Wind tunnel

The development of wind tunnels accompanied the de-

velopment of the airplane. Large wind tunnels were built
during the Second World War. Wind tunnel testing was
considered of strategic importance during the Cold War
development of supersonic aircraft and missiles.
Later on, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects
of wind on man made structures or objects needed to
be studied when buildings became tall enough to present
large surfaces to the wind, and the resulting forces had to
be resisted by the building’s internal structure. Determin-
ing such forces was required before building codes could
specify the required strength of such buildings and such
tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings.
NASA wind tunnel with the model of a plane. Still later, wind-tunnel testing was applied to automobiles,
not so much to determine aerodynamic forces per se but
more to determine ways to reduce the power required to
move the vehicle on roadways at a given speed. In these
studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle
plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken
into consideration when interpreting the test results. In an
actual situation the roadway is moving relative to the ve-
hicle but the air is stationary relative to the roadway, but
in the wind tunnel the air is moving relative to the road-
way, while the roadway is stationary relative to the test
vehicle. Some automotive-test wind tunnels have incor-
porated moving belts under the test vehicle in an effort
A model Cessna with helium-filled bubbles showing pathlines of to approximate the actual condition, and very similar de-
the wingtip vortices. vices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off
and landing configurations.
A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
to study the effects of air moving past solid objects. A modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced
wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the ob- the demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD re-
ject under test mounted in the middle. Air is made sults are still not completely reliable and wind tunnels are
to move past the object by a powerful fan system or used to verify the CFD computer codes.
other means. The test object, often called a wind tun-
nel model is instrumented with suitable sensors to mea-
sure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution, or other
aerodynamic-related characteristics. 1 Measurement of aerodynamic
The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end forces
of the 19th century, in the early days of aeronautic
research, when many attempted to develop successful
heavier-than-air flying machines. The wind tunnel was Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways
envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm: in wind tunnels.
instead of the air standing still and an object moving at Air velocity through the test section is determined by
speed through it, the same effect would be obtained if Bernoulli’s principle. Measurement of the dynamic pres-
the object stood still and the air moved at speed past it. sure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only)
In that way a stationary observer could study the flying ob- the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of air-
ject in action, and could measure the aerodynamic forces flow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn at-
being imposed on it. tached to the aerodynamic surfaces. The direction of air-

1
2 2 HISTORY

flow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting 2 History

threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model.
Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the
airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around 2.1 Origins
the model can be photographed (see particle image ve-
locimetry).
English military engineer and mathematician Benjamin
Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually mea- Robins (1707–1751) invented a whirling arm apparatus
sured with beam balances, connected to the test model to determine drag and did some of the first experiments
with beams,strings, or cables. in aviation theory.
The pressure distributions across the test model have Sir George Cayley (1773–1857) also used a whirling arm
historically been measured by drilling many small holes to measure the drag and lift of various airfoils. His
along the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers whirling arm was 5 feet (1.5 m) long and attained top
to measure the pressure at each hole. Pressure distri- speeds between 10 and 20 feet per second (3 to 6 m/s).
butions can more conveniently be measured by the use
of pressure-sensitive paint, in which higher local pres- However, the whirling arm does not produce a reliable
sure is indicated by lowered fluorescence of the paint at flow of air impacting the test shape at a normal incidence.
that point. Pressure distributions can also be conveniently Centrifugal forces and the fact that the object is mov-
measured by the use of pressure-sensitive pressure belts, a ing in its own wake mean that detailed examination of
recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized the airflow is difficult. Francis Herbert Wenham (1824–
pressure sensor modules are integrated into a flexible 1908), a Council Member of the Aeronautical Society of
strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface Great Britain, addressed these issues by inventing, de-
with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure dis- signing and operating the first enclosed wind tunnel in
tribution along its surface.[1] 1871. Once this breakthrough had been achieved, de-
tailed technical data was rapidly extracted by the use of
Pressure distributions on a test model can also be deter- this tool. Wenham and his colleague Browning are cred-
mined by performing a wake survey, in which either a ited with many fundamental discoveries, including the
single pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings down- measurement of l/d ratios, and the revelation of the ben-
stream of the test model, or a multiple-tube manometer eficial effects of a high aspect ratio.
is mounted downstream and all its readings are taken.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky built an open-section wind tun-
The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all re- nel with a centrifugal blower in 1897, and determined the
main the same for a scaled model.[2] However, by observ- drag coefficients of flat plates, cylinders and spheres.
ing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspon-
dence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled Danish inventor Poul la Cour applied wind tunnels in his
model and a full-size object can be achieved. The choice process of developing and refining the technology of wind
of similarity parameters depends on the purpose of the turbines in the early 1890s.
test, but the most important conditions to satisfy are usu- Carl Rickard Nyberg used a wind tunnel when designing
ally: his Flugan from 1897 and onwards.
In a classic set of experiments, the Englishman Osborne
• Geometric similarity: all dimensions of the object Reynolds (1842–1912) of the University of Manchester
must be proportionally scaled; demonstrated that the airflow pattern over a scale model
would be the same for the full-scale vehicle if a certain
• Mach number: the ratio of the airspeed to the speed flow parameter were the same in both cases. This factor,
of sound should be identical for the scaled model and now known as the Reynolds number, is a basic parameter
the actual object (having identical Mach number in in the description of all fluid-flow situations, including the
a wind tunnel and around the actual object is -not- shapes of flow patterns, the ease of heat transfer, and the
equal to having identical airspeeds) onset of turbulence. This comprises the central scientific
justification for the use of models in wind tunnels to sim-
• Reynolds number: the ratio of inertial forces to vis- ulate real-life phenomena. However, there are limitations
cous forces should be kept. This parameter is dif- on conditions in which dynamic similarity is based upon
ficult to satisfy with a scaled model and has led to the Reynolds number alone.
development of pressurized and cryogenic wind tun-
The Wright brothers' use of a simple wind tunnel in
nels in which the viscosity of the working fluid can
1901 to study the effects of airflow over various shapes
be greatly changed to compensate for the reduced
while developing their Wright Flyer was in some ways
scale of the model.
revolutionary.[3] It can be seen from the above, however,
that they were simply using the accepted technology of
In certain particular test cases, other similarity parame- the day, though this was not yet a common technology in
ters must be satisfied, such as e.g. Froude number. America.
2.2 World War Two 3

Replica of the Wright brothers’ wind tunnel.

German aviation laboratory, 1935

electric motor drove the paddle type fan blades.[4]

In 1931 the NACA built a 30-foot by 60-foot “full scale”
Eiffel’s wind tunnels in the Auteuil laboratory
wind tunnel at Langley Research Center in Langley, Vir-
ginia. The tunnel was powered by a pair of fans driven
by 4000 hp electric motors. The layout was a double-
In France, Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) built his first return, closed-loop format and could accommodate many
open-return wind tunnel in 1909, powered by a 50 kW full-size real aircraft as well as scale models. The tunnel
electric motor, at Champs-de-Mars, near the foot of the was eventually closed and, even though it was declared a
tower that bears his name. Between 1909 and 1912 Eiffel historic national landmark in 1995, demolition began in
ran about 4000 tests in his wind tunnel, and his system- 2010.
atic experimentation set new standards for aeronautical
research. In 1912 Eiffel’s laboratory was moved to Au- Until World War Two, the world’s largest wind tunnel
teuil, a suburb of Paris, where his wind tunnel with a 2- was built in 1932-1934 and located in a suburb of Paris,
metre test section is still operational today. Eiffel signif- Chalais-Meudon, France. It was designed to test full size
icantly improved the efficiency of the open-return wind aircraft and had six large fans driven by high powered
tunnel by enclosing the test section in a chamber, design- electric motors.[5] The Chalais Meudon wind tunnel was
ing a flared inlet with a honeycomb flow straightener and used by ONERA under the name S1Ch until 1976, e.g.
adding a diffuser between the test section and the fan lo- in the development of the Caravelle and Concorde air-
cated at the downstream end of the diffuser; this was an planes. Today, this wind tunnel is preserved as a national
arrangement followed by a number of wind tunnels later monument.
built; in fact the open-return low speed wind tunnel is of-
ten called the Eiffel-type wind tunnel.
2.2 World War Two
Subsequent use of wind tunnels proliferated as the sci-
ence of aerodynamics and discipline of aeronautical en- In 1941 the US constructed one of the largest wind tun-
gineering were established and air travel and power were nels at that time at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. This
developed. wind tunnel starts at 45 feet (14 m) and narrows to 20
The US Navy in 1916 built one of the largest wind tunnels feet (6.1 m) in diameter. Two 40-foot (12 m) fans were
in the world at that time at the Washington Navy Yard. driven by a 40,000 hp electric motor. Large scale aircraft
The inlet was almost 11 feet (3.4 m) in diameter and the models could be tested at air speeds of 400 mph (640
discharge part was 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter. A 500 hp km/h).[6]
4 2 HISTORY

The wind tunnel used by German scientists at

Peenemünde prior to and during WWII is an inter-
esting example of the difficulties associated with
extending the useful range of large wind tunnels. It used
some large natural caves which were increased in size
by excavation and then sealed to store large volumes
of air which could then be routed through the wind
tunnels. This innovative approach allowed lab research
in high-speed regimes and greatly accelerated the rate of
advance of Germany’s aeronautical engineering efforts.
By the end of the war, Germany had at least three
different supersonic wind tunnels, with one capable of
Mach 4.4 (heated) airflows.[7]
A large wind tunnel under construction near Oetztal,
Austria would have had two fans directly driven by two NACA wind tunnel test on a human subject, showing the effects
of high wind speeds on the human face
50,000 horsepower hydraulic turbines. The installation
was not completed by the end of the war and the dis-
mantled equipment was shipped to Modane, France in
For limited applications, Computational fluid dynamics
1946 where it was re-erected and is still operated there
(CFD) can increase or possibly replace the use of wind
by the ONERA. With its 8m test section and airspeed up
tunnels. For example, the experimental rocket plane
to Mach 1 it is the largest transonic wind tunnel facility
SpaceShipOne was designed without any use of wind tun-
in the world.[8]
nels. However, on one test, flight threads were attached to
On June 22, 1942 Curtiss-Wright financed construction the surface of the wings, performing a wind tunnel type of
of one of the nation’s largest subsonic wind tunnels in test during an actual flight in order to refine the computa-
Buffalo, N.Y. The first concrete for building was poured tional model. Where external turbulent flow is present,
on June 22, 1942 on a site that eventually would be- CFD is not practical due to limitations in present day
come Calspan, where the largest independently-owned computing resources. For example, an area that is still
wind tunnel in the United States still operates. [9] much too complex for the use of CFD is determining the
By the end of World War Two, the US had built eight effects of flow on and around structures, bridges, terrain,
new wind tunnels, including the largest one in the world etc.
at Moffett Field near Sunnyvale, California, which was
designed to test full size aircraft at speeds of less than
250 mph[10] and a vertical wind tunnel at Wright Field,
Ohio, where the wind stream is upwards for the testing of
models in spin situations and the concepts and engineer-
ing designs for the first primitive helicopters flown in the
US.[11]

2.3 Post World War Two

Later research into airflows near or above the speed of

sound used a related approach. Metal pressure chambers
were used to store high-pressure air which was then ac-
celerated through a nozzle designed to provide supersonic
flow. The observation or instrumentation chamber (“test
section”) was then placed at the proper location in the
throat or nozzle for the desired airspeed.
In the United States, concern over the lagging of Ameri-
can research facilities compared to those built by the Ger-
mans lead to the Unitary Wind Tunnel Plan Act of 1949,
which authorized expenditure to construct new wind tun-
nels at universities and at military sites. Some German
war-time wind tunnels were dismantled for shipment to
the United States as part of the plan to exploit German Preparing a model in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel, a subsonic wind
technology developments.[12] tunnel at the University of Washington
 5

The most effective way to simulative external turbulent 3 How it works

flow is through the use of a boundary layer wind tunnel.
There are many applications for boundary layer wind tun-
nel modeling. For example, understanding the impact of
wind on high-rise buildings, factories, bridges, etc. can
help building designers construct a structure that stands
up to wind effects in the most efficient manner possi-
ble. Another significant application for boundary layer
wind tunnel modeling is for understanding exhaust gas
dispersion patterns for hospitals, laboratories, and other
emitting sources. Other examples of boundary layer wind
tunnel applications are assessments of pedestrian comfort
and snow drifting. Wind tunnel modeling is accepted as
a method for aiding in Green building design. For in-
stance, the use of boundary layer wind tunnel modeling
can be used as a credit for Leadership in Energy and Envi-
ronmental Design (LEED) certification through the U.S.
Green Building Council.

Six-element external balance below the Kirsten Wind Tunnel

Air is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a

viewing port and instrumentation where models or geo-
metrical shapes are mounted for study. Typically the air
is moved through the tunnel using a series of fans. For
Fan blades of Langley Research Center's 16 foot transonic wind very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a sin-
tunnel in 1990, before it was mothballed in 2004. gle large fan is not practical, and so instead an array of
multiple fans are used in parallel to provide sufficient air-
Wind tunnel tests in a boundary layer wind tunnel allow flow. Due to the sheer volume and speed of air movement
for the natural drag of the Earth’s surface to be simu- required, the fans may be powered by stationary turbofan
lated. For accuracy, it is important to simulate the mean engines rather than electric motors.
wind speed profile and turbulence effects within the at-
mospheric boundary layer. Most codes and standards rec- The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tun-
nel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion
ognize that wind tunnel testing can produce reliable infor-
mation for designers, especially when their projects are in (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when
it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the
complex terrain or on exposed sites.
fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not di-
In the USA many wind tunnels have been decommis- rectly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving
sioned in the last 20 years, including some historic fa- through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free
cilities. Pressure is brought to bear on remaining wind and laminar. To correct this problem, closely spaced ver-
tunnels due to declining or erratic usage, high electricity tical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the
costs, and in some cases the high value of the real estate turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the test-
upon which the facility sits. On the other hand CFD val- ing.
idation still requires wind-tunnel data, and this is likely
to be the case for the foreseeable future. Studies have Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a wind
been done and others are under way to assess future mili- tunnel is typically circular rather than square, because
tary and commercial wind tunnel needs, but the outcome there will be greater flow constriction in the corners of
remains uncertain.[13] More recently an increasing use of a square tunnel that can make the flow turbulent. A cir-
jet-powered, instrumented unmanned vehicles ["research cular tunnel provides a smoother flow.
drones"] have replaced some of the traditional uses of The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as
wind tunnels.[14] possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence that could
6 4 FLOW VISUALIZATION

impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls are therefore typically smoothly shaped to minimize tur-
induce some drag into the airflow, and so the object being bulence.
tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel, with
an empty buffer zone between the object and the tunnel
walls. There are correction factors to relate wind tunnel 4 Flow visualization
test results to open-air results.
The lighting is usually embedded into the circular walls Because air is transparent it is difficult to directly observe
of the tunnel and shines in through windows. If the light the air movement itself. Instead, multiple methods of
were mounted on the inside surface of the tunnel in a con- both quantitative and qualitative flow visualization meth-
ventional manner, the light bulb would generate turbu- ods have been developed for testing in a wind tunnel.
lence as the air blows around it. Similarly, observation is
usually done through transparent portholes into the tun-
nel. Rather than simply being flat discs, these lighting 4.1 Qualitative methods
and observation windows may be curved to match the
cross-section of the tunnel and further reduce turbulence • Smoke
around the window.
Various techniques are used to study the actual airflow • Tufts
around the geometry and compare it with theoretical re-
sults, which must also take into account the Reynolds
Tufts are applied to a model and remain attached during
number and Mach number for the regime of operation.
testing. Tufts can be used to gauge air flow patterns and
flow separation.
3.1 Pressure measurements
Pressure across the surfaces of the model can be mea-
sured if the model includes pressure taps. This can be
useful for pressure-dominated phenomena, but this only
accounts for normal forces on the body.

3.2 Force and moment measurements

1.75

1.5
Compilation of images taken during an alpha run starting at 0
degrees alpha ranging to 26 degrees alpha. Images taken at the
Coefficient of lift (Cl)

1.25
Kirsten Wind Tunnel using fluorescent mini-tufts. Notice how
1 separation starts at the outboard wing and progresses inward.
Notice also how there is delayed separation aft of the nacelle.
0.75

0.5

0.25

0
−10° −5° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°
Angle of attack (AoA)

A typical lift coefficient versus angle of attack curve.

With the model mounted on a force balance, one can mea-

sure lift, drag, lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching mo-
ments over a range of angle of attack. This allows one
to produce common curves such as lift coefficient versus
angle of attack (shown).
Fluorescent mini-tufts attached to a wing in the Kirsten Wind
Note that the force balance itself creates drag and poten- Tunnel showing air flow direction and separation. Angle of at-
tial turbulence that will affect the model and introduce tack ~ 12 degrees, speed ~120 Mph.
errors into the measurements. The supporting structures
 7

• Evaporating suspensions

Evaporating suspensions are simply a mixture of some

sort or fine powder, talc, or clay mixed into a liquid with
a low latent heat of evaporation. When the wind is turned
on the liquid quickly evaporates leaving behind the clay
in a pattern characteristic of the air flow.

Fog (water particle) wind tunnel visualization of a NACA 4412

airfoil at a low-speed flow (Re=20.000).

sheets function as streamlines over the test model when

illuminated by a light sheet.
Video of a wind tunnel fog visualization

• Sublimation

If the air movement in the tunnel is sufficiently non-

China clay on a wing in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel showing reverse
and span-wise flow.
turbulent, a particle stream released into the airflow will
not break up as the air moves along, but stay together
as a sharp thin line. Multiple particle streams released
• Oil from a grid of many nozzles can provide a dynamic three-
dimensional shape of the airflow around a body. As with
the force balance, these injection pipes and nozzles need
When oil is applied to the model surface it can clearly
to be shaped in a manner that minimizes the introduction
show the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as well
of turbulent airflow into the airstream.
as flow separation.
High-speed turbulence and vortices can be difficult to see
directly, but strobe lights and film cameras or high-speed
digital cameras can help to capture events that are a blur
to the naked eye.
High-speed cameras are also required when the subject of
the test is itself moving at high speed, such as an airplane
propeller. The camera can capture stop-motion images
of how the blade cuts through the particulate streams and
how vortices are generated along the trailing edges of the
moving blade.

5 Classification

Oil flow visible on a straight wing in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel. There are many different kinds of wind tunnels, an
Trip dots can be seen near the leading edge. overview is given in the list below:

• Low-speed wind tunnel

• Fog
• High-speed wind tunnel

Fog (usually from water particles) is created with an • Supersonic wind tunnel
ultrasonic piezoelectric nebulizer. The fog is transported • Hypersonic wind tunnel
inside the wind tunnel (preferably of the closed circuit &
closed test section type). An electrically heated grid is in- • Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
serted before the test section which evaporates the water
particles at its vicinity thus forming fog sheets. The fog Wind tunnels are also classified based on their main use.
8 5 CLASSIFICATION

5.1 Aeronautical wind tunnels • climatic tunnels - Used to evaluate the performance
of door systems, braking systems etc. under various
The main subcategories in the aeronautical wind tunnels climatic conditions. Most of the leading automobile
are manufacturers have their own climatic wind tunnels

5.1.1 High Reynolds number tunnels Wunibald Kamm “built the first full-scale wind tunnel for
motor vehicles.”[17]
Reynolds number is one of the governing similarity pa-
rameters for the simulation of flow in a wind tunnel. For
mach number less than 0.3, it is the primary parame- 5.3 Aeroacoustic tunnels
ter that governs the flow characteristics. There are three
main ways to simulate high Reynolds number, since it is
These tunnels are used in the studies of noise generated
not practical to obtain full scale Reynolds number by use
by flow and its suppression.
of a full scale vehicle.

• Pressurised tunnels - Here test gases are pressurised

to increase the Reynolds number.

• Heavy gas tunnels - Heavier gases like freon and R-

134a are used as test gases. The transonic dynamics
tunnel at NASA Langley is an example of such a
tunnel.

• Cryogenic tunnels - Here test gas is cooled down to

increase the Reynolds number. The European tran-
sonic wind tunnel uses this technique.

• High-Altitude Tunnels - These are designed to test

the effects of shock waves against various aircraft
shapes in near vacuum. In 1952 the University
of California constructed the first two high-altitude
wind tunnels. One for testing objects at 50 to 70
miles above earth and the second one for tests at 80
to 200 miles above earth.[15]

5.1.2 V/STOL tunnels

V/STOL tunnels require large cross section area, but only

small velocities. Since power varies with the cube of ve-
locity, the power required for the operation is also less.
An example for a V/STOL tunnel is the NASA Langley
14' X 22'tunnel.[16] Vertical wind tunnel T-105 at Central Aerohydrodynamic Insti-
tute, Moscow, built in 1941 for aircraft testing

5.1.3 Spin tunnels

Aircraft have a tendency to go to spin when they stall. 5.4 Aquadynamic flume
These tunnels are used to study that phenomenon.
The aerodynamic principles of the wind tunnel work
equally on watercraft, except the water is more viscous
5.2 Automobile tunnels and so sets greater forces on the object being tested. A
looping flume is typically used for underwater aquady-
Automobile tunnels are of two categories:
namic testing. The interaction between 2 different types
of fluids means that pure windtunnel testing is only partly
• external flow tunnels - Used to study the external relevant. However, a similar sort of research is done in a
flow through the chassis towing tank
 9

5.5 Low-speed oversize liquid testing or complicated shapes (such as a tall building with a
parabolic or a hyperbolic shape), cable suspension bridges
Air is not always the best test medium to study small- or cable stayed bridges are analyzed in specialized atmo-
scale aerodynamic principles, due to the speed of the air spheric boundary layer wind tunnels. These feature a long
flow and airfoil movement. A study of fruit fly wings de- upwind section to accurately represent the wind speed
signed to understand how the wings produce lift was per- and turbulence profile acting on the structure. Wind tun-
formed using a large tank of mineral oil and wings 100 nel tests provide the necessary design pressure measure-
times larger than actual size, in order to slow down the ments in use of the dynamic analysis and control of tall
wing beats and make the vortices generated by the insect buildings.[19][20]
wings easier to see and understand.[18]

5.6 Fan testing

6 See also

Wind tunnel tests are also performed to precisely measure • Automobile design
the air movement of fans at a specific pressure. By de- • Sting (fixture)
termining the environmental circumstances during mea-
surement, and by revising the air-tightness afterwards, the • Arsenal (Vienna), climatic wind tunnel centre used
standardization of the data is ensured. by the rail industry
There are two possible ways of measurement: a complete • Doriot Climatic Chambers, climatic wind tunnel
fan, or an impeller on a hydraulic installation. Two mea- centre operated by the United States military
suring tubes enable measurements of lower air currents
(< 30.000 m³/h) as well as higher air currents (< 60.000 • List of Wind Tunnels
m³/h). The determination of the Q/h curve of the fan is • Vertical wind tunnel, a recreational device simulat-
one of the main objectives. To determine this curve (and ing sky-diving
to define other parameters) air technical, mechanical as
well as electro technical data are measured: • Water tunnel, the hydrodynamics-oriented version
of a wind tunnel.
Air technical:

• Static pressure difference (Pa)

7 References
• Amount of moved air (m³/h)
[1] Going with the flow, Aerospace Engineering & Manufac-
• Average air speed (m/s) turing, March 2009, pp. 27-28 Society of Automotive
Engineers
• Specific efficiency (W/1000m³/h)
[2] Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils, P.B.S. Lissaman,
• Efficiency AeroVironment Inc., Pasadena, California, 91107

[3] Dodson, MG (2005). “An Historical and Applied Aero-

Electro technical:
dynamic Study of the Wright Brothers’ Wind Tunnel Test
Program and Application to Successful Manned Flight”.
• Tension (V) US Naval Academy Technical Report. USNA-334. Re-
trieved 2009-03-11.
• Current (A)
[4] “US Navy Experimental Wind Tunnel” Aerial Age Weekly,
• Cos φ 17 January 1916, pages 426-427

• Admitted power (W) fan / impeller [5] “Man Made Hurricane Tests Full Size Planes” Popular
Mechanics, January 1936, pp.94-95
• Rotations per minute (RPM)
[6] “400mph Wind Tests Planes” Popular Mechanics, July
1941
The measurement can take place on the fan or in the ap-
plication in which the fan is used. [7] “Video Player > Test Pilot discussion”. Space.co.uk. Re-
trieved 2011-06-28.

5.7 Wind engineering testing [8] Ernst Heinrich Hirschel, Horst Prem, Gero Madelung,
Aeronautical Research in Germany: From Lilienthal Un-
til Today Springer, 2004 ISBN 354040645X, page 87
In Wind Engineering, wind tunnel tests are used to mea-
sure the velocity around, and forces or pressures upon [9] “Calspan History > Wind Tunnel Construction”.
structures. Very tall buildings, buildings with unusual calspan.com. Retrieved 2015-04-23.
10 7 REFERENCES

[10] “Wind at Work For Tomorrow’s Planes.” Popular Science,

July 1946, pp. 66-72.

[11] “Vertical Wind Tunnel.” Popular Science, February 1945,

p. 73.

[12] http://www.arnold.af.mil/shared/media/document/
AFD-120305-099.pdf DAVID M. HIEBERT, PUBLIC
LAW 81-415: THE UNITARY WIND TUNNEL PLAN
ACT OF 1949 AND THE AIR ENGINEERING DEVEL-
OPMENT CENTER ACT OF 19491, 2002 retrieved 2014
04 03

[13] Goldstein, E., “Wind Tunnels, Don't Count Them Out,”

Aerospace America, Vol. 48 #4, April 2010, pp. 38-43

[14] Benjamin Gal-Or, “Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneu-

verability & Robot Aircraft”, Springer Verlag, 1990,
ISBN 0-387-97161-0, ISBN 3-540-97161-0

[15] “Windless Wind Tunnels for High Altitude Tests.” Popu-

lar Mechanics, February 1952, p. 105.

[16] 14'x22' Subsonic Wind Tunnel. Aeronautics.nasa.gov

(2008-04-18). Retrieved on 2014-06-16.

[17] “History (1930-1945)". Forschungsinstitut für Kraft-

fahrwesen und Fahrzeugmotoren Stuttgart. Retrieved 3
September 2010.

[18] "''Popular Science, Dec 2002''". Carlzimmer.com. Re-

trieved 2011-06-28.

[19] ALY, Aly Mousaad; Alberto Zasso and Ferruccio Resta

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(2011). “On the dynamics of a very slender building under
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• Jewel B Barlow, William H Rae,Jr, Allan Pope:

“Low speed wind tunnels testing” third edition ISBN
9788126525683
 11

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text
• Wind tunnel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind%20tunnel?oldid=658901784 Contributors: Mirwin~enwiki, JeLuF, PierreAb-
bat, Ortolan88, GrahamN, D, Liftarn, Mac, EdH, Palmpilot900, Charles Matthews, Andrewman327, David.Monniaux, BobDrzyzgula,
Twang, Jmabel, Mdrejhon, Pengo, Ancheta Wis, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Peruvianllama, RivGuySC, Toytoy, MementoVivere, Can-
terbury Tail, Mike Rosoft, Rich Farmbrough, Sladen, Qutezuce, Jcmaco, Shanes, Elipongo, Pearle, A2Kafir, Alansohn, Mac Davis, Pfooh,
Wtshymanski, Suruena, Gunter, Dziban303, Japanese Searobin, Commander Keane, Dzordzm, JRHorse, GregorB, Chlewey, Yuriybrisk,
BD2412, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, SeanMack, Margosbot~enwiki, Taichi, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, DMahalko, Stephenb,
Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Logawi, Howcheng, Vivaldi, Mysid, Doncram, Crisco 1492, Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, Georgepehli, Smack-
Bot, Canthusus, Fongs, Commander Keane bot, ErnestLehmann, Chris the speller, SchfiftyThree, TheGerm, KaiserbBot, Mr.Z-man,
Ian01, Plugimi, SimonasWikiBotLT~enwiki, Dl2000, Iridescent, The ed17, Dgw, Green caterpillar, DonFB, Zanhsieh, Settles1, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Marek69, A3RO, Wolfc01, Oldmanbiker, Thadius856, BokicaK, Prolog, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Lockan, VoABot II, Nyt-
tend, Bubba hotep, BatteryIncluded, BilCat, Mbubel, Gphoto, Mythealias, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Terrek, Stan J Klimas,
Thomas Larsen, M-le-mot-dit, KudzuVine, Gene Hobbs, Philip Trueman, Cosmic Latte, Plenumchamber~enwiki, Eddiehimself, Econ-
terms, Praveen pillay, Jeff220, ^demonBot2, Raymondwinn, Ilyushka88, Typ932, RaseaC, VectorVictor, SieBot, Dtom, BotMultichill,
Uwoljw, Cyfal, Vanhorn, WikiBotas, ClueBot, SoCalDonF, EMBaero, PipepBot, Saddhiyama, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Ex-
cirial, Jusdafax, TonyBallioni, ComputerGeezer, Sun Creator, 7&6=thirteen, Alexknight12, IJA, Kpuck1, ZooFari, MystBot, Good Ol-
factory, Fmm81can, Addbot, Fyrael, Hda3ku, Feťour, Leszek Jańczuk, PZierhut, Verbal, Lightbot, Flip, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Enisbayramoglu, Mattbondy, Materialscientist, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Sdcoonce, Jmundo, GrouchoBot, Dirrival, RibotBOT, Brutaldeluxe,
FrescoBot, De bezige bij, Pinethicket, Cobberv, Tenisotl, RedBot, Nbonneel, IVAN3MAN, UltimatesocCer, Vrenator, Vojtamraz,
DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Alymousaad, Jackehammond, Markos Strofyllas, EmausBot, Jbk12385, Goodlysheep, SamuelFreli, ClueBot NG,
Swdwolf, Flyingdreams, Denmueller, Kasirbot, Ventilationfans, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dawnsmessage, BG19bot, Cocle, Compfreak7, Lel-
lis.easc, BattyBot, C2joec2, Pratyya Ghosh, An d810, Dexbot, Mogism, Surfer43, Occhipinti47, Monkbot, Vdjole, Is Chewbacca racist?,
Nicholas1313, SteelDeadpool and Anonymous: 188

8.2 Images
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-17158,_Deutsche_Versuchsanstalt_für_Luftfahrt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-17158%2C_Deutsche_Versuchsanstalt_f%C3%BCr_Luftfahrt.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
• File:Cessna_182_model-wingtip-vortex.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Cessna_182_
model-wingtip-vortex.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BenFrantzDale
• File:Fog_visualization.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Fog_visualization.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Georgepehli
• File:GIF_Flow_visualization.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/GIF_Flow_visualization.gif License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory, Kirsten Wind Tunnel, www.uwal.org Original artist:
UWAL Crew
• File:Kirsten_wind_tunnel_05.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Kirsten_wind_tunnel_05.jpg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Photo by Joe Mabel Original artist: Joe Mabel
• File:Kirsten_wind_tunnel_08A.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Kirsten_wind_tunnel_08A.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Photo by Joe Mabel Original artist: Joe Mabel
• File:Lift_curve.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Lift_curve.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Vectorized by User:Mysid in Inkscape from Image:LiftCurve.gif.
Original artist: botag.
• File:Man_examining_fan_of_Langley_Research_Center_16_foot_transonic_wind_tunnel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Man_examining_fan_of_Langley_Research_Center_16_foot_transonic_wind_tunnel.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: NASA website; description,[1] high resolution image.[2] Original artist: NASA
• File:National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics_wind_tests_(1946).webm Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/18/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics_wind_tests_%281946%29.webm License: Public domain Contributors:
Youtube Original artist: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, for the US Navy
• File:Oil_flow_vis_on_straight_wing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Oil_flow_vis_on_straight_
wing.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory, Kirsten Wind Tunnel, www.uwal.org
Original artist: UWAL Crew
• File:Vertical_wind_tunnel_at_TsAGI.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Vertical_wind_tunnel_at_
TsAGI.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://flickr.com/photos/yuriybrisk/440082768/ Original artist: Yuriy Lapitskiy (User:
Yuriybrisk)
• File:WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Undead_warrior.
Original artist: Original uploader was Axda0002 at en.wikipedia
• File:Windkanal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Windkanal.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Windkanal.jpg Original artist: JeLuF
• File:Windtunnel2.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Windtunnel2.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
12 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Wing_air_flow_pattern.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Wing_air_flow_pattern.jpg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory, Kirsten Wind Tunnel, www.uwal.org Original artist:
UWAL Crew
• File:Wing_with_minitufts.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Wing_with_minitufts.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory,
Kirsten Wind Tunnel,
www.uwal.org Original artist: UWAL Crew

8.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0