Faculty of Science, Engineering

and Technology

EEE20005 Electrical Machine

A./Prof. Weixiang Shen

Telephone +61 3 9214 5886

Office room no. EN701b
Email [email protected]
1
 Transformers (Chapter 2)
• Learning objectives:
1. Structure of a single phase transformer.
2. Ideal transformer and practical transformers
3. Equivalent circuit and its parameter determination,
efficiency and voltage regulation of transformers .
4. Per unit systems.
5. Autotransformer, three phase transformers,
transformer ratings and related problems
6. Instrument transformers: current and potential
transformers (CT and PT or VT).
2
 Introduction to transformers
• A transformer changes ac
electric power at one
voltage level to another
voltage level at the same
frequency through the
action of a magnetic field.
• It consists of at least two coils (or bobbin
windings) wrapped around a
common ferromagnetic core.
These coils are usually not directly
connected. The only connection
between the coils is the common
magnetic flux within the core. 3
 Introduction to transformers
• In a modern power system, transformers are
necessary to transmit power over long distance,
which can reduce power loss and voltage drop.
• Since the transmission line losses in a power
system are proportional to square of current flowing
through lines (I2R), raising transmission voltage and
thereby reducing transmission current by factor of
10 with transformers can reduce power losses by a
factor of 100.
• It would simply not be possible to use electricity in
many of ways it is used today if there was no
transformer. 4
 Introduction to transformers (cont.)
• In a modern power system, electric power is generated at the
voltages of 12 to 25kV at one central location ( or power
station) which is usually far away from users of electricity.
• Transformers step up the voltage to between 110kV and
nearly 1000kV (e.g. 500kV in Australia) to reduce current over
long distance of transmission line, reducing power losses.
• Transformers then step down voltage to 1KV from 66kV (e.g.
11KV, 33KV in Australia) range for local distribution and finally
permit power to be used safely at homes, offices, and factories
at the voltage as low as 400V or 230V in Australia.

5
 Introduction to transformers (cont.)
• Besides wide applications in power systems for
changing voltage levels, transformers can also be
used in AC/DC adapter,

• Audio (impedance match),

• Instrument (measuring
high voltage, e.g. 500kV or
high current, e.g. 10kA).
6
 The ideal transformer
• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input
winding (Np) and an output winding (Ns) as shown in Fig. 2-4.
• The relationship between input voltage and output voltage as
well as input current and output current, are given by two
simple equations:
V p (t ) Np Np
  
Vs (t ) Ns (2-1) Ns (2-2)

where  is defined to be the turn ratio of a transformer.

i p (t ) Ns 1
  (2-3)
is (t ) N p 
7
Fig. 2-4
 The ideal transformer (cont.)
-dot convention
• The dot convention is
adopted to identify the
polarity of the voltage
and current on the
secondary side.

1. If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the

winding with respect to the undotted end, then the secondary
voltage will be the positive at the dotted end too.
2. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the
dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary current
flows out the dotted end of the secondary windings.
8
 Power in the ideal transformer
(cont.)
• In an ideal transformer, voltage and current angles are
unaffected. So, both sides will have the same phase angle
(θp=θs=θ) and thus the same power factor. Thus, its input
and output power can be expressed as
Pin  Vp I p cos  p (2-6) Pout  Vs I s cos s (2-7)
• The output power of the transformer is equal to its input
power.
Vp
Pout  Vs I s cos   ( I p ) cos   V p I p cos   Pin (2-8/9)

Vp
Qout  Vs I s sin   ( I p ) sin   V p I p sin   Qin (2-10)

Vp
Sout  Vs I s  ( I p )  V p I p  Sin (2-11)
 9
 Impedance transformation
in the ideal transformer
• The impedance of a
device is defined as the
ratio of the phasor
Fig. 2-5
voltage across it to the
phasor current flowing
through it.
Vp
 
VL Vs
ZL  
IL Is I p
1 Vp 1
  Z L'
2 I p 2

Z L'   2 Z L (2-15) 10
 Theory of operation of a real
single-phase transformer
• To understand the operation of a real transformer,
refer to Fig. 2-8, it consists of two coils (windings)
wrapped around a transformer core.
• The winding at the primary side of the transformer is
connected to an AC power source, and the winding
at the secondary side is open circuit. The hysteresis
curve of the transformer is shown in Fig. 2-9.

Fig. 2-8 Fig. 2-9 11

Theory of operation of real
single-phase transformer (cont.)
• The basis of transformer operation can be
derived from Faraday’s law:
d
eind  (2-41)
dt
where λ is the flux linkage in the coil
which the voltage is being induced.
• The flux linkage λ is the sum of the
magnetic flux passing through each turn in
the coil added over all the turns of the coil:
N
 i 1
i
(2-42)
12
 Theory of operation of real
single-phase transformer (cont.)
• The total flux linkage through a coil is not just N  ,
where N is the number of turns in the coil, because
the flux passing through each turn of a coil is
slightly different from the flux in the other turns,
depending on the position of the turn within the coil.
• An average flux per turn in a coil is defined as:
N
 d
eind 

1
 i    N dt
N or N (2-16)
i 1
(2-41)
and Faraday’s law can be written as
d
eind N (2-17)
dt 13
 The voltage ratio across
d
a transformer eind  N
dt
• If the voltage source in Fig. 2-8 is Vp(t), then the
voltage is placed directly across the coils of the
primary winding of the transformer, which results in:


1 (2-18)
 VP (t )dt
N

• This flux is present in Fig. 2-8

the primary coil. The effect of this flux on the
secondary side depends on how much of the flux
reaches the secondary coil.
14
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
• The portion of the flux in the primary side reaching
the secondary coil is called a mutual flux, which
remains in the core and links both windings (see
Fig. 2-10).
• Another portion
of the flux, which
only passes
through primary
side but returns
through the air,
is called a
leakage flux. 15
Fig. 2-10
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
• Thus, the flux in the primary coil can be divided into two
components:
P  M  LP (2-19)
where P is total average primary flux
M is flux component linking both
primary and secondary coils
LP is primary leakage flux

16
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
• There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding
between mutual flux and leakage flux which passes through
the secondary winding but returns through the air,
S  M  LS (2-20)
where S is total average secondary flux
M is flux component linking both
primary and secondary coils
LS is secondary leakage flux

17
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
• With the division of the average primary flux into
mutual and leakage components, Faraday’s law for
the primary circuit can be re-expressed as
d P d M d LP
v p (t )  N p  Np  Np (2-21)
dt dt dt
v p (t )  e p (t )  eLP (t ) (2-22)
• The voltage on the secondary coil can also be
expressed in terms of Faraday’s law as
d S d M d LS
vs (t )  N s  Ns  Ns
(2-23)
dt dt dt
vs (t )  es (t )  eLS (t ) (2-24) 18
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
• The primary voltage due to the mutual flux is
given by d M
e p (t )  N p (2-25)
dt
and the secondary voltage due to the mutual flux
is given by d M
es (t )  N s (2-26)
dt
• From these two relationships, we have
e p (t ) d M es (t )
 
Np dt Ns
e p (t ) Np
• Therefore,   (2-27)
es (t ) Ns 19
 The voltage ratio across
a transformer (cont.)
e p (t ) Np
 
es (t ) Ns
• This equation means that the ratios of the primary
voltage caused by the mutual flux to the secondary
voltage caused by the mutual flux is equal to the
turn ratio of the transformer. M  LP
• Since in the well-designed transformer,
M  LS

• The ratio of the total voltage on the primary to the

total voltage on the secondary is approximately
v p (t ) Np v p (t )  e p (t )  eLP (t )
  (2-28)
vs (t ) Ns vS (t )  eS (t )  eLS (t ) 20
 The magnetization current
in a real transformer
• When an AC power source is connected to a transformer as
shown in Fig. 2-8, a current flows in its primary circuit, even
when the secondary circuit is open circuit.
• This current is the current required to produce flux in a real
ferromagnetic core. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current
iM , which is the current
required to produce the flux
in the transformer core.
2. The core-loss current ih+e,
which is the current
required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current
Fig. 2-8
losses. 21
The magnetization current
in a real transformer (cont.)
• Fig. 2-11 shows the magnetization
curve of a typical transformer
core. If the flux in the transformer
core is known, then the magnitude
of the magnetization current can
be found directly from Fig. 2-11.
• If the primary voltage is given by
the expression
v p (t )  VM cos t (V)
1 1

Np  v p ( t ) dt 
Np  VM cos tdt

VM VM
 sin t  cos(t  900 )(Wb)
N p N p
Fig. 2-11 22
(2-29)
 The magnetization current
in a real transformer (cont.)
1 1 VM

Np  v p ( t ) dt 
Np  VM cos tdt 
N p
sin t

VM 2Vrms
m  
N p N p
N p m 2 fN p  m
Vrms    4.44 fN p  m
2 2

• This equation shows that the transformers are used in the

power systems for one frequency (60Hz), when they are
used in the power systems for other frequency (50Hz), the
voltage ratings of the transformers have to be redefined. 23
 The magnetization current
in a real transformer (cont.)
• The magnetization
current in the
transformer is not
sinusoidal. The higher-
frequency components in v p (t )  VM cos t
the magnetization current
are due to magnetic
saturation in the
transformer core.
• The higher frequency
components can be large
if the magnetic core of a VM
 sin t
transformer is driven into N p
deep saturation. VM
 cos(t  900 )
N p
24
 The magnetization current
in a real transformer (cont.)
• Once the peak flux
reaches the saturation
point in the core, a small
increase in peak flux
v p (t )  VM cos t requires a very large
increase in the peak
magnetization current.
• The fundamental
component of the

VM
sin t magnetization current
N p
lags the voltage applied
VM
 cos(t  900 ) to the core by 900.
N p 25
 The magnetization current
in a real transformer (cont.)
• In addition to magnetization current, the other
component of no-load current in the transformer is
the current required to supply power to make up the
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. This
is a core-loss current.
• The core-loss current is nonlinear because of the
nonlinear effects of hysteresis. The fundamental
component of the core-loss current is in phase with
the voltage applied to the core.
• Thus, total no-load current in the core is called the
excitation current of the transformer. It is the sum
of the magnetization current and the core-loss
current in the core: i  i  i 26
ex m h e (2-30)
 The current ratio on
a transformer
• Suppose that a load is connected to the secondary
side of the transformer (see Fig. 2-14), according to
the dot convention, a current flowing into the
dotted end of a winding produces a positive MMF,
while the current flowing into undotted end of a
winding produces a negative MMF.
• Therefore, the net MMF
on the core must produce
the net flux in the core,

Fnet  N p i p  N s is  
(2-32) Fig. 2-14 27
 The current ratio on
a transformer (cont.)
Fnet  N p i p  N s is  
where  is the reluctance of the transformer core. Because
the reluctance of a well-designed transformer core is very
small (nearly zero), the relationship between the primary
and secondary currents is approximately l

Fnet  N p i p  N s is    0 (2-33) A
as long as the core is unsaturated.
• Thus,
N p i p  N s is (2-34)

or ip Ns 1
  (2-35)
is Np 
28
Assumptions to convert a real
transformer into an ideal transformer
• The assumptions to convert a real transformer into an
ideal transformer described previously are shown as
follows:
1. The core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents.
2. The magnetization curve must have the shape shown in Fig.
2-15. Notice that for an unsaturated core, the net MMF=0,
implying that N p i p  N s is
3. The leakage flux in the core must be zero
implying that all the flux in the core
couples both windings.
4. The resistance of the transformer windings
must be zero. Fig. 2-15
29
 The equivalent circuit of
a real transformer
• If we want to build a model for a real transformer,
all previous imperfection should be taken into
account in the model to describe behaviors of the
real transformer.
• These major imperfection items to be considered
in the construction of such a model are:
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the
resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer.
2. Eddy current (V2/R) losses. Eddy current losses
are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer. 30
The equivalent circuit of
a real transformer (cont.)

3. Hysteresis losses (related to voltage and

frequency) are associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic domain in the core which are
lumped together with eddy current losses.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes LP and LS which
escape the core and pass through only one of the
transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These
escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the
primary and secondary coils, and the effect of this
inductance must be accounted for.
31
 The exact equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit of a real
transformer, taking into account all these major imperfections.
1. The easiest effect to model is the copper losses. Copper
losses are resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer. They are modeled by placing a
resistor Rp in the primary side and a resistor Rs in the
secondary side.
2. The leakage flux in the primary windings LP produces a
voltage eLP given by d LP
eLP (t )  N p (2-36a)
dt
the leakage flux in the secondary winding LS produces a
voltage eLS given by d LS
eLS (t )  N S (2-36b) 32
dt
The exact equivalent
circuit of a transformer
(cont.)
• Since much of the leakage flux path is through
air, which has a constant reluctance much
higher than the core reluctance, the flux LP is
directly proportional to the primary circuit current
ip and the flux LS is directly proportional to the
secondary current is

i p (2-37a) e (t )  N d LP
Np
LP  N pi p  LP 
 LP p
dt
iS (2-37b) e (t )  N d LS
NS
LS   N S iS  LS 
 LS S
dt 33
 The exact equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• Substitute eq.(2-37) into eq.(2-36)
d NP N P2 diP
eLP (t )  N p ( iP )  (2-38a)
dt   dt
d NS N S2 diS
eLS (t )  N S ( iS )  (2-38b)
dt   dt
• The constants in these eqs. can be lumped together,
diP
eLP (t )  LP (2-39a)
dt
diS
eLS (t )  LS (2-39b)
dt 34
 The exact equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
diP diS
eLP (t )  LP eLS (t )  LS
dt dt
where PL  N P /  is the self-inductance of the
2

primary coil, SL  N S /  is the self-inductance of the

2

secondary coil. Therefore, the leakage flux will be

modeled by primary and secondary inductances.
3. The magnetization current iM is a current proportional
to the voltage applied to the core and lagging the
applied voltage by 900, so it can be modeled by a
reactance XM connected across the primary voltage
source.
35
 The exact equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
4. The core-loss current ih+e is a current proportional
to the voltage applied to the core that is in phase
with the applied voltage, so it can be modeled by a
resistance Rc connected across the primary
voltage source.
As a result, the exact equivalent circuit of a real
transformer is shown in Fig. 2-16.

Fig. 2-16

36
 The exact equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• Fig. 2-17a shows the equivalent circuit referred
to its primary side while Fig. 2-17b shows the
equivalent circuit referred to its secondary side.

37
Fig. 2-17
 Approximate equivalent circuit
of a transformer
• The transformer models shown below are often more
complex than necessary in order to get good results in
practical engineering applications.
• One of the major problems is that the excitation branch of
the model adds another node to the circuit being analyzed,
making circuit solution more complex than necessary.
• The excitation branch has a very small current compared to
the load current of the transformers. In fact, it is so small
under normal circumstances it causes a completely
negligible voltage drop cross Rp and Xp.

38
 Approximate equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• Thus, a simplified equivalent circuit can be produced
by moving the excitation branch to the front of the
transformer, and the primary and secondary
impedances are left in series with each other.

39
 Approximate equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• These impedances are just added, creating the
approximate equivalent circuit in Fig. 2-18a and b.

Fig. 2-18 40
 Approximate equivalent circuit
of a transformer (cont.)
• In some applications, the excitation branch may be
neglected entirely without causing serious errors. In
these cases, the equivalent circuit of the transformer
reduces to the simple circuits in Fig. 2-18c and d.

Fig. 2-18
41
 Determining the values of
components in transformer model
• We can determine the values of the components in the
equivalent circuit by conducting the open-circuit test (OCT)
and the short-circuit test (SCT) on a transformer.
• In the OCT, a transformer’s secondary winding is open-
circuited, and its primary winding is applied to the rated
voltage of the transformer (see Fig.2-19).

Fig.2-19 42
 Determining the values of components
in transformer model (cont.)
• For the OCT, the input voltage, current and real
power to the transformer are measured, Rc and XM
can be found as follows.
• Measured values: Voc, I oc, Poc 

Poc  Voc2 / Rc
 Rc  Voc2 / Poc (2-40a)
I Rc  Voc / Rc (2-40b)
I X M  I oc2  I R2c (2-40c)

X M  Voc / I X M (2-40d)
43
 Determining the values of components
in transformer model (cont.)
• In the SCT, the transformer’s secondary terminals
are shorted-circuited, and primary terminal is applied
to the voltage until the current is equal to the chosen
current or its rated current (see Fig.2-20).

Fig.2-20
44
 Determining the values of components
in transformer model (cont.)
• For the SCT, the input voltage, current and real
power to the transformer are measured too.
Leakage reluctance Xeqp and winding resistance
Reqp can be determined as follows.
• Measured values:
Vsc, I sc, Psc 
Psc  I sc2 Reqp
 Reqp  Psc / I sc2 (2-41a)
Z scp  Vsc / I sc (2-41b)
X eqp  Z scp
2
 Reqp
2
(2-41c) 45
 Example 2-2
• The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20kVA,
8000/240V, 60Hz transformer are to be determined.
The open-circuited test and the short-circuit test
were performed on the primary side of the
transformer, and the following data were taken:
Open-circuit test (on primary) Short-circuit test (on primary)

Voc=8000V Vsc=489V
Ioc=0.214A Isc=2.5A
Poc=400W Psc=240W
• Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent
circuit referred to the primary side, and sketch that
circuit.
46
 Example 2-2 (cont.)
Open-circuit test (on primary)
Voc=8000V
Ioc=0.214A
Poc=400W

Rc  Voc2 / Poc  80002 / 400  160000

I Rc  Voc / Rc  8000 / 160000  0.05 A

I X M  I oc
2
 I R2c  0.2142  0.052  0.2081A

X M  Voc / I X M  8000 / 0.2081  38447

47
 Example 2-2 (cont.)
•Short-circuit test (on primary)

Vsc=489V
Isc=2.5A
Psc=240W

Reqp  Psc / I sc2  240 / 2.52  38.4

Z scp  Vsc / I sc  489 / 2.5  195.6

X eqp  Z scp
2
 Reqp
2

 195.6 2  38.4 2  191.8 48

Transformer voltage regulation
and efficiency
• Transformers are compared and judged on their voltage
regulation (VR). A real transformer has series impedances
within it, the output voltage of a transformer varies with the
load even if the input voltage remains constant.
• Voltage regulation (VR) is defined to compare the output
voltage of the transformer at no load with the output voltage
at full load. It is written as:
VS ,nl  VS , fl
VR  100% (2-61)
VS , fl
• Since at no load, Vs=Vp/α, the VR
can also be expressed as
V p /   VS , fl
VR  100%
VS , fl (2-62)
49
 Transformer voltage regulation
and efficiency-phasor diagram
• To determine the voltage regulation
of a transformer, it is necessary to
understand voltage drops within it.
• This voltage drop depends both on
(1).the magnitude of the series
impedances and (2).the phase
angle of the current flowing
through it or load type.
This can be shown clearly by a sketch of the phasor
diagram indicating phasor voltages and currents in
the transformer under different types of loads, where
the loads could be inductive, resistive or capacitive.
50
 Transformer voltage regulation
and efficiency-phasor diagram (cont.)
• In all following phasor diagrams, the phasor
voltage Vs at the secondary side is assumed to
be at an angle of 00 which means it is selected
as a reference, and all other voltages and
currents are referred to this reference.
• By applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL) to the
equivalent circuit, the primary
voltage can be found as
Vp
 Vs  ( Reqs  jX eqs ) I s
 (2-64)
 Vs  Reqs I s  jX eqs I s 51
 Transformer voltage regulation
and efficiency-phasor diagram (cont.)

• A transformer phasor
diagram is just a visual
representation of this Fig. 2-26
equation:
Vp
 Vs  Reqs I s  jX eqs I s

• Fig.2-26 and 2-27
show phasor diagram
under an inductive,
resistive or capacitive
load, respectively.

Fig. 2-27(a) and (b) 52

 Transformer voltage regulation and
efficiency-transformer efficiency (cont.)
• Transformers are also compared and judged on their
efficiencies. The efficiency of a transformer can be
calculated by the equations
Pout
  100% (2-65)
Pin
Pout
  100% (2-66)
Pout  Ploss
• Generally, to calculate the efficiency of a transformer
at a given load, just add the losses from each
resistor of the transformer and apply eq.(2-67).
VS I S cos  S
 100% (2-67)
VS I S cos  S  Pcu  Pcore 53
 Transformer voltage regulation and
efficiency-transformer efficiency (cont.)
• Another form of the formula that calculates the efficiency for
different loadings as a percentage of the full load is

xVS I S cos
  100%
xVS I S cos  x Pcu  Pcore
2

where x is a fraction of the full load, the core loss is constant

by the assumption that the load voltage or the input voltage is
constant.
For example, x=0.5 means half of full load, namely 0.5IFL is
applied to the transformer since the load voltage is constant;
x=0.25 means a quarter of full load (0.25IFL) is applied to the
transformer, where IFL=Irated.
54
 Transformer voltage regulation and
efficiency-transformer efficiency (cont.)

• The losses of a transformer and their

representations in the equivalent circuit
are summarized as follows:
1. Copper (I2R) losses. These losses are
accounted for by the series resistances in the
equivalent circuit.
2. Core losses or iron losses (V2/RC). It consists
of hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.
These two losses are combined together and
accounted for by resistor Rc.
55
 Example 2-5
• A 15kVA, 2300/230V transformer is tested to determine its
excitation branch components, its series impedances,
and its voltage regulation and efficiency. The following
testing data have been taken from the primary side of the
transformer.
Open-circuit test (on primary) Short-circuit test (on primary)
Voc=2300V Vsc=47V
Ioc=0.21A Isc=6.0A
Poc=50W Psc=160W
The data have been taken by using the connections
shown in Figs. 2-19 and 2-20.

56
Example 2-5 (cont.)
Open-circuit test (on primary) Short-circuit test (on primary)
Voc=2300V Vsc=47V
Ioc=0.21A Isc=6.0A
Poc=50W Psc=160W
(a). Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to
the high-voltage side.
(b). Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to
the low-voltage side.
(c). Calculate the voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power
factor, 1.0 power factor and at 0.8 leading power factor.
(e). What is the efficiency of the transformer at a full load
with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
57
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
Solution (a)
Open-circuit test (on primary)

Voc=2300V
Ioc=0.21A
Poc=50W

RC  Voc
2
/ Poc  2300 2 / 50  105800
I Rc  Voc / Rc  2300 / 105800  0.0217 A

I X M  I oc2  I R2c  0.212  0.02172  0.2089A

X M  Voc / I X M  2300 / 0.2089  11008

Fig. 2-29a 58
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
Short-circuit test (on primary)

Vsc=47V

Isc=6.0A

Psc=160W

Reqp  Psc / I sc2  160 / 6.02  4.444

Z scp  Vsc / I sc  47 / 6.0  7.833

X eqp  Z scp
2
 Reqp
2

 7.8332  4.444 2  6.45

59
Example 2-5 (cont.)
Solution (b)
• To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-
voltage side, it is simply necessary to divide the
impedance by the square of turn ratio (2). Since
Np/Ns=10, the resulting values are:
RC  1058 X M  110.08
Req  0.0444 X eq  0.0645

• The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2-

29b.

Fig. 2-29b
60
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
Solution (c)
• The full load current on the
secondary side of the
transformer is
S rated 15000
I s ,rated    65.3 A
VS ,rated 230 Vp
 Vs  ( Reqs  jX eqs ) I s

• To calculate Vp/, use eq. 2-64
At PF=0.8 lagging, current I S  65.3  36.90 A cos( )  0.8
VP   36.90
 2300  (0.0444  j 0.0645)  65.3  36.9
0 0


 23000  2.90  36.90  j 4.2153.10  230  2.32  j1.74  2.52  j 3.36
 234.84  j1.62  234.850.400
VP /   Vs , fl 234.85  230
• The resulting VR is VR    2.1% 61
Vs , fl 230
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
At PF=1.0, current I S  65.300 A
cos( )  1
VP
 23000  (0.0444  j 0.0645)  65.300   00

 23000  2.9000  j 4.21900  230  2.9  j1.74  j 4.21
 232.9  j 4.21  232.941.040V
VP /   Vs, fl 232.94  230
VR    1.28%
Vs, fl 230
At PF=0.8 leading, current I S  65.336.90 A
VP cos( )  0.8
 2300  (0.0444  j 0.0645)  65.336.9
0 0

   36.90
 23000  2.9036.90  4.21126.90  230  2.32  j1.74  2.52  j3.36
 229.80  j5.10  229.851.270V
VP /   Vs, fl 229.85  230
VR    0.062% 62
Vs , fl 230
 • Example 2-5
(cont.)

Each of these
three phasor
diagrams is
shown in Fig.
2-30.

Fig. 2-30 63
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
Solution (d): to find the efficiency of the transformer at
the full load, calculate its losses at this condition. The
copper losses are
PCu  ( I s ) 2 Req  (65.2) 2 (0.0444)  188.75W
VS I S cos  S
 100%
and the core losses are VS I S cos  S  Pcu  Pcore

Pcore  (VP /  ) 2 / Rc  (234.85) 2 / 1050  52.5W

The output power at this power factor is
Pout  Vs I s cos   (230)(65.2) cos 36.90  12000W

Thus, the efficiency at this power factor:

Vs I s cos  12000
   98.03%
Vs I s cos   Pcore  PCu 12000  52.5  188.75 64
 Conditions for maximum efficiency
of the transformer
Vs I s cos  Vs I s cos 
 
Vs I s cos   Pcore  PCu Vs I s cos   I s2 Req  Pcore

1 Vs I s cos   I s2 Req  Pcore I s Req Pcore

  1 
 Vs I s cos  Vs cos  Vs I s cos 
d 1 Req Pcore
( )  0  0
dI s  Vs cos  Vs I s cos 
2

Req Pcore
  Pcore  I s2 Req (2-68a)
Vs cos  Vs I s2 cos 
Thus, the conditions to obtain the maximum efficiency of the
transformer is that the copper losses equal core losses,
namely,
Pcore  I s Req  PCu
2
(2-68b) 65
 Example 2-5 (cont.)
• Find the maximum efficiency of the transformer
Pcore  I s2 Req  PCu  52.5  I s2 0.0444  I s  34.3865 A

Thus, for this transformer it is about half of the

rated current (65.2A).
• At this load condition, the transformer is reaching
the maximum efficiency,
Vs I s cos  230  34.3865 cos 36.90
 max  
Vs I s cos   Pcore  PCu 230  34.3865 cos 36.90  52.5  52.5
6324.62
  98.37% The transformer’s efficiency in
6324.62  52.5  52.5 the previous full load condition
  98.03% 66
 Transformer ratings and
related problems
• Transformers have four major ratings: apparent
power, voltage, current and frequency.
• The voltage rating serves two functions: one is to
protect the winding insulation from breakdown
due to excessive voltage applied to it. The other is
related to magnetization curve and magnetization
current of the transformer.
• If a steady-state voltage v(t )  VM sin t is applied to
the transformer’s primary winding, the flux of the
transformer is given by
V
 
1 1
 (t )  v(t )dt  VM sin tdt   M cos t (2-100)
Np Np N p
67
 Transformer ratings and
related problems (cont.)
VM VM
max   (2-101)
N p 2fN p
• If the applied voltage is
increased by 10%, the
resulting maximum flux
in the core also increase
by 10%, which results in
sharp increases in
magnetization current
(much larger than 10%),
as shown in Fig. 2-45. 68
Fig. 2-45 68
 Transformer ratings and
related problems (cont.)
• Apparent power, together with the voltage rating, sets
the current flow through the transformer windings.
• The current flow is important because it controls the i2R
losses in the transformer, which in turn controls the heating
of the transformer coils.
• It is the heating that is critical since overheating the coils of
a transformer drastically shortens the life of its insulation.
• If the transformer’s voltage is reduced for any reason (e.g. if
it is operated at lower frequency than normal), then
transformer’s apparent power rating must be reduced by an
equal amount.

69
Transformer ratings and
related problems (cont.)
An inrush current
at starting
Fig.2-48

v(t )  VM sin(t   )
 Vmax (2-101)
  ,   90 0
N p
max
 /  / 
 v(t )dt
1

1
 (t )   (t )  v(t )dt  
Np 0
 2Vmax (2-106)
Np 0  ,  0 0
 max
N p

• For any other phase angles of the applied voltage between
900 and 00, magnetic flux has a normal value at 900 and the
highest value at 00 (the worst case, some excess current
will flow). The phase angle of the applied voltage is not
normally controlled at starting, there can be huge inrush
currents during a first several cycles after transformer is
connected to the line (see Fig.2-48). 70
 The per-unit system
• Computations using the actual values of parameters and
variables in power systems may be lengthy and time-
consuming.
• However, if the quantities are expressed in a per-unit (p.u.)
system, computation is much easy, especially in power
systems with a lot of transformers and different ratings of
equipment. The per-unit (p.u.) system is very useful.
• The quantity of p.u. is defined as follows:

Actual value
__________________
Quantity in p.u. = (2-53)
Base value of quantity
where “actual value” is a value in volts, amperes, ohms and etc.
71
 The per-unit system (cont.)
• There are two major advantages in using per-unit
system.
1. the parameters and variables fall in a narrow
numerical range when they are expressed in a
per-unit system.
2. There is no need to refer circuit quantities from
one side to another; therefore a common source
of mistakes is removed.
• To establish a per-unit system, it is necessary to
select two base quantities. These commonly
selected two quantities are voltage and power
(or apparent power).
72
 The per-unit system (cont.)
• Once voltage and power are selected, all the other
base values (current and impedance) can be
determined.
• In a single-phase system, these relationships are

Pbase  Qbase  Sbase,

selected
P base,Vbase
Pbase Vbase V 2
I base  Z base   base
Vbase I base Pbase
73
 Example 2-3
• A simple 10kVA power system is shown in Fig. 2-22. This
system contains a 480V generator connected to ideal
transformer 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission line,
and ideal 20:1 step-down transformer and a load. The
impedance of the transmission line is 20+j60 ohm, and the
impedance of the load is10300 ohm. The base values for
this system are chosen to be 480V and 10kVA at the
generator region.

74
Fig. 2-22
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
(a). Select base voltage and base apparent power, find base
current and base impedance for every region in power system.
(b). Convert this system into its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(c). Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
(d). Find the power lost in the transmission line.
Solution: in the generator region 1, Vbase=480V and Sbase=10kVA,
so Sbase 10000 Vbase1 480
I base1    20.83 A Z base1    23.04
Vbase1 480 I base1 20.83

75
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
• The turns ratio of transformer T1 is   1 / 10  0.1,
so the base voltage in the transmission line region
2 is
Vbase2 
Vbase1

480
 4800V
Sbase2  10000VA
 0.1
Sbase2 10000 Vbase2 4800
I base2    2.083 A Z base2    2304
Vbase2 4800 I base2 2.083

76
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
• The turns ratio of transformer T2 is   20 / 1  20,
so the base voltage in the load region 3 is
Vbase3 
Vbase2

4800
 240V Sbase3  10000VA
 20
Sbase3 10000 Vbase3 240
I base3    41.67 A Z base3    5.76
Vbase3 240 I base3 41.67

77
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
• To convert a power system to a per-unit system,
each component must be divided by the base value
in its region of the system.
• First, we convert the generator’s voltage into the
per-unit voltage by using its actual value divided by
its base value: 48000
VG , pu  0
 10 pu
480
Vbase1  480V

78
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
• Second, we convert the line impedance into the per
unit impedance by using its actual value divided by
its base value, 20  60 j
Z line, pu   0.0087  j 0.0260
2304

• Third, we convert the load impedance into the per

unit impedance by using its actual value divided by
its base value, Zload, pu  1030  1.736300 pu
0

5.76

Zbase3  5.76
Zbase 2  2304

79
 Example 2-3 (cont.)
• The per-unit
equivalent circuit of
the power system is
shown in Fig. 2-23
Fig. 2-23

80
Example 2-3 (cont.)

81
 Autotransformer

• On some occasions it is desirable to

change voltage levels by only a small
amount. For example, it may be
necessary to increase a voltage from
110V to 120V or from 13.2kV to 13.8kV.
• In such circumstances, it is wasteful and
very expensive to wind a transformer
with two full windings, each of them is
rated at about the same voltage.
• A special-purpose transformer, called an
autotransformer, is used instead.

82
 Autotransformer-step up (cont.)
• Fig. 2-32 show a step-up autotransformer, the
voltage at the output of the whole transformer is the
sum of the voltage on the first winding (Nc) and the
voltage on the second winding (Nse).
• The first winding is also called the common winding,
and the secondary winding is called the series
winding. Their voltage and current relationships are
shown as follows:
VL Nc
 (2-76)
VH N c  N SE

IL N c  N SE
 (2-79)
IH Nc 83
Fig. 2-32
 Autotransformer-step up (cont.)
• Apparent power rating advantage of autotransformers
It is interesting to note that if a conventional transformer is
reconnected as an autotransformer, it can handle much more
power than it was originally rated for.
• To understand this idea, refer to the following Fig., we will
have Sin  VL I L  Sout  VH I H  SIO
SW  VC I C  VL ( I L  I H ) (2-82)
NC
 VL I L  VL I H  VL I L  VL I L
N SE  NC (2-85)
N SE N SE
 VL I L  S IO
N SE  NC N SE  NC

S IO N SE  NC

SW N SE (2-86) 84
 Autotransformer-step down (cont.)
• Fig. 2-33 shows the step-down autotransformer,
where the voltage at the input is the sum of the
voltage on the series winding and the common
winding, while the voltage at the output is just the
voltage on the common winding.
• Their voltage, current and power relationships are
the same as those in the step-up transformer.
VL Nc

VH N c  N SE (2-76)

IL N  N SE
 c
IH Nc
(2-79)
S IO N SE  NC

SW N SE (2-86)
Fig. 2-33 85
 Autotransformer (cont.)
• The advantages of the autotransformer are
summarized as follows:
1. Less copper will be used to construct
autotransformer.
2. The power rating is increased.
3. Using a slide over exposed turns
can get continuously variable
turn ratio and thus output
voltage (Variac).
• The disadvantage: no insulation between
the primary winding and the second winding. 86
 Instrument transformer
• Two special-purpose transformers are used in power systems
for taking measurements of high voltage and high current.
One is the potential transformer, the other is the current
transformer.
1. Potential transformer is a specially wound transformer
with a high-voltage primary and a low-voltage
secondary, providing a sample of the power system’s
high voltage to the instruments monitoring it. Since its
main purpose is the voltage sampling, it must be accurate
as required for a given application.

Potential
transformer
87
 Instrument transformer (cont.)
• Potential transformer has the following features:
1. Same equivalent circuit as normal transformer.
2. Same equations as normal transformer
3. Used to step down voltage to be measured
4. Tends to operate at no load condition
5. Not allowed short circuit.
6. Used widely in protection circuit in power systems.

88
 Instrument transformer (cont.)
2. Current transformers sample
high current in a line and reduce it to a
safe and measurable level. Fig. 2-50
shows a typical current transformer. It
consists of a secondary winding
wrapped around a ferromagnetic ring
with the single primary line running Fig. 2-50
through the center of the ring.
The current transformer differs from other transformers in that
its windings are loosely coupled. Unlike all other transformers,
mutual flux in the current transformer is smaller than the
leakage flux due to loose coupling, the voltage and current
ratios of equations for normal transformer do not apply to a
current transformer.
89
 Instrument transformer (cont.)
However, the secondary current in the
current transformer is directly proportional
to much larger primary current, and the
device can provide an accurate samples of
a line current for measurement purposes.

Current transformer rating are given as ratios of primary

to secondary current. A typical current transformer ratio
might be 600:5, 800:5 or 1000:5. A 5A rating is standard
on the secondary of a current transformer.

It is important to keep a current transformer short-

circuited at all times, since extremely high voltages can
appear across its open secondary terminal.
90
 Three phase transformer
• Almost all the power generation and distribution systems in
the world today are three-phase AC systems. Thus, it is
necessary to understand how these three-phase transformers
are used in power systems. Three-phase transformer
connections: a three-phase transformer consist of three
transformers, either separate or combined on the core.
• The primaries and secondaries of any three-phase
transformers can be independently connected in either a wye
(Y) or a delta (). This gives a total of four possible
connections for a three-phase transformer bank:
1. Wye-wye (Y-Y) (see Fig. 2-38a)
2. Wye-delta (Y-) (see Fig. 2-38b)
3. Delta-Wye (-Y) (see Fig. 2-38c)
4. Delta-delta (-) (see Fig. 2-38d) 91
 Three phase transformer (cont.)
-Y-Y connection
• In a Y-Y connection, the voltage
ratio on the transformer is

VLP 3VP
  (2-87)
VLS 3VS
Fig. 2-38a

In a Y- connection, the voltage ratio on

the transformer is
VLP 3VP
  3
VLS VS (2-88)
The secondary voltage is shifted 300
relative to the primary voltage of the
Fig. 2-38b 92
transformer.
 Three phase transformer (cont.)
- -Y connection
• In a -Y connection, the voltage ratio
on the transformer is
VLP VP 
  (2-89) Fig. 2-38c
VLS 3VS 3
• This connection has the same phase-
shift as the Y-.

In a - connection, the voltage

ratio on the transformer is
VLP VP
  (2-90)
VLS VS
Fig. 2-38d 93