Psychology and Personality Development

Introduction to Psychology
The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means
‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.
B.F. Skinner, “science of behaviour and experiences on human beings”
According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human
relationship’”.
 The science of behavior and mental processes.
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
 The study of our inner feelings and behaviors.
Goals of Psychology

1. Describe – the information gathered through scientific research helps us to describe

psychological phenomena more accurately
2. Predict – detect and describe patterns in nature
3. Understand – adding an explanation to our descriptive and predictive knowledge
The goals of psychology are to describe, predict and control behavior. These goals are
accomplished by using the scientific method, which is systematic and empirical (based on
observable events).
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
From the definition of psychology now it might be clear to you that psychology addresses a
variety of issues related to mental and behavioural functioning of an individual. Such a study
helps us to develop a basic understanding about human nature and facilitates us to deal with a
number of personal and social problems. The study of human beings starts with the functioning
of biological systems especially the nervous system. Under central nervous system psychology
studies the functions of various parts of brain which regulate our feelings, emotions and
thinking. Within autonomic nervous system the role of hormones and neurotransmitters in
determining our behavior is important. In addition psychology studies as to how a given
sociocultural environment interacts with innate biological, intellectual and social attributes of
the child and facilitates healthy development of the child.
As a living organism you encounter a lot of sensory input every moment. Your task is not only to
process that information but to store and retrieve it when it is required to be used. Attention
and perception help to process information. Memory helps us to register, retain and retrieve
information, and thinking provides us the ability to manipulate and improve the stored
information. Within psychology, all these are studied under the domain of higher mental
processes or cognition. In your life you must have come across many persons who have reached
highest level of accomplishment. But such an accomplishment is not attained at once; it is the
result of continuous learning in which the individual acquires the necessary skills and
competencies through regular practice. Psychology helps us to understand the processes
involved in reaching this high level of accomplishment. In order to understand the purpose
behind any kind of behaviour psychologists use the concept of motivation. It primarily focuses
on the investment of mental energy and consistency of effort towards achieving the set goals.
The various shades of feelings such as anger, fear, love, joy, and sadness which we experience
during the course of our life are studied within the realm of emotion. You will certainly agree
that no two individuals are the same in terms of their physical attributes such as height, weight,
skin colour or facial features as well as psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality,
temperament and interest. An understanding of these and other aspects of individual
differences facilitates the psychologist to select right person for the right job and to provide
guidance and counseling for various matters of personal as well as professional concern. The
understanding of individual differences also helps the psychologist to differentiate between
normative (customary, accepted) and abnormal (deviant, unusual) behaviors. Thus psychology
as a discipline has a vast scope. It not only studies human beings across the life span but also
tries to explore mental processes and potentials in order to facilitate achieving a better quality
of life.
FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
During its journey of more than a hundred years, psychology as a field of enquiry has grown in
many directions. In contemporary times a number of specialized fields with focused area of
application have developed. The emergence of different fields in psychology indicates the
importance and relevance of these areas in our daily life. In this section we will briefly learn
about some of these fields. Abnormal Psychology: This branch of psychology tries to describe,
assess, predict and control those categories of behaviours which are considered as unusual and
non-normative. It also deals with various categories of psychological disorders which affect the
mental health of the individual. It assesses abnormality in the individual through standardized
psycho-diagnostic tools and suggests problem specific treatment. Cognitive Psychology: It deals
with acquisition, storage, transformation and application of information the individual uses to
understand and interpret events happening around him/her. Clinical and Counseling
Psychology: Clinical psychology is primarily concerned with diagnosis and treatment of various
psychological disorders. A clinical psychologist is trained in psychotherapeutic techniques which
are used to treat people suffering from psychological disorders. They are employed in hospitals
and clinics dealing with mental health problems. The counseling psychologist deals with mild
problems pertaining to adjustment in social and emotional life, and provides specialized
services to deal with marital problems, stress oriented problems and career choice. Educational
Psychology: This field of psychology is mainly concerned with academic performance. It studies
the role of various factors which influence learning processes in classroom setting. It focuses on
assessing the aptitude, skills and intellectual potential of the students and evaluating their
performance. An educational psychologist also helps students to overcome learning difficulties.
Environmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study of interaction between
physical environment and human behaviour. It studies the impact of noise, heat, humidity,
pollution and crowding on human performance. It also focuses on the impact of physical
environment on psychological health of individuals. Health Psychology: This field focuses on the
impact of various psychological factors (e.g. stress) on the onset progress and treatment of
illness. It also deals with various life style diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart
disease, cancer and diabetes. Organizational Psychology: This field is concerned with
application of psychological principles and models to study the selection and performance of
employees in organizational settings. It also studies the concepts of leadership, motivation, job
satisfaction and performance appraisal. Developmental Psychology: This field is concerned with
the study of various physical and psychological factors which influence the systematic changes
which the individual experiences across the different stages of life. Emerging Fields: In addition
to the fields mentioned above a number of new areas have emerged. Some of these fields are
sports psychology, military psychology, aviation psychology, forensic psychology, peace
psychology, neuropsychology, political psychology, feminist psychology and positive
psychology.
SUMMARY
Psychology is a systematic and scientific study of mental processes, experiences and behaviors -
both overt and covert – as they take place in a socio-cultural setting. • In India the study of
soul/consciousness was the main concern during Vedic and Upanishadic period. • The formal
beginning of psychology was in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental
laboratory at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. • The scope of psychology is wide as it
addresses a variety of issues related to mental and behavioral functioning of the individuals. •
Study of psychology helps us to develop a basic understanding about human nature and
facilitates dealing with a number of personal and social problems. • The various psychological
processes that are involved in human behavior are sensation, attention, perception, learning,
memory, and thinking. • Psychology has a number of specialized fields of study. Each field helps
us understand human behavior in specific domain.
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
It is very essential to understand human behaviour in today's world as the existence of the
organisation depends on the employees/individuals.

All organisations are composed of individuals, with different personality, attitudes, values,
perception, motives, aspirations and abilities. The main reason to understand behaviour is that
individuals are different. No two individuals are similar. In the early studies, theories of
organisation and management treated people as though they were the same; scientific
management was based on the similarities among workers, not the differences. In contrast,
modern theories of human behaviour are based upon the differences among people and how
those differences can affect the organisation. Individual differences are many for example some
employees are motivated to work and some are not. This can be due to several reasons, and
can be known by further reading the unit. Before we proceed to understand human behaviour,
it is better to know what the term `behaviour' means. Behaviour can be defined as a response/s
which is observed directly/indirectly. Direct observation is possible by studying the responses of
people to a work environment. Indirect observations are decision making processes and
attitudes, in terms of results or how people describe them verbally. Human behaviour is very
much unpredictable. In behaviour we cannot assume one set pattern of behaviour. Lavitt
classified behaviour as: (i) Caused behaviour, (ii) Motivated behaviour, (iii) Goal oriented
behaviour. From these observations it can be understood that behaviour is a dependent factor.
By understanding behaviour one can predict, direct, change and control behaviour of
individuals or group. There are generally four basic assumptions regarding nature of people:
individual differences, a whole person, caused behaviour (motivation) and value of the person
(human dignity). In an organisational set up it is essential for managers to understand
behaviour. as they are constantly with people, interacting with them in terms of
communication (either written or oral) in terms of work (either by specifying the work and
getting things done). Understanding past behaviour is important for developing effective
human skills, and it also provides a framework for predicting behaviour. It also gives an idea to
managers as to how behaviour is similar in certain circumstances and changing in changing
environmental conditions. Another skill which an effective manager or leader needs is the
ability to direct, change and control behaviour. Managers have to understand that there are-
going to be individual differences among the employees, as no individual is similar to other.
Each individual is unique by themselves. Then one has to understand that each individual has to
be taken care of as a whole person by taking care of his needs as well as training and making
him up to date in terms of work. Ultimately human beings have to be treated with respect only
then you can expect effective performance. With the following descriptions you will be able to
understand the concept better. Dan's analyses the nature of people in terms of four
assumptions. 1. Individual Differences Behaviour is the result of interaction between individual
characteristics and the characteristics of the environment in which the behaviour occurs. Each
person has a unique combination of characteristics. Some of these characteristics are present
from birth; others develop over time. These can be called as inherited and learned
characteristics. Although there are some inherited characteristics, but these are very few, and
not so significant. Learned characteristics are very important. Individual differences can be
because of environment, personal and psychological factors. It is also due to physical and social
factors. Learned characteristics are acquired as people grow, develop and interact with their
environments. This is depicted by Table 1. `Environmental factors' are characteristics of the
broader environment such as economic conditions, social and. cultural norms, and political
factors that can affect the individual’s behaviour. Personal factors include physical and personal
attributes e.g., age, sex, race, education and abilities, psychological factors are less observable.
They are mental characteristics and attributes such as values, attitudes, personality and
aptitudes that affect behaviour through complex psychological processes. These are studied, in
the subsequent units. All aspects of the physical world that can be seen, heard, felt, smelled or
touched are part of the physical environment of behaviour. The social environment of an
individual includes relationships with family, friends, co-workers, supervisors and subordinates
and membership in groups such as unions. The behaviour of others (as distinct from the
individuals relationship with them) is also part of an individual's social environment. Any
'norms, rules, laws or reward systems that originate with other individuals or groups help to
form an individual's social environment. A Whole Person When an employee works in an
organisation, the organisation takes care of that person by making him effective, as a worker
and as a person. Caused Behaviour (Motivation) People's behaviour is need based. By fulfilling
these needs he is motivated positively and there occurs effective performance. So the
management in the organisation has to take care of these needs in order to have an effective
performance. The management can show them how certain actions will increase their need
fulfilment and if not; how it decreases their need fulfilment. Value of the Person (Human
Dignity) People have to be treated with respect and as individuals and they cannot be treated
like machines as how scientific management use to treat them. By recognising them and
treating them with uniqueness the value of the person gets increased. By this we can
understand how the concept of treating human beings from machines to human capitals have
evolved. If one accepts the fact that human skill development is necessary then managers and
leaders must have necessary understanding in order to influence the behaviour of other
people. It was felt that the managers acquire three levels of expertise. Firstly they have to
understand the past and current behaviour, so that they are able to predict behaviour and then
they learn to direct change, and control behaviour.

Factors Affecting Human Psychology

The important factors which affect human psychology are as follows - mood, sentiments,
feelings, gestures, happiness, attitude, belief and background.

Mood:

Mood is a mental or emotional state of a person. All moods can affect judgment, perception,
and physical and emotional well-being. Long-term exposure to negative moods or
stressful environments can lead to illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, and ulcers. The
decision-making effects of any kind of bad mood can hinder a person's job performance and
lead to poor decisions that affect the organization. In contrast, a positive mood can
enhance creativity and problem solving. However, positive moods can also create false
optimism and negatively influence decision making.

Sentiments

A view or opinion that is held or expressed is known as sentiments. It is a mental

feeling, an emotion or an attitude toward something.
It is an exaggerated and self-indulgent feelings of tenderness, sadness, or nostalgia.

Feelings: Feeling is an emotional state or reaction of an individual. It is an idea or belief,

especially a vague or irrational one.

Gestures: a movement of part of the body, especially a hand or the head, to express an idea or
meaning. A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication or non-vocal communication in
which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of, or in
conjunction with, speech. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of
the body. Gestures differ from physical non-verbal communication that does not communicate
specific messages, such as purely expressive displays, proxemics, or displays of joint
attention. Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from
contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition
to words when they speak.

Happiness: the state of being happy. In psychology, happiness is a mental or emotional state
of well-being which can be defined by, among others, positive or pleasant emotions ranging
from contentment to intense joy. Happy mental states may reflect judgments by a person
about their overall well-being.
Belief: it is the trust, faith, or confidence in someone or something. Belief is the state or habit
of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in some person or thing  or something
that is accepted, considered to be true, or held as an opinion is termed as belief.

Background: the circumstances or situation prevailing at a particular time or underlying a

particular event.

ATTITUDE

Attitudes are a way of responding either favourably or unfavourably to objects, persons,

concepts etc. They are evaluative statements. They reflect how one feels about something.
Attitudes are related to behaviour. It is an unidimensional variable, i.e., positive or negative.
They are hypothetical constructs. It is something inside a person. It may be observed but the
attitude itself cannot. Attitudes in a person could be observed in three ways: 1) Direct
experience with the person or situation. 2) Association with other similar persons or situations.
3) Learning from others their association with the person or situation. `Direct experience' is the
concrete experience stage of learning. Association is similar to abstract conceptualisation and
generalisation. Learning from others is like reflection and observation. Attitudes evolve out of
perception and learning process. One is not born with attitudes but acquires them through life
experiences. But certain basic attitude of trust or mistrust occurs during the infancy. If a child's
basic needs are met in a loving manner, the child will develop a sense of trust otherwise a sense
of mistrust develops. The child also develops a sense of autonomy or shame and doubt. All
these affects one's behaviour. And this linkage to behaviour is what managers are concerned
with; and they also tend to understand the ways in which behaviour affects attitudes.

Values

Values are encompassing concepts. American Management Association indicated that values
are at the core of personality, and that they are, powerful, though silent force affecting
behaviour. Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and their
expressed attitudes. But values are a strong force in people. What may `appear' to be strange
behaviour in an employee can make sense if managers understand the values underlying that
behaviour. Rokeach (1973) "values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct
or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end-state of existence." Rokeach divided values into two broad categories:
`Terminal values" relate to ends to be achieved e.g. comfortable life, family security, self-
respect and sense of accomplishment. `Instrumental values' relate to means for achieving
desired ends, e.g. ambition, courage, honesty and imagination. Terminal values reflect what a
person is ultimately striving to achieve, whereas instrumental values reflect how the person get
there. Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and their
perception, personality and motivation. They generally influence behaviour. They are relatively
stable and enduring. This is because, the way in which they are originally learned. Allport (1951)
identified six types of values. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Theoretical - Places high importance on the
discovery of truth through critical and rational approach. Economic - Emphasises to be useful
and practical. Aesthetic - Places the highest value on form and harmony. Social - The highest
value is given to the love of people. Political - Places emphasis on acquisition of power and
influence. Religious - Concerned with the unity of experience and understanding of the cosmos
as a whole. People in different occupations place different importance on the six value types.
The knowledge that people have different types of values has led a few of the more
progressively managed organisations to initiate efforts to improve the values - job fit in order to
enhance employee performance and satisfaction. Texas Instruments for instance, has
developed a programme to diagnose different value types and to match properly these types
with appropriate work environments within their company. Some individuals, for example, are
classified as "tribalistic" - people who want strong, directive leadership from their bosses; some
are " egocentric" desiring individual responsibilities and wanting to work as lovers in an
entrepreneurial style; some are "sociocentric" seeking primarily the social relationship that job
provides, and some are "existential", seeking full expression of growth and self-fulfilment needs
through their work, much as an artist does. Charles Hughes, director of personnel and
organisation development at Texas Instruments, believes the variety of work that needs to be
done, in his organisation is great enough to accommodate these different types work
personalities in such a manner that an individual and organisational goals are fused.

Factors Influencing Individual Behavior

The way an individual addresses a situation single-handedly or say in a
group is influenced by many factors. The key factors influencing an
individual’s attitude in personal as well as social life are −

 Abilities

 Gender

 Race and culture

 Attribution

 Perception

 Attitude

These are the major elements that imprints a person’s behavior inside and
outside of the organization:

Abilities
Abilities are the traits a person learns from the environment around as well
as the traits a person is gifted with by birth. These traits are broadly
classified as −
  Intellectual abilities

 Physical abilities

 Self-awareness abilities

In order to understand how these affect a person’s behavior, we need to

know what these abilities are.

 Intellectual abilities − It personifies a person’s intelligence, verbal and

analytical reasoning abilities, memory as well as verbal comprehension.
 Physical abilities − It personifies a person’s physical strength, stamina, body
coordination as well as motor skills.
 Self-awareness abilities − It symbolizes how a person feels about the task,
while a manager’s perception of his abilities decides the kind of work that needs
to be allotted to an individual.

Thus the psychological, physical, self-assurance traits owned by a person

defines the behavior of a person in social and personal life. For ex: Ram has
a high IQ level, whereas Rahul can lift a bike and is a strong guy.

Gender
Research proves that men and women both stand equal in terms of job
performance and mental abilities; however, society still emphasizes
differences between the two genders. Absenteeism is one area in an
organization where differences are found as women are considered to be
the primary caregiver for children. A factor that might influence work
allocation and evaluation in an organization is the manager’s perception and
personal values.

For example − An organization encourages both genders to work efficiently

towards the company’s goal and no special promotion or demotion is given
or tolerated for any specific gender.

Race & Culture

Race is a group of people sharing similar physical features. It is used to
define types of persons according to perceived traits. For example − Indian,
African. On the other hand, culture can be defined as the traits, ideas,
customs and traditions one follows either as a person or in a group. For
example − Celebrating a festival.

Race & culture have always exerted an important influence both at the
workplace as well as in the society. The common mistakes such as
attributing behavior and stereotyping according to individual’s race &
culture basically influences an individual’s behavior.

In today’s diverse work culture, the management as well as staff should

learn and accept different cultures, values, and common protocols to create
more comfortable corporate culture.

For example − A company invites candidates for a job post and hires one on
the basis of eligibility criteria and not on the basis of the country a person
belongs to or the customs one follows.

Perception
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli into
meaningful information. It is the process of interpreting something that we
see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a
situation, person, group, etc.

It can be divided into six types namely −

 Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

 Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of
language heard.
 Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.
 Taste − The ability to detect flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory
organs known as taste buds.
 Other senses − Other senses include balance, acceleration, pain, time,
sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.
 Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and
groups of their social world.

For example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service,
so she will perceive that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend
it to her friends, who may or may not like it. However, Priya’s perception
about the restaurant remains good.

Attribution
Attribution is the course of observing behavior followed by determining its
cause based on individual’s personality or situation.

Attribution framework uses the following three criteria −

  Consensus − The extent to which people in the same situation might react
similarly.
 Distinctiveness − The extent to which a person’s behavior can be associated to
situations or personality.
 Consistency − The frequency measurement of the observed behavior, that is,
how often does this behavior occur.

The framework mentioned says it is all about how an individual behaves in

different situations.

For example − Rohit invites Anisha and two more friends for a movie and
they agree to bunk and watch the movie, this is consensus. Bunking of class
says that they are not interested in their lectures, this is distinctiveness. A
little change in the situation, like if Rohit frequently starts bunking the class
then his friends may or may not support him. The frequency of their
support and their rejection decides consistency.