General Structure and Writing Style

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you
to effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social
sciences research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally
entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program,
or to accurately describe a phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their
investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about what information is
required to answer the study's research questions. Without attending to these design
issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and unconvincing and,
consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall research problem.
 Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but
any sound design will do the following things:

1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the
problem selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially
an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed
and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is
carried out (the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations
are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and
the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement
able solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature
and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several
interventions and evaluations.
What do these studies tell you?

1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or
community situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing
theories.
3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the
amount they learn consciously from their experience. The action research cycle
can also be regarded as a learning cycle.
 4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the researcher

takes on responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for research.
2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t use a
standard format to report your findings effectively.
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g.
change) and research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming and complex to
conduct.

Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action Research.

8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin
McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research.
Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Locoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
2000), pp. 567-605.; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action
Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.
Case Study Design
Definition and Purpose
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
sweeping statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of
research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research
design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to
phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about a
phenomenon.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through

detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and
rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through
previous research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of
concepts and theories and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
What these studies don't tell you?

1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to
generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
2. The intense exposure to study of the case may bias a researcher's interpretation
of the findings.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being
investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or
unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your intepretation of the findings
can only apply to that particular case.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 4, Flexible Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory.
Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
2003.
Causal Design
Definition and Purpose
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of
conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to
measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions.
Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal
effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an
independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another
phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:

 Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association

between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
 Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved, one must see
that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation
in the dependent variable.
 Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to
variation in a third variable.

What do these studies tell you?

 1. Causality research designs helps researchers understand why the world works
the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables
and eliminating other possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
3. There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic
subject selection and equity of groups being compared.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Not all relationships are casual! The possibility always exists that, by sheer
coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil
could accurately predict the duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the
fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
2. Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety
of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This
means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
3. If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However,
even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult
to determine which variable comes first and therefore to establish which variable
is the actual cause and which is the  actual effect.

Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice.

Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed.  Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge
Press, 2007; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare
Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 11,
Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn
and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.
Cohort Design
Definition and Purpose
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a
cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving
members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and
who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a
cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united
by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being
investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population.
Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of
observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

 Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los

Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of
 the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and
exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study
population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate
rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
 Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical
trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time
and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given
this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).

What do these studies tell you?

1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may
be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos,
you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed.
Research that measures risk factors  often relies on cohort designs.
2. Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has
occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome,
thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time
and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural,
political, economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the
effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher
cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups.
These factors are known as confounding variables.
2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must
wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases
the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially
impacting the validity of the findings.
3. Because of the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is
lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns
participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse

Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36;  Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort
Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb
Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort
Study. Wikipedia.
Cross-Sectional Design
Definition and Purpose
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension, a
reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups
are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-
sectional design can only measure diffrerences between or from among a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change. As such, researchers using this
design can only employ a relative passive approach to making causal inferences based
on findings.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the

characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
2. Unlike the experimental design where there is an active intervention by the
researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-
sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing
differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal
studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-
sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one
moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing
differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects
and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually
taken from the whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data,
they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in
one specific variable can be difficult.
2. Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a
sequence of events or reveal historical contexts.
3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
4. Provide only a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study
could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
5. There is no follow up to the findings.
Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research
Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen
Barratt, Maria Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design, Application, Strengths and
Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional
Study. Wikipedia.
Descriptive Design
Definition and Purpose
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what,
when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive
study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to
obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe
"what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
What do these studies tell you?

1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural

environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely
influence the normal behavior of the subject.
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively
research designs, the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what
variables are worth testing quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more
focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
5. Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The results from a descriptive research can not be used to discover a definitive
answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
2. Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to
quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for
measurement and observation.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999;  McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies.
Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn. Descriptive Research Design,
September 26, 2008. Explorable.com website.
Experimental Design
Definition and Purpose
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all
factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher
attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used
where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is
consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and
the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an
experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to
the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on
the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more
groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have
control, randomization, and manipulation.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing,

it allows researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between
variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations
and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of
ethical or technical reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to  experimental
designed research studies.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental Designs. School of
Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Experimental Research. Research
Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno,
2006; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design. Research Methods Knowledge
Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental Research. Slideshare presentation.
Exploratory Design
Definition and Purpose
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no
earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later
investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible
insights:

 Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.

 Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
 Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or
hypotheses.
 Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new
research questions.
 Direction for future research and techniques get developed.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular

topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types
(what, why, how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop
more precise research problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are
typically not generalizable to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive
conclusions about the findings.
3. The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often
unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value in decision-
making.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and
analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what
method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and

Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89;
Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City
Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research.
Wikipedia.
Historical Design
Definition and Purpose
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize
evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses
secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs,
diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures,
audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic
and valid.
What do these studies tell you?

1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect
the results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important contextual background required to more
fully understand and interpret a research problem.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the
findings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research
problems or to replicate a previous study.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount
and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
2. Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to
manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
3. Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
4. The sources of historical materials must be archived consistentally to ensure
access.
5. Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of
past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical
resources.
6. Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak
with regard to the demands of internal validity.
7. It rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a
research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be
acknowledged.
Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn,
1980): 52-58;  Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 16,
Historical Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.
Longitudinal Design
Definition and Purpose
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to
relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal
research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two
or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. It is a type of observational study and is sometimes referred to as
a panel study.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Longitudinal data allow the analysis of duration of a particular phenomenon.

2. Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations
usually attainable only with experiments.
3. The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from
one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon
earlier factors.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The data collection method may change over time.

2. Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended
period of time.
3. It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
4. This design often needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations in the data.
5. A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
6. It can take a long period of time to gather results.
7. There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach
representativness.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1999; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal
Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J.
Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of
Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal Study.
Wikipedia.
Observational Design
Definition and Purpose
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a
control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment.
There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people
know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for
studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An
observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical
and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be

structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe (data is
emergent rather than pre-existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular
behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group
interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important
before applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation researchd esigns account for the complexity of group behaviors.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again
may be a time consuming task and difficult to replicate.
2. In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population
and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
3. There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want
to see."
4. There is no possiblility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since
nothing is manipulated.
5. Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
6. Any group that is studied is altered to some degree by the very presence of the
researcher, therefore, skewing to some degree any data collected (the
Heisenburg Uncertainty Principle).
Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.”
In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research
Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno,
2006; Patton Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods. Chapter
6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2002; Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies. New York:
Springer, 2010.
Philosophical Design
Definition and Purpose
Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a
methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to
challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of
study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical
traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for
example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze
arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about
a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:

 Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is
real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
 Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on
what does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be
certain of what we know?
 Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or
group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience,
and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a
matter of value?

What do these studies tell you?

1. Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.

2. Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge
about the purposes of research.
3. Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
4. Philosophy informs methodology.
5. Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of
thought and discourse.
6. Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about
epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
7. Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms,
concepts, and ideas.
What these studies don't tell you?

1. Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?"

question in social science research].
2. Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to
real-life issues.
3. While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once
simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary
jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
4. There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical
analysis.
5. There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and
between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.

Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository

(UnisaIR), University of South Africa;  Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The
Philosophical Problem of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January
2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and
Practical Guide. Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, 1994; Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.
Sequential Design
Definition and Purpose
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate, staged approach [i.e.
serially] where one stage will be completed, followed by another, then another, and so
on, with the aim that each stage will build upon the previous one until enough data is
gathered over an interval of time to test your hypothesis. The sample size is not
predetermined. After each sample is analyzed, the researcher can accept the null
hypothesis, accept the alternative hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects and
conduct the study once again. This means the researcher can obtain a limitless
number of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept the null or
alternative hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a sequential study generally
utilizes sampling techniques to gather data and applying statistical methods to analze
the data. Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize samples of
individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative methods, such as
interviews or observations, to gather information from each sample.
 
What do these studies tell you?

1. The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the
sampling schedule.
 2. Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and
adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone
the research method. Useful design for exploratory studies.
3. There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this
technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce extensive.
4. Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known
before the next sample is taken and analyzed.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only
possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to
use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion
of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more
sample can be difficult.
2. Because the sampling technique is not randomized, the design cannot be used
to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population.
Generalizability from findings is limited.
3. Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over
time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.

Rebecca Betensky, Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Cresswell, John

W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed
Methods in Social and Behavioral Research. Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle,
eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-240; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using
Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field
Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk.
“Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J. Salkind, ed.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.
Quantitative Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.
Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the
results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful understanding of
these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes
accordingly.

An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of

time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient
satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did
a doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other
such questions.

Gather research insights

 Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the
statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In this
research method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and
theories that pertain to the quantity under question.

Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even
investigational. The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and
unbiased. Data collection happened using a structured method and conducted on larger
samples that represent the entire population.

As mentioned above, quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two methods to

conduct quantitative research. They are:

 Primary quantitative research methods

 Secondary quantitative research methods
Primary quantitative research methods
There are four different types of quantitative research methods:

Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of conducting market
research. The distinct feature of primary research is that the researcher focuses on
collecting data directly rather than depending on data collected from previously done
research. Primary quantitative research design can be broken down into three further
distinctive tracks, as well as the process flow. They are:

A. Techniques and Types of Studies

There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be distinguished into
the four following distinctive methods, which are:

1. Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research
methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents,
using various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-
intercept surveys, etc. Every small and big organization intends to understand what their
customers think about their products and services, how well are new features faring in the
market and other such details.

By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey questions, collect
data from a pool of customers, and analyze this collected data to produce numerical
results. It is the first step towards collecting data for any research.

This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can
be conducted across multiple groups along with comparative analysis. A prerequisite for
this type of research is that the sample of respondents must have randomly selected
members. This way, a researcher can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained results
 as a huge variety of respondents will be addressed using random selection. Traditionally,
survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress
made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread to
online mediums as well.

Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the
progress made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has
spread to online mediums as well.

There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time in-hand
and the kind of data required:

Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted

in situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target
population at a given point in time. Researchers can evaluate various variables at a
particular time. Data gathered using this type of survey is from people who depict similarity
in all variables except the variables which are considered for research. Throughout the
survey, this one variable will stay constant.

 Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries.

Information is garnered without modifying any parameters in the variable ecosystem.
 Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be analyzed
and compared.
 Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.
 The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect
relationship of variables cannot be established as it usually evaluates variables at a
particular time and not across a continuous time frame.
Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike
cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time durations
to observe a change in respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time can be
days, months, years, or even decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the
change in buying habits of teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.

 In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given point in

time, and in longitudinal surveys, different variables can be analyzed at different
intervals of time.
 Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and applied
sciences. Apart from these two fields, they are also used to observe a change in the
market trend, analyze customer satisfaction, or gain feedback on products/services.
 In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential, longitudinal surveys
are used.
 Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be thoroughly
inspected before concluding, they rely on longitudinal surveys.
2. Correlational research:
 A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to
establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other
and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried
out to give value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different
groups are required to conduct this quantitative research method successfully. Without
assuming various aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be
established.

Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more variables using
mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
concluded as they exist in their original set up. The impact of one of these variables on the
other is observed along with how it changes the relationship between the two variables.
Researchers tend to manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results.

Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on correlational research. This
is because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

 The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.
3. Causal-comparative research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called quasi-
experimental research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers to
conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is
dependent on the other independent variable. The independent variable is established but
not manipulated, and its impact on the dependent variable is observed. These variables or
groups must be formed as they exist in the natural set up. As the dependent and
independent variables will always exist in a group, it is advised that the conclusions are
carefully established by keeping all the factors in mind.

Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables

but extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change under the influence of
the same changes. This research is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that
exists between two or more variables. Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the
outcome obtained using this quantitative research method.

Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

 The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.
4. Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a theory.
Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories.
This theory has not been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In experimental
research, an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This research
method is used in natural sciences.Traditional research methods are more effective than
modern techniques.

There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a statement that can
be verified or refuted.

After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is valid or
invalid. This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social
sciences as there are various statements which need to be proved right or wrong.

 Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.

 Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with the
course.
 It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.
Gather research insights

B. Data collection methodologies

The second major step in primary quantitative research is data collection. Data collection
can be divided into sampling methods and data collection with the use of surveys and
polls.

Data collection methodologies: Sampling methods

There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability and Non-
probability sampling.

Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population

and create samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random
selection processes. Each member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be
selected in the sample.

There are four main types of probability sampling:

 Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling is

nothing but a random selection of elements for a sample. This sampling technique is
implemented where the target population is considerably large.
 Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a large
population is divided into groups (strata), and members of a sample are chosen
 randomly from these strata. The various segregated strata should ideally not overlap
one another.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using which
the main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic and demographic
segmentation parameters.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting point
of the sample is chosen randomly, and all the other elements are chosen using a fixed
interval. This interval is calculated by dividing the population size by the target sample
size.
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the researcher’s
knowledge and experience are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the
researcher, not all the members of a target population have an equal probability of being
selected to be a part of a sample.

There are five non-probability sampling models:

 Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a sample are

chosen only due to one prime reason: their proximity to the researcher. These samples
are quick and easy to implement as there is no other parameter of selection involved.
 Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience
sampling, except for the fact that researchers can choose a single element or a group of
samples and conduct research consecutively over a significant period and then perform
the same process with other samples.
 Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements using
their knowledge of target traits and personalities to form strata. Members of various
strata can then be chosen to be a part of the sample as per the researcher’s
understanding.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target audiences, which
are difficult to contact and get information. It is popular in cases where the target
audience for research is rare to put together.
 Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method
where samples are created only based on the researcher’s experience and skill.
Data collection methodologies: Using surveys & polls

Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed to collect
the data for quantitative research.

 Using surveys for primary quantitative research

A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined
group of respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. The
ease of survey distribution and the wide number of people it can be reached depending on
the research time and research objective make it one of the most important aspects of
conducting quantitative outcome research.

Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales

 There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice
question in a survey. They are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales
without the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can be created. Hence, it
is crucial to understand these levels of measurement to be able to develop a robust
survey.

Use of different question types

To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey.

They can be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like
semantic differential scale questions, rating scale questions, etc.

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection

In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design
to conduct primary quantitative research. Survey distribution to collect data is the other
important aspect of the survey process. There are different ways of survey distribution.
Some of the most commonly used methods are:

 Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and most effective
method of survey distribution. The response rate is high in this method because the
respondents are aware of your brand. You can use the QuestionPro email management
feature to send out and collect survey responses.
 Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct primary
quantitative research is to use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and
are on the panel by their own will, responses are much higher.
 Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high
number of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand when
the survey pops up.
 Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting a
higher number of responses from the people that are aware of the brand.
 QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can
print/publish this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any
object/medium.
 SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high
number of responses is the SMS survey.
 QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows users to circulate surveys quickly,
and the responses can be collected both online and offline.
Survey example

An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that can
quickly be built and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer thinks about a
brand and how satisfied and referenceable the brand is.
 Using polls for primary quantitative research
Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended questions from a
sample. The most commonly used types of polls are election polls and exit polls. Both of
these are used to collect data from a large sample size but using basic question types like
a multiple-choice question.

C. Data analysis techniques

The third aspect of primary quantitative research design is data analysis. After the
collection of raw data, there has to be an analysis of this data to derive statistical
inferences from this research. It is important to relate the results to the objective of
research and establish the statistical relevance of results.

It is important to consider aspects of research which were not considered for the data
collection process and report the difference between what was planned vs. what was
actually executed.

It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods such as SWOT, Conjoint,
Cross-tabulation, etc. to analyze the quantitative data.

 SWOT analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of Strengths, Weakness,

Opportunities, and Threat analysis. Organizations use this statistical analysis technique
to evaluate their performance internally and externally to develop effective strategies for
improvement.
 Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method to learn how
individuals make complicated purchasing decisions. Trade-offs are involved in the daily
activities of an individual, and these reflect their ability to decide from a complex list of
product/service options.
 Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary statistical market
analysis methods which establishes relationships, patterns, and trends within the
various parameters of the research study.
 TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally Unduplicated Reach and
Frequency Analysis, is executed in situations where the reach of a favorable
communication source is to be analyzed along with the frequency of this
communication. It is used for understanding the potential of a target market.
Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, margin of error, etc. can then be
used to provide results.

Secondary quantitative research methods

Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method that involves
using already existing data or secondary data. Existing data is summarized and collated to
increase the overall effectiveness of research.

This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from existing data
sources like the internet, government resources, libraries, research reports, etc.
 Secondary quantitative research helps to validate the data that is collected from primary
quantitative research as well as aid in strengthening or proving or disproving previously
collected data.

Following are five popularly used secondary quantitative research methods:

1. Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of internet and mobile
devices, it has become increasingly easy to conduct quantitative research using the
internet. Information about most research topics is available online, and this aids in
boosting the validity of primary quantitative data as well as proving the relevance of
previously collected data.
2. Government and non-government sources: Secondary quantitative research can
also be conducted with the help of government and non-government sources that deal
with market research reports. This data is highly reliable and in-depth and hence, can be
used to increase the validity of quantitative research design.
3. Public libraries: Now a sparingly used method of conducting quantitative research,
it is still a reliable source of information though. Public libraries have copies of important
research that were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of valuable information and
documents from which information can be extracted.
4. Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-depth research on
multiple topics, and hence, the reports that they publish are an important source of
validation in quantitative research.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio,
and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary quantitative research.
These commercial information sources have in-depth, first-hand information on
economic developments, political agenda, market research, demographic segmentation,
and similar subjects.
Quantitative research characteristics
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:

 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are

used to gather quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-
depth and actionable data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that
represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when
deriving the sample to fortify the research objective
 Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of
the research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence, are extensively
used in quantitative research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before
collecting feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts,
graphs, or any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that
has been collected as well as prove the validity of the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to
an entire population to take appropriate actions for improvement.
Quantitative research examples
Some examples of quantitative research are:

1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey, a

customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an
organization can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or
organization in the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as product
quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This data can be collected by asking a net
promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that provide data in the form
of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.
2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event,
collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the
event. By using an event survey template, the organization can collect actionable
feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of the event such
as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of recommending the organization to
their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such
questions.
Advantages of quantitative research
There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major advantages of
why researchers use this method in market research are:

 Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and presented
in numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They
offer an honest picture of the conducted research without discrepancies and is also
extremely accurate. In situations where a researcher predicts conflict, quantitative
research is conducted.
 Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative research
method applied to these respondents and the involvement of statistics, conducting, and
analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method provides
a wide scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments or
biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.
Gather research insights

Best practices to conduct quantitative research

Here are some best practices to conduct quantitative research
 Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative: Understand the difference
between the two methodologies and apply the one that suits your needs best.
 Choose a suitable sample size: Ensure that you have a sample representative of
your population and large enough to be statistically weighty.
 Keep your research goals clear and concise: Know your research goals before you
begin data collection to ensure you collect the right amount and the right quantity of
data.
 Keep the questions simple: Remember that you will be reaching out to a
demographically wide audience. Pose simple questions for your respondents to
understand easily.