PHILOSOPHY o Ethics – deals with moral questions/dilemmas (what is

good or bad)
LESSON 1 – WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? o Metaphysics – deals with questions of reality beyond and
space. (we witness and experience)
PHILOSOPHY
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY:
o The knowledge of the eternal and essential nature of things
o Primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through
o Highest branch of knowledge to harmonize and systemize all
systematic argumentation and theory.
truths and arrive at a rational understanding of reality as a whole,
o Philosophers wants everything to be explained by valid
both in its eternal and temporal aspects.
reasons.
o Discovery of new things/emphasizing of knowledge/nature of
o From western continent; 6th century: first philosophical
things
schools emerged in Greece.
o Came from 2 Greek words: philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom),
o Pre-socratics (Physiologoi) – first philosophers; beliefs are
“Love of wisdom”
based on natural principle rather than the actions of
o 2000 BCE: Asian communities had thriving schools of beliefs
supernatural God; primarily preoccupied with the study of
and thoughts
nature and the universe.
o Sophists – taught a way of argumentation called Eristic
HUMAN PHILOSOPHY
which aimed to win arguments rather than arrive at the
o Examines fundamental characteristics that identify life as a
truth; they were excellent public speakers and traveled
properly human life, asks about its ultimate meaning or purpose,
throughout Greece to teach young people a wide array of
and raises questions about what counts as a good life.
subjects; their central belief is that man doesn’t need to
o It also covers Existentialism (inquires about the nature of
know all the things in the world, but one must continue to
existence) inquire and seek to understand about the human condition.
PHILOSOPHY AS SCIENCE OR A ART? 3 GREATEST PHILOSOPHERS OF ALL TIME:
o Philosophy before science o Socrates (470 BCE – 399 BC)
 Philosophy – deals with questions for which there’s no  Foremost philosopher of ancient time and made a
currently agreed upon systematic way of answering those great contributions to the field of ethics.
questions.
 Did not claim himself a “wise” but instead, a
 Science – deals with questions for which there is an agreed- “midwife”
upon systematic way of answering those questions.
 Believed that philosophy could enable man to live a
o Philosophical thought reflects its subject-matter in concepts, in
life of virtue.
categories. Every perception is different from t other. There is no
 Known for his method of delivery: Socratic method
right or wrong answer.
(means of examining a topic by devising a series of
questions)
 Art in Philosophy – it’s in the idea of a person and how he
 “One thing only I know, and that is I know nothing.”
conceptualizes it in abstract or realistic forms.
 Science in Philosophy – the study of the principles of o Plato (427 BCE – 347 BCE)
scientific inquiry, from a metaphysical perspective, all
 A student of Socrates
comes from an idea.
IDEA = FRAMEWORK = VALIDATION =SCIENCE  Formulated Theory of forms: the visible world is
made of senses; the intelligible world gives its
Curiosity drives a man to philosophize. meaning; everything that exists is based on an idea
that can only be perceived in the mind, these
IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY: nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging.
o It enhances our sense of wonder – curiosity  His teaching and writings are considered as the
o We doubt. foundation of Western philosophy
o Of our experience.  Wrote “Republic” that discussed what he proposed as
the ideal society and ideal form of government ruled
o Of the love for wisdom – we want to learn something new.
by wisdom and reason (Idealisn)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY:
o Opens a way of analyzing framework.
 Dialectic: a method of inquiry where two opposing
 Internal questions
ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at a new
 External questions knowledge.
o Examination of a particular area of a knowledge.
 Founded Academy: an institution of higher learning
o Its own area of knowledge has its own goals, concerns and way which was the first of its kind in the west.
of doing things.  “As vessels make the loudest sound, so that they have
o A method of mental exercise. least with are the greatest babblers.”
o A reflective and meditative activity.
o Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE)
 Attended the Academy, a student of Plato
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY:  Believed that all ideas and views are based on
o Aesthetics – deals with beauty perception and our reality is based on what we can
o Logic – deals with correct reasoning sense and perceive.
o Epistemology – study of knowledge  Involved in variety of disciplines such as zoology,
o Political philosophy –deals with government, justice, psychology, ethics and politics.
power, rights
  Deductive reasoning: the process by which specific  Second largest religion in the world
statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or  Name of God: Allah – the only creator of the universe
generalization. and is equivalent to God.
 Founded his own school called Lyceum.
 Founder: Muhammad from Saudi Arabia
 Sacred place: the Kaaba (holiest site); Mecca and
OTHER FAMOUS WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS: Medina (2 holiest city in Islam)
 Holy book: Qur’an
o Pythagoras (570 BCE – 495 BCE)  Sacred word of God
 First to call himself a “Philosopho”  Intended to correct any errors in previous holy
 Credited with the formulation of Pythagorean books such as Old & New Testament
Theorem  Believed to be revealed by God through
 He wanted to calculate everything by Math various prophets throughout human’s history.
 Established a community of learners who were  Final revelation of God to mankind;
devoted to the study of religion and philosophy completion and confirmation of previous
scriptures
o Heraclitus (535 BCE – 475 BCE)  Some information are found in Hebrew bible
 Proposed that everything that exists is based on  Types of religion:
higher order or what he called “logos”  Sunni – they believe that Muhammad chose
 Change is a permanent aspect of human condition. Abu Bakr as his successor;
 “You cannot step twice into the same river, for fresh - believes that Muhammad has no right to
waters are ever flowing upon you.” choose a religious leader, they should vote;
- largest denomination of Islam (87-90% of
o Democritus (460 BCE – 370 BCE) the world’s muslims);
 He studied the natural causes of phenomena - “Sunnah” – behaviour of the Islamic prophet
 Was among the first to propose that matter is - Southeast Asia. China, South asia, Africa,
composed of tiny particles called “Atoms” part of Arab world
 Shia – believes that a prophet can only be
o Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE – 323 BCE) appointed by God
 An advocate of simple and virtuous life - they believe God chose Ali to be
Muhammad’s successor.
 For him, one should show his good moral attitude not
 5 pillars: (Ritual Obligations)
only through words but actions.
 Also known as a vocal critic of well-known  Shahada (Profession of faith)
philosophers like Plato and Aristotle  Salat (Salat)
 Development of Cyanicism and Stoicism.  Zakat (Alms)
 Sawm (fasting)
 Hajj (Pilgrimage)

o Shintoism
o Archimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)  Originated in Japan
 Earlier mathematician  No founder; only collective action
 Greatest contributions on physical science and  Polytheist type
mathematics  Believe in Amaterasu: Goddess of Sun
 Was considered a leading scientist in ancient times  Practices “Naturalism”
 His inquiries in mathematics gave rise to modern  More likely a cult
calculus  The material and spiritual world are closely
 Use of mathematics to analyze natural phenomena connected
 Discovered Archimedes screw: a device for raising  Rituals and traditions are a way to connect with the
water and a method for determining volume using spiritual world
displacement.  Harmony and balance are essential in maintaining
purity
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY:
o Consists of schools of thoughts which are often closely tied LESSON 2 – DOING PHILOSOPHY
with religious beliefs. o Reality Question
o Their ideas are as a whole  What is real and not based on our perception;
o Believes the events are caused by a being existence of things within and beyond our
perception
RELIGIONS:  Associated with Ontology: study of existence to
o Islam establish coherent knowledge
 (How to determine if things are really existing or - most imperfect
not) - subjective
 Concrete reality – exists physically – - there’s no uniformity here
empirical  Moral Philosophy: study or morality; morality
 Abstract reality –does not physically questions are best answered with it
exist; within our mind – introspection  Absolute morality – established; it is what it is
o Certainty Questions  Personalized Morality – established by someone
 Belief in absolute and certain truth; highest form who wants to redirect the morality
of knowledge
 Perfect knowledge that is free from error or doubt PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS
 Whether the knowledge is true or not  Finding the appropriate tool to answer the inquiry
 Since it is impossible to have a knowledge that is
free from doubt, Skepticism is associated with it. o Systematic Doubt (Rene Descartes)
We doubt to search for the truth. We carefully  Setting aside ideas through doubt to formulate an
examine each concept before accepting things. absolute truth/concept
 Epistemology – study of knowledge;  To assume s little as possible and understand the
EPISTEMOLOGY BY NATURE OR concept as much as possible
EPISTEMOLOGY BY EXTENT  Skepticism – each concept is carefully analyzed
 Immanuel Kant – he said that knowledge has 2 to determine its validity
types:  3 fundamental steps:
 Priori – reasoning-based – rationalism  Classification – objective or subjective;
 Posteriori – experience – based – categorize the type of knowledge
empiricism acquired by the senses
 Conceptual vs. Abstract reality
- knowledge must be hidden from
o Casuality Questions dreams
 Questions of cause and effect - truth is generated through our minds
 Occurrence of events has a reason – cause and - reality vs. illusion
effect relationship - if it is really true or not
 Events must have explanation  Hyperbolic doubt – the malicious
 Question of purpose deceiver; unexplainable events caused
 Could be about Origin (Destiny), Human Agency by mystical figures
(Determinism; man controls his actions), Purpose
(Teleology; ultimate cause) o Argument
 Etiology: studies casuality  Deductive – fact wise, provable
 Teleology: deals with the question of purpose  Inductive – unlikely to happen/to be true (occurs
in abstract ideas); weak argument
o Ethical Question
o Dialectic (Plato)
 Moral standards in human behaviour
 Battle between good and evil  Prima Facie (Primary facts)
 Moral subjectivism – morality is determined  Proposition (Socrates) – supports
by you alone as an individual affirmative, positive side
 Cultural relativism – morality can be  Opposition (Hegel) – contradicts the
determined by t he society; they determine the issue
good and bad for you, you follow  Limitations: deals with means, not an end.
 Ethical Egoism – althruism (helping others; - they can’t answer the idea
selfless) - focused on skills if the people can answer the
- man is inherently selfish idea.
- help other people so all of you could get on
top altogether o Socratic method
 Divine Command Theory – morality can be  Other questions that are being asked are not
determined by religion – there’s a prize in the relevant
end  Limitations: Some questions are posing without
 Traditional virtues – by Aristotle; if you’re purpose
happy with what you’re doing, then you are o Axioms
doing right.  Presumed true without truth; general assumptions
 Utilitarianism – happiness by many;  Limitations: Unprovable assumptions
happiness on the population o Occam’s razor
  simplifies complex assumptions  The number of people matters; if many agrees
 Limitation: curb on detailed ideas
o Formal Logic o Pragmatic theory
 Systemized and validated structure of elements  Truth based on practice/experience
 Limitation: ideas on abstract and God cannot be  Ideas need to be tested first to consider it as truth
proven  Uses verificationism
 Objection: can be applied in multiple disciplines
o Allegory
 Rhetorical description of an idea through FALLACIES
scenarios and stories o Ad hominem
 Fantasy; we don’t know if it is still true  Attacking the person making the argument
 Limitation: disguises natural meaning instead of the argument itself; personal
 “Girl, you’re just with a pretty face, just stick
LESSON 3 – DETERMINING TRUTH with being an influencer and don’t meddle with
Truth intellectual issues.”
 The body of real things, events and facts o Appeal to force
 Essential to form validity and acceptance  Using the threat of force or an undesirable event
 Truth is intermediate to advance an argument
 Can be validated; real  “Say ‘sorry master’ o magbe-break tayo!”
 Free from doubt
o Appeal to emotion
o Correspondence theory  Using emotions such as pity or sympathy
 Truth based on reality; relies on what we observe;  “Academic freeze now! It’s hurting my mental
observable by the sense or beyond well-being!”
 The true beliefs display the right kind of o Appeal to the popular
similarity to what is believed is a reflection of the  The ideas is presented as acceptable because a lot
older concept. of people accept it
 Metaphysics: explains the nature of truth  “Age doesn’t matter, as long as you love each
 Relies on common sense other.”
 Objection: too narrow, no moral facts o Appeal to tradition
 The idea is acceptable because it has been true for
o Coherence theory a long time
 Truth based on perspective  “We’re men. It’s in our nature to cheat.”
 Truth of any (true) proposition is its compatibility o Circular argument/Begging the Question
with some specific set of proposals  Assuming the things or idea to be proven is true
 Uses relativism  “Revilla is not lying, because he is an honest
 Objection: Have no grounds for saying that (1) is person.”
false and (2) true o Cause-and-effect
 Limitations: If opinionated  Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship
between unrelated events
o Constructivist theory  “I got poor sales today. Ghost month eh.”
 Truth based on culture and history o Fallacy of composition
 Reality is constructed by human being  Assuming that what is true for a part is true for
 Human established it the whole
 Could be based on a tradition or history  “Most of the scholars are taking Accountancy
 Contingent on convention, human perception and course. So, Accountancy is the best course to
social experience take.”
 Objection: Can be applied in multiple disciplines o Fallacy of division
 Limitation: When brought on other disciplines, it  Assuming that what is true for the whole is true
may not be true for its parts
 “Stay away, ching chong! You Chinese people
o Consensus theory are the reason why we have pandemic now!”
 Truth based on agreement; could also be shaped
by cultures or facts BIASES
 What the majority of the public agrees upon, is - one sided argument
true - when used, it could lead to: Discrimination, Exclusion and
 Objection: Minority is left out; blinded by actual Distortion of facts
facts -personal views of the person
  Productivity
o Attribution effect  Self-interest for satisfaction
 Bias based on a strong perception of person  John Stuart Mill
 Judging a person based on behaviour o Theological perspective
 Internal (Personality)  Man has a special relationship with its creator,
Ex: She’s wearing skimpy clothes God
today. What a sl*t.  Man is created good, all created things properly
 External (Situational) end in giving glory to God
Ex: She’s wearing skimpy clothes.  Man’s existence is a part of divine plan.
She’s going to a bar and flirt.
o Confirmation bias THE PERSON AND SELF
 Closed-minded type of bias o Self – the inner point of view
 Interpret facts to justify existing beliefs, rejecting  Innate – essential; soul; we experience feelings
other facts.  Emergent – Socialization; Ubuntu
 Example: Chivalry is obviously dead, No guy  Integrated and developing – homogenous and
gave up his seat for me?! I’m a girl, I deserve a heterogenous)
seat! o Personhood – holistic attribute of a human consisting body
o Framing and soul
 Accepting one absolute reason without looking at  Autonomous being – freewill
the other aspects  Unified individual – functional
 Interpret facts based on how the information was  Relation to others – interactions with co-humans
presented, and focusing on just one possible fact. *Person and self is reserved for humans
 Example: ABS-CBN did not get a franchise *Recognition of mental capacities, freewill, granting rights should be
renewal because they hurt Duterte’s feelings. given to any human, regardless of social standing and condition.
 Example: P199 + Shipping Fee (worth P80) P279
Free shipping!!!
o Hindsight
 Predictability (prediction on the beginning is the
basis)
 Enables people to be persuaded after an
occurrence that they predicted it correctly before LESSON 5 – PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY
it happened.
 Memory distortion (prediction or foresight) – Spirit – the seat of emotions and character; the unity of the soul and
Inevitability (process) – Predictability (where conciousness
bias arises)
o Conflict of Interest GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON SPIRITUALITY
 Favors those who can’t benefit - Secular religion places the emphasis on the spiritual with the
 Example: Marcos vs. ABS-CBN presence of God. Spirituality is linked with God
o Cultural biases - Spiritual philosophy is focused on human concepts. There’s
something bigger than just humans.
 Any changes in the cultural belief will make
o Religious
biases
 Spirit is embodied within us. Spirit is created by God
 Interpret facts based on cultural standards
o Philosophical
 Example: Women entering male-dominant jobs
 Plato: believed that the human spirit or soul is
 Example: Divorce
composed of three parts: logos (the mind or reason),
 Example: Abortion
thymos (spirit), epithymia (appetite); man can only
fully function when these three parts are working
LESSON 4 – THE HUMAN PERSON
together
o Biological perspective
 Aristotle: believed that the soul is not independent of
 Evolution of physical features
the body but it is integrated into the human being
 Early skills
 Establishment of culture CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPIRIT
o Psychological perspective o Finite
 Human behaviour, cognitive skills o Immaterial
 Mental side o Essential element for the salvation
 Mental faculties o Embodied on human body
o Economic perspective
 Capable of doing activities to meet his wants and MIND-BODY ARGUMENTS AND PROPONENTS:
needs
 o Monism  Depicts God as existing outside the material
 Body and soul are united world and whose presence is beyond physical
 When the body dies, the soul also dies laws and human knowledge and understanding
 Aristotle: anima  Immanuel Kant: Human transcendence is based
 St. Aquinas: the whole is the total sum of its parts on rationality.

o Dualism
 Body and soul are distinct with each other
 When the body dies, the soul lives.
 Plato: Theory of forms
BELIEFS:
 Descartes: doubt
o Panentheistic view – God is both beyond and within the
 Avicenna: self-awareness
universe
o Pantheistic view – God is an all-encompassing presence in
THEOLOGICAL VIEWS ON MIND-BODY PROBLEM
the universe and has no distinct presence as an entity
o Trichotomic view – body, soul, spirit
o Pandeistic view – where God was a distinct entity but lost
o Dichotomic view – body and spirit
this state when he transformed himself into the universe.
o Psychosomatic view – unitary construction of the three

6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOD
o Omniscience – all – knowing LESSON 6 – MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
o Omnipotence – all powerful
o Omnipresence – ever – present ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
o Benevolence – all – loving  Creates habitats
o Divine Simplicity – Goodness himself  Sustains our survival
o Eternal – timeless and has no end
ENVIRONMENT
4 ARGUMENTS OF GOD’S EXISTENCE  An erratic place/thing that needs to be transformed by
o Ontological argument tools of science and technology to be serviceable by
 Establishing the real (as opposed to abstract) humans.
existence of some entity.  Just a commodity to sustain man’s survival
o Teleological argument  Subject for disposal
 The world exhibits an intelligent purpose based
on experience from nature 2 GENERAL PERSPECTIVE
 There must be an intelligent designer to account o Stewardship Spirit
for the observed purpose and order  Man is a steward of environment
o Cosmological argument  Man’s choice in action influences the unfolding
 A personal being (God) exists that cause and/or phenomena in the environment
sustains the universe  Spirit of coexistence (man recognize that environment
 In cause (casuality); is essential for him. Man & environment is
 In esse (essentiality) interdependent on each other) vs. noncoexistence (man
 Infieri (becoming) doesn’t acknowledge the importance of environment.
o Moral argument Instead of protecting, man will overpower the
 Moral values exist because God exists environment
 God wills something because he is good.
o Man as a summit of creation
GOD’S ROLE IN OUR LIVES  Man is gifted rational will; bears image of creator – St.
o Redemptive salvation – it is through him that saving faith is Augustine
effected.  Man has moral obligation nature
o Divine providence – he is by our side as he gives us  Man’s action is good for the other (environment) –
blessings, miracles, divine inspiration and revealation. Emmanuel Levinas
 Man must take care if the nature
GOD’S PRESENCE IS EITHER:
o Immanent PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
 Regards God as manifesting himself in the world o Instrumentalism
as a unique entity; God has image  Man sees value in the environment
o Transcendence  Man takes care of the environment because it is a
medium in establishing society and civilization
 Environment is the instrument towards man’s progress
  If you see the beauty in it, protect it.
o Axiology  Natural beauty = preserving order and balance of
 Man values nature by beauty which demands him to environment
protect it.
 Reflection and imagination
o Anthropological approach
 Centered on the benefits of human
 The value of the environment comes from the
authority; unveils man’s best interest

o Utilitarianism
 Focused on how man people would be happy
 Man’s treatment on environment is right if
majority of the people are happy

o Natural Law Ethics

 Man should be good because he is the closest
image of God.
 Man’s goodness is manifested from God’s
goodness
 Environment is created for human’s well-being

o Virtue Ethics perspective

 Man will take care of what should be taken care
of
 The act of caring and respecting becomes our
second nature
 Extends on environment; extends on non-physical
things

OTHER PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS:

o Environmental Philosophy – moral relationship of man and
non-human forms
o Anthropocentrism – human-centered approach
o Gaia hypothesis – organic & non-organic matters are
integrated; earth can live on its own w/out humans ,
humans can’t live without earth
o Theological view – man is tasked by God to subdue the
earth
o Deep Ecology – giving importance on all living things;
protect and preserve everything

PHILOSOPICAL MOVEMENTS
o Environmental ethics
 We provide value by imposing policies
 Provide moral grounds for policies aimed at
protecting the earth’s environment and remedying
environmental degradation
o Social Ecology
 Larger scale
 Society must structure policies at pair with
environmental problems

o Climate Justice
 Policies on climate change
o Environmental Justice
 Equitable distribution of benefits
o Environmental Aesthetics