the areas and volume of earthworks.
(iii) Designing: - This process consists of selecting the best alignment of roads,
(iv) railways, canals on the plotted plan.

Fieldwork is of primary importance in all types of surveys. For one to be a skilled surveyor,
he/she must spend certain amount of time in the field to acquire the needed experience.
LEVELLING.
It’s a branch of surveying whose objectives are to find the elements of a given part with respect
to the given or assumed datum and also to establish a point at a given elevation with respect to
the given or assumed datum.
Levelling generally involves the measurement of geodetic height using an optical levelling
instrument and a level staff or a rod having a numbered scale. The common levelling
instruments includes the:

 Spirit level.
 The dumpy level.
 The digital level.
  The laser level.
LEVELLING PROCEDURE.
A typical procedure is to set up the instrument within 60m of a point of known or assumed
elevation. A rod or staff is held vertical on that point and the instrument is used manually and
automatically to read the rod scale.
This given the height of the instrument above the starting point (Backsights) and allows the
height of the instrument (h.i) above the datum to be computed. The rod is then held on an
unknown point and a reading is taken in the same manner, allowing the elevation of the new
point (Foresight) to be computed. The procedure is repeated until the destination point is
reached.
It is a usual practice to perform either a complete loop back to the starting point whose
elevation is already known. The closure check guards against the blunders in the operation and
allows residual errors to be distributed in the most likely manner among the stations.
TRAVERSING.
Field works for traversing
a. Reconnaissance:
It is done to-

 To locate suitable positions for stations, poorly executed reconnaissance can result from
difficulties at later stages leading waste of time and inaccurate work
 To obtain overall picture of the area

During selection of station following points should be noted.

 Number of station should be kept minimum as possible

 Length of traverse legs should be kept as long as possible to minimize effect of centering
error, however too long leg can also result from refraction error,
 Station should be located such that they are clearly intervisible
 Station should be placed on firm, level ground so that the theodolite/total station and
tripod are supported adequately during measurement
 Interior angle of the station between traverse legs should not be less than 15° or should
not be around 180° to minimize error during plotting

When the stations have been sited, a sketch of the traverse should be prepared approximately
to scale. The stations are given reference letters or numbers. This greatly assists in planning and
checking of fieldwork.
b. Station marking

 Station marking needs to be done by the permanent marker for easy allocation of
station throughout the survey period.
 Generally for traverse purpose, wooden pegs are flush into the ground, a nail is tapped
into the top of peg to define exact position of station
 A reference or witnessing sketch of the features surrounding each station should be
prepared especially if the stations are to be left for any time before used or if they are
required again

c. Linear and Angular measurement

 Once traverse stations have been placed, next step is measurement

 Linear measurement of traverse line will normally be measured by EDM or by measuring
tape
 During Linear measurement, for precision both way (forward and backward direction)
measurement is carried out and discrepancy should be better than 1:5000
 For Angular measurement, if the internal angles are being read, it is usual to proceed
from station to station round the traverse in an anticlockwise direction
 Generally, more than one set of reading is preferred for higher accuracy measurement
along with both face (right and left face) reading
 If external angles are observed then one should occupy the stations in a clockwise
direction
 When all internal angles are measured, sum of internal angle should be equal to (2n-
4)*90, for external angle (2n+4)*90,

Traverse field notes/booking:-

It consists of various measurement data and reference figures and diagrams. Generally, field
booking contains, complete sets of angle measurement, both directions, linear measurement,
vertical angles. Overall traverse sketch along with reference diagram is also kept together with
field booking for future reference.

Requirement of field notes:

 Accuracy: Field data and reference data should be accurately noted

 Integrity: A single omitted measurement or detail can nullify the use of notes for
plotting. So Notes should be checked carefully for completeness before leaving
 Legibility: Notes can be used only if they are legible. A professional-looking set of notes
is likely to be professional in quality
 Arrangement: Note forms appropriate to the particular survey contribute to accuracy,
integrity, and legibility
  Clarity: Advance planning and proper field procedures are necessary to ensure clarity of
sketches and tabulations and to minimize the possibility of mistakes and omission

Significance of levelling in Civil Engineering.

1. It helps the surveyor or the cartographer to make contour maps of the land sea surface.
This helps in determining the benchmarks for the survey work.
2. It helps pipe transport engineers to ensure appropriate slope of the land that will allow
smooth movement of the liquid.
3. It helps contractors to lay a level ground on which they can erect buildings.
4. It’s also important in the construction of transport routes like roads and railways.

SURVEYING FIELDWORK.
Our fieldwork involved both levelling and traversing. We carried out levelling on a road section
within the university from the main gate to the medical centre. We carried out on levelling
along the two opposite sides and the centre of the road. During levelling work, an horizontal
line of sight was established with an automatic level. The difference in consecutive readings
taken on the vertical levelling staff gave us the level difference between two points.
In traversing, during our field work, we conducted a closed traverse whereby our traverse lines
formed a closed circuit which ended at the starting point whose co-ordinates were precisely
known. With the help of a total station, we recorded both angular and linear readings which we
later used in our computations.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED.
The only problem encountered during our survey fieldwork was that our supervisor was not
informed in advance. Also being from another department, as he told us, he had other
obligations to do as at the same week he had some field tasks to do for his department.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
My suggestion is that the civil department can do something in collaboration with the GIS
department get a supervisor who will be in charge of survey fieldwork for civil engineering
students such that during any survey fieldwork for the civil engineers, he/she will be duly
available to take through them. However, in other times he/she should support the GIS
department.
Such a supervisor could be chosen from the GIS department or a new one be hired.
REFERENCES.
1. https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/4232
Fieldwork for traversing, traverse field notes. Retrieved on 27 th April, 2017.
2. Civil engineering projects:- Surveying and Mapping.
Website: http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/civil-projects/guide-to-compass-surveying-open-
and-closed-traverse/ Retrieved on 27th April, 2017