Fimmu 10 00594

REVIEW
published: 27 March 2019

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00594
Advances in mRNA Vaccines for

Infectious Diseases
Cuiling Zhang 1 , Giulietta Maruggi 2 , Hu Shan 1 and Junwei Li 1*
1
College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China, 2 GSK, Rockville, MD, United States
During the last two decades, there has been broad interest in RNA-based technologies
for the development of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. Preclinical and clinical
trials have shown that mRNA vaccines provide a safe and long-lasting immune response
in animal models and humans. In this review, we summarize current research progress
on mRNA vaccines, which have the potential to be quick-manufactured and to become
powerful tools against infectious disease and we highlight the bright future of their design
and applications.
Keywords: mRNA vaccine, infectious disease, delivery, mechanism, application
INTRODUCTION
Vaccination is the most successful medical approach to disease prevention and control. The
successful development and use of vaccines has saved thousands of lives and large amounts of
money. In the future, vaccines have the potential to be used not only against infectious diseases
Edited by: but also for cancer as a prophylactic and treatment tool, and for elimination of allergens (1–3).
Karl Ljungberg,
Prior to the 1980s, vaccines were developed for protection against disease-causing microorganisms.
Karolinska Institutet (KI), Sweden
Empirically, inactivated vaccines were produced by heat or chemical treatment, and live attenuated
Reviewed by:
vaccines were generally developed in animals, cell lines or unfavorable growth conditions.
Oystein Evensen,
During vaccine development, the mechanisms involved in conferring immunity were unknown.
Norwegian University of Life Sciences,
Norway Nevertheless, the use of live attenuated or killed whole organism-based vaccines had enormous
Jacek Jemielity, success in the control and eradication of a number of severe human infectious diseases, including
University of Warsaw, Poland smallpox, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and animal infectious disease, such as classic swine
*Correspondence: fever, cattle plague, and equine infectious anemia. More recently, live attenuated (LAV), subunit
Junwei Li and peptide based vaccines have been developed thanks to advancements in molecular biology
[email protected] theory and technologies. The results obtained with LAV vaccination dramatically expanded our
knowledge of the mechanisms related to the immune response elicited by these vaccines. For
Specialty section: inactivated vaccines, antigen-specific antibodies largely contribute to the prevention and control of
This article was submitted to microbe-initiated infectious disease. In addition to specific humoral immune responses. LAVs elicit
Vaccines and Molecular Therapeutics,
strong cellular immune responses, which are critical to eradicate many intracellular pathogens.
a section of the journal
Nevertheless, the failures that are sometimes caused by inactivated vaccines are ascribed to
Frontiers in Immunology
mutation of the surface antigens of pathogens. Additional concerns about LAV applications include
Received: 04 October 2018
the potential to cause disease in immuno-compromised individuals and the possibility of reversion
Accepted: 05 March 2019
to a virulent form due to the back-mutation, the acquisition of compensatory mutations, or
Published: 27 March 2019
recombination with circulating transmissible wild-type strains (4, 5). Nevertheless, subunit and
Citation:
peptide vaccines are less effective at eliciting a robust CD8+ immune response, which is important
Zhang C, Maruggi G, Shan H and Li J
(2019) Advances in mRNA Vaccines
for intracellular pathogens, including viruses and some bacteria (6, 7).
for Infectious Diseases. Vaccination with non-viral delivered nucleic acid-based vaccines mimics infection or
Front. Immunol. 10:594. immunization with live microorganisms and stimulates potent T follicular helper and germinal
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00594 center B cell immune response (8, 9). Furthermore, non-viral delivered nucleic acid-based vaccine
Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 594

Zhang et al. mRNA Vaccine Against Infectious Diseases
manufacturing is safe and time-saving, without the growth of and nucleoside triphosphates as essential components. A cap
highly pathogenic organisms at a large scale and less risks structure is enzymatically added to the transcriptional product
from contamination with live infectious reagents and the release at the end of the reaction or as a synthetic cap analog in a single
of dangerous pathogens. Notably, for most emerging and re- step procedure. Finally, a poly(A) tail will be provided to form a
emerging devastating infectious diseases, the main obstacle is mature mRNA sequence.
obtaining a stockpile in a short timeframe (10). Non-viral Conventional mRNA vaccines include in their simplest an
delivered nucleic acid-based vaccines can fill the gap between ORF for the target antigen, flanked by untranslated regions
a disease epidemic and a desperately needed vaccine (10). (UTRs) and with a terminal poly(A) tail. After transfection, they
Non-viral delivered nucleic acids are categorized as DNA or drive transient antigen expression. In addition to conventional
RNA according to their type of 5-carbon sugar. From being vaccines, there is another mRNA vaccine platform based on the
administrated to antigen expression, DNA vaccine and RNA genome of positive strand viruses, most commonly alphaviruses.
vaccines are processed through different pathways. In the steps These mRNA vaccines are based on an engineered viral genome
between immunization with a DNA template and expression of containing the genes encoding the RNA replication machinery
the target antigen, the DNA has to overcome the cytoplasmic whereas the structural protein sequences are replaced with the
membrane and nuclear membrane, be transcribed into mRNA, gene of interest (GoI) and the resulting genomes are referred
and move back into the cytoplasm and initiate translation as replicons. These vaccines are named self-amplifying mRNA
(refer to Figure 1). Although promising and with shown and are capable of directing their self-replication, through
safety, well-tolerability and immunogenicity, DNA vaccines were synthesis of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex,
characterized by suboptimal potency in early clinical trials generating multiple copies of the antigen-encoding mRNA, and
(11). Enhanced delivery technologies, such as electroporation, express high levels of the heterologous gene when they are
have increased the efficacy of DNA vaccines in humans (12), introduced into the cytoplasm of host cells, in a way that
but have not reduced the potential risk of integration of mimics production of antigens in vivo by viral pathogens,
exogenous DNA into the host genome, which may cause severe triggering both humoral and cellular immune responses (22–
mutagenesis and induced new diseases (13, 14). Since naked 27). Self-amplifying mRNA can be derived from the engineered
in vitro transcribed mRNA was found to be expressed in vivo genomes of Sindbis virus, Semliki Forest virus, Kunjin virus,
after direct injection into mouse muscle, mRNA has been among others (28–30). Self-amplifying mRNAs (∼9–11 kb) are
investigated extensively as a preventive and therapeutic platform generated from the DNA template with similar procedures to
(15–19). Due to the dramatic development of RNA-based vaccine those previously described for conventional mRNAs and RNA
studies and applications, a plethora of mRNA vaccines have molecules can be produced at a large scale in vitro. After the
entered into clinical trial (19). Comparatively, mRNA vaccines purified RNA replicon is delivered into host cells, either as viral
confer several advantages over viral vectored vaccines and DNA particles or as synthetically formulated RNA, it is translated
vaccines (summary in Table 1). The utilization of RNA as a extensively and amplified by its encoding RNA-dependent RNA
therapeutic tool is not the focus of this manuscript and has been polymerase. Compared with the rapid expression of conventional
extensively reviewed elsewhere (2, 19, 20). In this review, we mRNAs, published results have shown that vaccination with self-
provide highlights on mRNA vaccines as promising tools in the amplifying mRNA vaccines results in higher antigen expression
prevention and control of infectious disease. levels, although delayed in time, which persist for several days
in vivo. Equivalent protection is conferred but at a much lower
RNA dose (31). Due to the lack of viral structural proteins, the
CONCEPTION AND FORMS OF mRNA replicon does not produce infectious viral particles. Additionally,
VACCINES both conventional mRNA and self-amplifying mRNAs cannot
potentially integrate into the host genome and will be degraded
mRNA vaccines were reported to be effective for direct gene naturally during the process of antigen expression. These
transfer for the first time by Woff et al. (15). Currently, two characteristics indicate that mRNA vaccines have the potential
forms of mRNA vaccines have been developed: conventional to be much safer than other vaccines and are a promising
mRNA vaccines and self-amplifying mRNA vaccines, which are vaccine platform.
derived from positive strand RNA viruses. Although mRNA
vaccines were first tested in the early 1990s, these vaccines
were not initially extensively utilized due to concerns about ENGINEERED mRNA WITH POTENT
their fragile stability caused by omnipresent ribonucleases EFFICIENCY
and small-scale production. Initial demonstration that mRNA
stability can be improved by optimization and formulation Stability and translation of mRNA is crucial for a successful
was published by Ross and colleagues in 1995 (21). Since RNA vaccine (32, 33). In the process of translation, mRNA
that time, studies on mRNA vaccines have exploded and purity is critical to determine its stability and protein yield
mRNA can now be synthetically produced, through a cell- (34). Contamination with dsRNAs, derived from aberrant RNA
free enzymatic transcription reaction. The in vitro transcription polymerase activities, leads to the inhibition of translation
reaction includes a linearized plasmid DNA encoding the and degradation of cellular mRNA and ribosomal RNA, thus
mRNA vaccine, as a template, a recombinant RNA polymerase, decreasing protein expression by interrupting the translation

FIGURE 1 | The mechanisms of different nucleic acid vaccines, including DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines. MHC, Major histocompatibility complex.
machine. The removal of dsRNA can increase translation TABLE 1 | Advantages and disadvantages of viral vectored vaccines, DNA
dramatically (35). Excess components and short or double strand vaccines and RNA vaccines.
RNAs (dsRNA) can be removed by purification. Initially, lithium Vaccines Advantages Disadvantages
chloride (LiCl) was used for this purpose, but it restricted the
industrialization of mRNA vaccines and it did not remove Viral vectored Stimulation of innate immune induction of anti-vector
dsRNAs. Purification via fast protein liquid chromatography vaccines response; induction of T and B immunity: cell based
cell immune response. manufacturing
(FPLC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
DNA vaccines Non-infectious; stimulation of Potential integration into
could be utilized to remove any remaining product and produce
innate immune response; egg human genome; poor
mRNA at a large scale and for Good Manufacturing Practice and cell free; stable, rapid and immunogenicity in
(GMP) processes (35–37). Non-coding sequence flanking 5′ scalable production; induction of humans.
and 3′ terminal of open reading frame (ORF) is crucial for T and B cell immune response.
translation. The 5′ untranslated region, such as kozak sequence, RNA vaccines Non-infectious, non-integrating, Concerns with instability
or 5′ caps is required for efficient protein production (38–40). natural degradation, egg and cell and low immunogenicity.
free, rapid and scalable
The 3′ untranslated region containing optimal poly(A) signal
production; stimulation of innate
determined the stability of mRNA and increased protein immune response; induction of T
translation (41–45). Additionally, codon optimization is a and B cell immune response.
popular method to avoid rare codons with low utilization,
to increase protein production, mRNA abundance and
stability (46–49).
mRNA vaccines are efficient at antigen expression, but this recognition can inhibit protein translation. Thanks to
sequence and secondary structures formed by mRNAs are advancement in RNA biology understanding, several methods
recognized by a number of innate immune receptors, and can be employed to increase the potency of mRNA vaccines,

including sequence optimization and usage of modified Producing RNA at a large scale to satisfy commercialization
nucleosides. Recognition from innate immune sensors can is the first step toward making mRNA vaccines. Currently,
be avoided by incorporating modified nucleosides, such as all components needed for mRNA production are available at
pseudouridine (9), 5-methylcytidine (5 mC), cap-1 structure the GMP grade; however, some components are supplied at a
and optimized codons, which in turns improve translation limited scale.
efficiency (50–55). During the in vitro transcription of mRNA, A great deal of research has been initially conducted on the
immature mRNA would be produced as contamination which development of cancer mRNA vaccines and has demonstrated
inhibited translation through stimulating innate immune the feasibility of producing clinical grade in vitro transcribed
activation. FPLC and HPLC purification could tackle this RNA (60). Several projects on mRNA vaccines against infectious
problem (35, 37). disease have also been conducted, although clinical evaluation is
Currently, most vaccines in use, with the exception of still limited. For example, several RNA-based vaccine platforms
some animal vaccines, need to be transported and stored have been utilized for the development of influenza vaccines.
in an uninterrupted cold-chain process, which is prone to Several published results showed that RNA-based influenza
failure, especially in poor rural areas of tropical countries; vaccines induce a broadly protective immune response against
these requirements are not being met by available effective not only homologous but also hetero-subtypic influenza viruses
vaccines to prevent and control infectious diseases. Therefore, the (62–66). Influenza mRNA vaccines hold great promises being
development of thermostable vaccines has been gaining interest. an egg-free platform, and leading to production of antigen
Optimization in formulation of synthetic mRNA vaccines have with high fidelity in mammalian cells. Recent published results
shown that it is possible to generate thermostable vaccines. demonstrated that the loss of a glycosylation site by a mutation in
The results described by Jones showed that freeze-dried mRNA the hemagglutinin (HA) of the egg-adapted H3N2 vaccine strain
with trehalose or naked mRNA is stable for at least 10 months resulted in poor neutralization of circulating H3N2 viruses in
at 4◦ C. After being transfected, these mRNAs expressed high vaccinated humans and ferrets. In contrast, the process of mRNA
levels of proteins and conferred highly effective and long- vaccine production is egg-free, and mRNA-encoded proteins
lasting immunity in newborn and elderly animal models (56). are properly folded and glycosylated in host cells after vaccine
Another lyophilized mRNA vaccine was shown to be stable administration, thus avoiding the risk of producing incorrect
at 5–25◦ C for 36 months and 40◦ C for 6 months (57). Stitz antigens (67, 68).
and colleagues showed that when a protamine-encapsulated mRNA has also been used in the veterinary field to
conventional mRNA-based rabies virus vaccine was subjected to prevent animal infectious diseases. Pulido et al. demonstrated
oscillating temperatures between 4 and 56◦ C for 20 cycles and that immunization with in vitro transcribed mRNA induced
exposure 70◦ C, its immunogenicity and protective effects were protection against foot and mouse disease virus in mice (69).
not compromised (58). Encapsulation of mRNA with cationic Saxena and colleagues demonstrated that a self-amplifying
liposome or cell penetrating peptide (CPP) protected mRNA mRNA vaccine encoding rabies virus glycoprotein induced
from degradation by RNase. These intriguing approaches would an immune response and provided protection in mice and
be discussed in delivery methods. could potentially be used to prevent rabies in canine (70).
Recently, VanBlargan et al. developed a lipid nanoparticle
(LNP)-encapsulated modified mRNA vaccine encoding prM
RNA VACCINES IN THE PREVENTION OF and E genes of deer powassan virus (POWV). This mRNA
INFECTIOUS DISEASE vaccine induced robust humoral immune response not only
against POWV strains but also against the distantly related
During the last two decades, mRNA vaccines have been Langat virus (71). As described previously, modification of
investigated extensively for infectious disease prevention, and nucleosides and optimization of codons can avoid recognition
for cancer prophylaxis and therapy. Much progress has been by innate immune sensors to improve translation efficiency. In
made thus far (19, 20). Cancer mRNA vaccines were designed Table 2, studies conducted with nucleoside modified and non-
to express tumor-associated antigens that stimulate cell-mediated modified mRNA vaccines for infectious disease are summarized
immune responses to clear or inhibit cancer cells (59). Most (52, 58, 72–78).
cancer vaccine are investigated more as therapeutics than Besides being used as vaccine, mRNA could also be deployed
prophylactics and have been reviewed elsewhere (20, 60, 61). for therapeutic purposes. Interestingly, a recent publication by
mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases could be developed as Pardi and colleagues showed that the adnimistration of mRNA
prophylactic or therapeutic. mRNA vaccines expressing antigen encoding the light and heavy chains of a broadly neutralizing
of infectious pathogen induce both strong and potent T cell and anti-HIV antibody encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs)
humoral immune responses (8, 16, 19). As previously described protected humanized mice from intravenous HIV challenge (79).
the production procedure to generate mRNA vaccines is entirely The data suggest that the utilization of nucleoside-modified
cell-free, simple and rapid if compared to production of whole mRNA can be expanded for passive immunotherapy against
microbe, live attenuated and subunit vaccines. This fast and HIV, cytomegalovirus (CMV), human papiloma virus, etc. Self-
simple manufacturing process makes mRNA a promising bio- amplifying mRNA vaccines enable large amounts of prompt
product that can potentially fill the gap between emerging antigen expression and potent T cellular immune responses. In
infectious disease and the desperate need for effective vaccines. Table 3, we summarize publications on self-amplifying mRNA

TABLE 2 | Nucleoside modified or non-modified mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases.
Targets Routes Formulation Immune response Animal models References
prM-E, Zika virus i.d. mRNA-LNP Humoral Mice and NHP Pardi et al. (74)
HA, influenza virus i.d. Complex with protamine Humoral and cellular Mice, ferrets, and pigs Petsch et al. (76)
prM-E, Zikavirus i.m. LNP Humoral Mice Richner et al. (75)
GP, rabies virus i.d. Complex with protamine Humoral and cellular Mice and pigs Schnee et al. (77)
GP, rabies virus i.d. Complex with protamine Humoral Mice Stitz et al. (58)
GP, Ebola virus i.m. LNP Humoral Guinea pigs Meyer et al. (52)
NP, influenza virus s.c. Liposome-entrapped Humoral and cellular Mice Martinon et al. (72)
Gag, HIV s.c. Self-assembled cationic nanomicelles Humoral Mice Zhao et al. (73)
Env, HIV i.d. LNP Humoral and cellular Mice Pardi et al. (74)
IgG, HIV i.v. LNP Humoral Humanized mice Pardi et al. (78)
prM and E POWV i.m. LNP Humoral mice VanBlargan et al. (71)
prM-E, premembrane and envelope; NHP, nonhuman primates; id., intradermal; LNP, lipid nanoparticle; i.m., intramuscular; s.c., subcutaneous; i.v., intravenous; HA, hemagglutinin;
POWV, Powassan virus.
TABLE 3 | Self-amplifying mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases.
Replicons Targets Immune response Animal models References
N/A HA, influenza virus Humoral and cellular Mice Brazzoli et al. (65)
N/A M1, NP, influenza virus Humoral and cellular Mice Magini et al. (63)
VEEV E85, dengue virus Humoral and cellular Mice Khalil et al. (80)
SFV NS3, hepatitis C virus Humoral and cellular Mice Lundstrom et al. (81)
KUNV GP, Ebola virus Humoral and cellular NHP Pyankov et al. (82)
RVFV HA, influenza virus Humoral and cellular Mice Oreshkova et al. (83)
SFV E6, E7, papilloma virus Humoral and cellular Mice Van de Wall et al. (84)
TBEV Capsid protein C, TBEV Humoral and cellular Mice Aberle et al. (92)
N/A Gag, HIV Humoral and cellular NHP Bogers et al. (85)
KUNV Gag, HIV Humoral Mice Harvey et al. (86)
JEV Epitope SP70, EV71 Humoral and cellular Mice Huang et al. (87)
VEEV Pentamer, CMV Humoral and cellular Mice Hofmann et al. (88)
SFV prM-E, loupingill virus; HA, influenza; F, RSV Humoral and cellular Mice Fleeton et al. (62)
N/A F, RSV Humoral and cellular Mice Geall et al. (22)
VEEV, SFV HA, influenza virus; GP, Ebola virus Humoral and cellular Mice Chahal et al. (64)
N/A SLOdm and BP-2a Streptococci Humoral Mice Maruggi et al. (89)
SFV Conserved region, HIV cellular Mice Moyo et al. (90)
VEEV, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus; HA, hemagglutinin; SFV, Semliki Forest virus; KUNV, Kunjinvirus; RVFV, Rift Valley fever virus; JEV, Japanese encephalitis virus; NHP,
nonhuman primate; TBEV, tick-borne encephalitis virus; CMV, cytomegalovirus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; SLOdm, GAS streptolysin-O; BP-2a, GBS pilus 2a backbone
protein; N/A, not known.
vaccines for infectious disease, delivered as viral replicon particles systems and mRNA modifications (93). mRNA vaccines are
or synthetic formulated mRNA (80, 82–85, 87, 91, 92). administered via a systemic or local method based on antigen
expression localization requirements. Direct intramuscular
(i.m), intradermal (i.d.) or subcutaneous injection of in vitro
DELIVERY ROUTE AND FORMULATION OF transcribed mRNA are the main delivery routes for mRNA
mRNA VACCINES vaccines against infectious diseases, while intraperitoneal (i.p.)
and intravenous (i.v.) administration are employed when
The administration route and formulation of mRNA vaccines systemic expression of antigens of interest is needed, mostly for
are crucial to determine the kinetics and magnitude of therapeutic applications. Multiple reports have been recently
antigen expression as well as the potency of the immune published and showed that a variety of antigens can be expressed
response. For example, intravenous administration of with high efficiency and induced potent humoral and cellular
unmodified naked mRNA resulted in rapid digestion by immune responses after mRNA vaccination. Lipid nanoparticles
ribonucleases and stimulation of the innate immune response, (LNP) loaded with nucleoside modified conventional mRNA
but these limitations can be overcome by appropriate delivery encoding firefly luciferase have been used, for example, to

examine the influence of route of administration on kinetics T lymphocyte (CTL) immune response in mice (72). Several
of antigen expression (94). i.m. and i.d. injections offered the methods have been explored to increase delivery efficiency
best levels and duration of effect, with protein production and great progress has been made in the field of designing
peaking at 4 h and maintained locally 8–10 days post injection, delivery vehicles form RNA vaccines (101–103). In addition to
depending on the dose. Both i.m. and i.d. administration the physical methods of gene guns and electroporation, mRNA
in Rhesus macaques with nucleoside modified conventional vaccines have been delivered into the cytoplasm by cationic
mRNA encoding influenza H10 encapsulated in LNP induced lipids and polymers. Cationic nano-emulsion formulated mRNA
protective titers, but this response occurred more rapidly by i.d. was also shown to induce a potent immune response (8, 23,
administration than by i.m. administration (95). 85). However, several of these delivery vehicles demonstrated
CV7201 is an mRNA vaccine candidate under development toxicity in vivo, which may limit their use in humans (104).
by CureVac AG. i.d. and i.m. injection ofCV7201 in mice and New platforms were developed as transportation tools for mRNA
pigs induced potent humoral and T cell immune responses (77). vaccines to avoid the limitation of toxic chemical transfection
In a phase I clinical trial, CV7201 showed long-term safety reagents. Most of these platforms utilized LNPs based on
and immunogenicity against the rabies virus at alow dose. No modified cationic lipid or lipid polymers. LNPs facilitate the
differences were observed in terms of safety between i.d and delivery of RNA and enhances antigen expression dramatically.
i.m. administration or between needle-syringe or needle-free Several groups have utilized lipids or polymers as a platform
injection of CV7201. However, when neutralizing antibody titers to deliver mRNA vaccines against HIV-1 by a subcutaneous
induced by CV7201 were evaluated, needle-free administration route, which efficiently elicited HIV-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell
was superior to injection with a needle (57). In an influenza responses, or by an intranasal route, which induced an antigen-
vaccine test, the intranodal (i.n.) delivery of naked mRNA elicited specific immune response (73, 105, 106). Lipid-encapsulated
potent CD4 and CD8 T cell immune responses in mice, and mRNA of influenza HA gene segments was also tested and
repeated i.n. injection with modified mRNA led to priming showed T cell activation following a single dose (107). Combining
antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells, whereas subcutaneous, LNP technology with nucleoside modification improves the
i.d. administration did not (96). Combination with two or efficacy of mRNA vaccines. LNP-formulated modified mRNA of
more delivery methods have been explored and employed in influenza virus HA from H10N8 and H7N9 induced a potent
cancer mRNA vaccine development. The combination of i.v. protective immune response in mice, ferrets, and cynomolgus
and i.d. injection of TriMix-DC-MEL therapy showed favorable monkeys (108).
outcomes in patients with broad CD8 and CD4 T cell immune Another target against which LNP delivery of formulated
responses (97). Further studies demonstrated that i.n. and mRNA has shown great potential is Zika virus. No vaccine is
intratumor injection with TriMix mRNA into dendritic cells available to prevent this mosquito-borne disease and the recent
achieved better therapeutic outcomes than alternate injection epidemic has caused worldwide concern. Richner et al. reported
sites (98, 99). However, i.d. administration of RNActive vaccines that two vaccinations with LNP-encapsulated modified mRNA
presented a similar immune response to the i.n. administration of encoding a wild-type or edited prM-E gene induced a high order
conventional mRNA vaccines, which was an inconsistent result neutralizing antibody titer (75, 109).
(100). Altogether, these results highlight the importance of the Modified mRNA-based vaccines formulated with LNPs
delivery route for effective mRNA vaccines. elicited robust immune responses and protected guinea pigs
Similarly, Fleeton et al. showed that i.m. injection of in vitro from Ebola virus disease as well (52). Intravenous (i.v.) injection
transcribed naked self-amplifying mRNA based on the Semliki with modified mRNA formulated in LNPs showed maximal
Forest virus genome could induce a protective immune response protein expression at 6 h post-injection (110). Both i.d. and i.m.
(62). Geall and colleagues showed that i.m. administration in administration with non-replicating mRNA encoding influenza
mice and cotton rats with very low dose of self-amplifying H10 encapsulated in LNPs induced high protective titers, but this
mRNA encoding the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus response occurred more rapidly by i.d. administration than by
(RSV) encapsulated with a synthetic LNP induced very high i.m. administration (95).
titers of IgG1 and interferon (IFN)-producing CD4 and CD8 T LNPs are a popular delivery vehicle for self-amplifying mRNA
cells (22). vaccines well. A plethora of studies have shown that self-
Delivery tools are equally important in the effectiveness of amplifying mRNA encapsulated in LNP induced potent cellular
mRNA vaccines. Ideally, the delivery vehicle should protect RNA and humoral immune responses by different administration
against potential digestion by ribonuclease and confer efficient routes (19, 107, 111). LNP formulated self-amplifying mRNA
target cell uptake, easy dissociation of RNA cargo from the vehicle vaccines encoding influenza virus antigens resulted in potent T
and escape from the endosome. Overcoming the barrier of the and B cell immune responses and conferred protection against
cytoplasmic membrane and avoiding digestion by RNases are homologous and heterologous influenza virus challenges as well
the initial steps for efficient RNA delivery into target cells. The (63, 65, 112).
final important requirements for an optimal delivery vehicle Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs), a type of cationic peptide,
are a lack of both toxicity and immune stimulation. In initial represent promising tools for mRNA delivery into intracellular
studies, mRNA synthesized in vitro was directly injected into target sites. Protamine is an arginine-rich cationic peptide that
animals. Subsequently, mRNA vaccines formulated in liposomes can bind to mRNA and transport it into cytoplasm. Protamine
were confirmed to induce a virus-specific anti-influenza cytotoxic was extensively used as a delivery system for cancer and viral

mRNA vaccines. The self-adjuvanted RNActive vaccine platform segments was directly involved IFNinduction through RIG-I
was created with protamine and has demonstrated potency activation (131). MDA5 is another cytosolic RNA sensor that
against various infectious diseases and cancers (76, 77, 100). detects long dsRNA generated during RNA virus replication
Recently, Coolen and colleagues designed innovative delivery (132) as well as RNA of synthetic origin, including poly I:C.
platform consisting of poly(lactic acid) and cationic-penetrating Recognition by dsRNA induces the activation of IRF3 and NF-
peptides as mRNA condensing agent. This nano-complexes were κB, subsequently leading to increased production of type I IFN
taken up by dendritic cells induced strong protein expression and (127, 133, 134). Sometimes, the elements of dsRNA recognized
innate immune response (113). by PRR sensors can function as an adjuvant through the
Self-amplifying mRNA coding HA [A/California/ induction of IFN (135–137). mRNA vaccines can stimulate innate
07/2009(H1N1)] encapsulated into oil-in-water nano-emulsion immunity through TLRs 3,7, and 8, RIG-I and MDA5 (138,
stimulated protection against homologous and heterologous 139). IFN induction by mRNA vaccines through RNA sensors is
influenza virus (65). Formulation in polyethylenimine (PEI) dependent on the quality of in vitro transcribed mRNA, delivery
of self-amplifying mRNA encoding H1N1/PR8-HA resulted vehicle, and administration route. mRNA sensing by the innate
in a significantly higher antibody titer and longer durable immune system is a double-edged sword in the elimination of
antigen expression than using non-formulated self-amplifying invading molecules. Natural exogenous mRNA stimulates strong
mRNA (31, 114). Chitosan and PEI were also utilized to deliver induction of type I INFs and potent inflammatory cytokines,
self-amplifying -mRNA as nanoparticles (114, 115). Chahal et al. which instigate T and B immune responses but may negatively
developed an intriguing platform consisting of a chemically affect antigen expression (140–143). Interestingly, Blanchard and
modified dendrimer nanoparticle to condense self-amplifying colleagues established a method to measure PRR activation by
mRNA encoding influenza HA. A single immunization in IVT mRNA in cells and in tissue section. In this method,
mice elicited potent CD8+ T cell and antibody responses and proximity ligation assays (PLAs) was employed (144).
protected mice against a broad spectrum of lethal pathogen i.d. vaccination with the RNactive vaccine technology from
challenges, including H1N1 influenza, Toxoplasma gondii, and CureVac AG, induced strong immune responses that are
Ebola virus (64). dependent on TLR7 signal. TLR7 activation leads to upregulation
Additional new modified nanoparticles are currently being of chemokines, which in turn recruit innate immune cells such as
investigated, such as polyplexes, nanoplexes and porous polymer DCs and macrophages to the site of injection (100). Activation
scaffold-mediated delivery (116–122). Although great advances of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α andIL-6 which
have been achieved in the development of delivery tools, the ideal are known to contribute to immune cells recruitment have been
platform maybe a combination of different mRNA delivery tools observed at the injection site (145).
and more efforts in understanding mechanism of action might On the other hand, an early shut-down of antigen expression
be required. after the mRNA vaccination due to PRRs activation might be
detrimental. Consistently antigen expression, humoral and T cell
responses to mRNA vaccination, both from conventional and
MECHANISM OF IMMUNE RESPONSE amplifying mRNA, were significantly enhanced in IFNAR1/2 −/−
INDUCED BY mRNA VACCINES mice (105, 146) or by co-administration of IFN antagonist (147).
The negative impact from excessive IFN activation could derive
The immune response mechanism instigated by mRNA remains not only from preventing RNA amplification, in case of self-
to be elucidated. The process of mRNA vaccine recognition by amplifying mRNA vaccines, and expression, but also at the level
cellular sensors and the mechanism of sensor activation are still of T cells. While type I IFN can determine the differentiation of
not clear. Intracellularly, two kinds of RNA sensors, endosomal antigen-primed CD8+ T cells into cytotoxic effectors, they may
toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the RIG-I-like receptor family, also promote T cell exhaustion (140). Whether type I IFN inhibits
have been identified. The former set is divided into TLR-3, or stimulates the CD8 T cell response to mRNA vaccines might
TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9, which are localized in the endosomal depend from the timing and intensity of type I IFN induced (140).
compartment of professional immune surveillance cells, such T cell inhibition could prevail if triggering of type I IFN receptors
as DCs, macrophages and monocytes. TLR3 recognizes dsRNA precedes that of T cell receptors.
longer than 45 base pair as well as dsRNA resulting from Modified mRNA with pseudouridines and mRNA purified
single strand RNA (ssRNA) forming secondary structures or with HPLC can reduce immune activation and increase antigen
derived from viral replication intermediates. TLR7 and TLR8 stability and expression (35, 148, 149). For an instance,
are activated by RNAs rich in polyuridines, guanosines and/or i.p injection with mRNA containing pseudouridines induced
uridines. TLR7 can bind both dsRNA and single-stranded RNA antigen expression without the induction of cytokines in mice
(ssRNA), whereas TLR8 recognizes ssRNA only (123). TLR7 (150). Furthermore, some publications have shown that purity
activation can increase antigen presentation, promote cytokine and delivery systems affect the immune response stimulated by
secretion and stimulate B cell responses (124). The latter family, mRNA vaccines (35). More interestingly, a recent study showed
functioning as a pattern recognition receptor (PRR), includes that modified mRNA encapsulated into LNPs has an adjuvant
RIG-I, MDA5, and LGP2 (125). RIG-I preferentially recognize effect and induces a potent T follicular helper response and a large
ssRNA and dsRNA bearing a 5′ triphosphate, and stimulate IFN number of germinal center B cells with long-living, high affinity
production (126–130). The panhandle structure in viral genome neutralizing antibodies (78).

Dentritic cell(DC) maturation is crucial to the effectiveness scalable, inexpensive, and cold-chain free. Most importantly,
of mRNA-based vaccines. Generally, TLR7 was expresssed in mRNA-based vaccines can fill the gap between emerging
plasmacytoid dentritic cells (pDCs) and B cells in humans, pandemic infectious disease and a bountiful supply of effective
and TLR8 was expressed in conventional dentritic cells (cDCs), vaccines. A variety of preclinical and clinical projects have made
monocytes and macrophages. cDCs constitute the major resident enormous strides toward the conceivable application of mRNA
DC population in normal human dermis and are characterized vaccines and have suggested that mRNA-based prophylaxis and
by CD1c expression (also known as blood dendritic cell antigen- therapy can be translated to human applications. Although in
1 (BDCA-1), whereas plasmacytoid DCs are present in the skin medical application, magnitude of responses was lower than
(129, 151, 152). The TLR7 and TLR8 locations in different DC predicted from than those observed into animal models, the
subsets and DC locations in different organs may clarify the results of pilot clinical trials have shown good tolerability and
relationship between immune efficacy and the administration that mRNA vaccination can induce antigen-specific T and B
route and formulation of mRNA vaccines. Replacement of cell immune responses (57, 108). Therefore, mRNA holds great
modified nucleotidesin mRNA decreased activation by binding promises, but further insights into the mechanism of action
mRNA to PRRs and reduced the innate immune response and potency are still needed for full development of mRNA
(153). mRNA vaccines not only stimulated the specific humoral vaccines. The exploration of new strategies is needed to create
immune response by the translated antigen but also the antigen- applicable mRNA vaccines and to decrease the dose. As described
specific T cell response. Administration route and vaccine above, the molecular impact of the innate immune response
formulation determine the peak of antigen expression, which is stimulated by mRNA through PAMP recognition is still not
another way to modulate the immune response (94, 154, 155). clear. Multiple efforts have been made to improve the stability
Liang et al. have shown that the kinetics of cell infiltration was and delivery efficiency of in vivo mRNA vaccine, including
largely similar between i.m. and i.d. administration in NHPs incorporation of 5′ and 3′ terminal untranslated regions and
(156). The i.d. group showed stronger initial responses, probably chemically modified nucleosides (162–164). Study demonstrated
because of rapid targeting, activation and transport to dLNs of removal of dsRNA contaminants by high performance liquid
skin DCs. Furthermore, only skin monocytes and DCs showed chromatography purification of in vitro transcribed mRNA
evidence of antigen translation at day 9, indicating prolonged prolonged the translation (35). Research has demonstrated that
antigen availability after i.d. delivery, and confirming the longer modified nucleoside decreases the innate immune response
expression of mRNA-encoded antigen observed in mice (94). and enhances protein expression. Optimization of the 5′ -
A better elucidation of the sequence of events leading to untranslated region (5′ -UTR) of mRNA, whose secondary
mRNA translation and immune activation will help engineer structures are recognized by cell-specific RNA binding proteins
mRNA vaccines to induce the correct balance of type I IFN or PAMP molecules can maximize the translational yield of
induction, positively affecting vaccine outcome. mRNA therapeutics and vaccines (43, 165). However, improper
incorporation of modified nucleosides can have a negative impact
on transcription products and increase costs.
CLINICAL TRIALS Based on the results of the above described studies, a
better understanding of the mechanism of action of mRNA
Compared with the prophylactic and therapeutic application of
vaccines, the identification and development of a new delivery
mRNA in cancer, clinical trials of mRNA vaccines for infectious
system, and improvement of mRNA vaccine design will be
disease are still in their early age. Pilot clinical trials with
attained (166).
DCs transfected with mRNA encoding various HIV-1 antigens,
mRNA vaccines have great potential and offer advantages
cellular molecules, or pp65 of human cytomegalovirus showed
over conventional vaccines. The growing body of preclinical
that mRNA vaccines are safe and that they elicited antigen-
and clinical results demonstrates that prophylaxis and therapy
specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell immune responses; however, no
with mRNA promises to be useful for preventing infectious
reduction of viral load was observed (157–160).
disease and treating tumors and that mRNA vaccines are safe
In a recent clinical trial of protamine complexed mRNA
and tolerated in animal models and humans. Additionally,
vaccine against rabies virus, the results showed that RNA
future improvements should increase antigen-specific immune
complexed with protamine is safe and well-tolerated in vivo,
responses and the magnitude of memory immune cell responses,
but efficacy was highly dependent on the dose and route of
including memory B and T cell responses. Although mRNA
administration. The efficacy of administration with a needle-
vaccine technology has still not extensively tested in humans,
free device was much better than with direct needle injection
publications of preclinical and early clinical tests have emerged
(57, 161). Results of a phase I showed LNP-formulated
in recent years, in which promising results were reported.
modified H10N8 mRNA vaccine induced robust humoral
This evoked the momentum of biocompanies to commercialize
immune response in volunteers with mild or moderate adverse
mRNA vaccines with great enthusiasm (167, 168). Some private
reaction (108).
funding resources and institutes have supported the research and
development of mRNA vaccines (169, 170). Despite the need
PROSPECTIVE OF RNA-BASED VACCINES for further optimization of manufacturing processes to generate
mRNA vaccines, these processes hopefully will be streamlined to
A plethora of publications have shown that mRNA-based be establish large-scale production. It is just a matter of time for
vaccines are a promising novel platform that is high flexible, RNA vaccines to be used in humans and animals.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS Qingdao Agricultural University. The National Thirteen-

Five Key research and development program of China
CZ, JL, and HS wrote this manuscript. JL and GM revised (2017YFD0500805).
this manuscript.
FUNDING ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Priority Academic Talent Team Cultivation Program of We apologize for not including all of the publications by
Shandong Colleges and Universities, Talent Program of our colleagues.
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published: 27 March 2019

Advances in mRNA Vaccines for

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TABLE 2 | Nucleoside modified or non-modified mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases.

Targets Routes Formulation Immune response Animal models References

TABLE 3 | Self-amplifying mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases.

Replicons Targets Immune response Animal models References

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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS Qingdao Agricultural University. The National Thirteen-

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