GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-I

As per KTU syllabus

NOUSHAD K.

ASSISATNT PROFESSOR
MEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
PERINTHALMANNA

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE No.

1. Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 01 - 08

Formation Of Soils - Regional Soil Deposits Of India - Constituents Of Soil - Weight

Volume Relationship

2. Identification of Soil 09 – 24

Particle Size Distribution - Sedimentation Analysis - Stoke’s Law - Atterberg Limits And
Indices - Relative Density Is Classification of Soil - Sensitivity - Thixotropy

3. Permeability of Soil 25 – 32

Soil Water - Permeability of Soil - Darcy’s Law - Factors Affecting Permeability

4. Effective Stress 33 – 37

Effect of Water Table - Effect of Surcharge - Effect of Capillarity - Quick Sand - Critical
Hydraulic Gradient - Phreatic Line - Exit Gradient

5. Shear Strength of Soil 38 – 46

Principle Planes and Principle Stresses - Stress on Any Inclined Plane - Mohr’s Circle -
Mohr- Coulomb Theory - Measurement of Shear Strength of Soil

6. Consolidation 47 – 54

Spring Analogy for Consolidation - Consolidation Test - Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation

- Coefficient of Consolidation - Consolidation Settlement - Pre-consolidation Pressure

7. Stability of Slopes 55 – 60

Slope Failure - Slope Stability Analysis - Stability Number - Swedish Circle Method -
Friction Circle Method

8. Compaction of Soil 61 – 66

Compaction Test - Factors Affecting Compaction - Effect of Compaction on Properties of

Soil - Placement Water Content - Relative Compaction - Compaction Control
MEA Engineering College Geotechnical Engineering - I

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1.1 FORMATION OF SOILS

Soil is the naturally occurring, loose covering on the Earth's surface. Soil is composed of
particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental processes
including weathering and erosion.

Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, soils and their minerals.

Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through
direct contact with atmospheric conditions,such as heat, water, ice, and pressure. Coarse
grained soil are formed by mechanical weathering

Chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically

produced chemicals in the breakdown of rocks, soils, and minerals mainly by oxidation,
hydration, carbonation and leaching by organic acids and water. Fine grained soil are formed
by chemical weathering

The weathred soil either deposited at the point of origin or are transported away. If the soil is
deposited at the point of origin, near the parent rock, it is known as residual soil. If the soil is
transported from the point of origin to a far distance and deposited there, it is known as
transported soil

Soil type based on particle size

Soil type Particle size in mm

Cobble and boulders > 75 mm
Gravel 4.75 mm – 75 mm
Sand 0.075 mm – 4.75 mm
Silt 0.002 mm - 0.075 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm

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1.2 REGIONAL SOIL DEPOSITS OF INDIA

 Alluvial Soils
 Desert Soils
 Laterites and Lateritic soils
 Black Cotton Soils
 Marine Deposits
 Boulder Deposits

Desert Soils

 Large parts of Rajasthan

 Wind-blown deposits of sand

Black Cotton Soils

 In the central part of the country - Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh
 Expansive soil deposits having excessive swelling and shrinkage characteristics
 Formed from basalt and contain Montmorillonite minerals

Boulder Deposits

 Sub Himalayan regions of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

 Rivers flowing in hilly terrain and near foot-hills carry large boulders downstream

1.3 CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL

Soil generaally consist of :

 Soil particles
 pore spaces/ voids

Voids are filled with air or water

So soil consist of solid soil particle, liquid water and gaseous air. So soil are generally called
as a three phase system

Soil contains

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 Soil particle (Solid state)

 Water (Liquid state)
 Air (Gaseous state)

Soil can be two phase system when soil are in dry state or in saturated state

Dry state (NO water)

 Soil contains solid particle and air

Saturated soil (No air)

 Soil contains solid particle and water

1.4 WEIGHT VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Figure shows a soil mass with total volume V and total weigth W

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BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES

Void ratio (e) - It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the solids.

Porosity (n) - It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil mass.

Note :

Water content (w) or Moisture content – It is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight
of solids (dry weight) of the soil mass.

Degree of saturation (S) – it is the ratio of volume of water to volume of voids

Air Content (ac) - It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of
voids.

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Percentage Air Voids (na) – It is the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of
the soil mass.

( )
Unit weight of soil

Bulk unit weight (ϒb)

( )

Saturated unit weight (ϒsat)

( )

Dry unit weight (ϒd)

Also

Submerged unit weigth (ϒ’)

Specific gravity (G)

 It is also called as absolute specific gravity (Ga). It is the ratio of weigt of solid
particle to the weight of water

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 Mass specific gravity or apparent specific gravity (Gm)

it is the ratio of density of soil to the density of water

Note: WG = eS

Sample questions

1. Write a note about formation of soil…?

2. Explain Residual soil and Transported soil…?
3. Explain 3 phase system…?
4. Define water content, degree of saturation, porosity and void ratio
5. Give the block diagram for the three phase system and specify its use
6. Define water content, degree of saturation, porosity, air content and void ratio
7. Write the Procedure to determine the Specific Gravity of soil solid
8. Soil may exhibit 2 phase system. Justify the statement
9. What you know about Sensitivity of soil
10. Explain thixotropy?
11. If the void ratio is 0.5, then porosity is..?
12. In a wet soil, air occupies one sixth of its volume and water occupies one third of its
volume. Find the void ratio of the soil…?
13. In a soil mass, if volume of voids is equal to volume of solids. Find the value of void
ratio and porosity…?
14. A soil deposit has a void ratio of 1. If the void ratio is reduced to 0.6. Find the
percentage volume loss?
15. For a soil in natural state, void ratio is 1, water content is 30% and G = 2.50.
Determine the degree of saturation
16. Find the degree of saturation, if the void ratio = 1 , water content = 30% and G = 2.5
17. If the specific gravity of the soil is 2.7 and its void ratio is 0.945. Find the moisture
content when it is fully saturated..?
18. If the moisture content of a fully saturated soil is 100%, then determine its void ratio
19. A soil has a bulk density of 2.4 g/cc and water content of 20 %. What will be the dry
density of the sample…?
20. A sample of saturated soil has a water content of 25% and a bulk unit weight of 20
kN/m3. Determine the dry density, void ratio and specific gravity?
21. A sample of saturated soil has a water content of 25% and a bulk unit weight of
20kN/m3. Determine the dry unit weight, void ratio and the specific gravity of soil.

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What would be the bulk unit weight of soil, if the soil is compacted to the same void
ratio but has a degree of saturation of 90%.
22. An undisturbed sample of soil has a volume of 100cm3 and mass of 200 gm. On oven
drying for 24 hr. the mass is reduced to 170 gm. If the specific gravity of the grain is
2.68, determine the water content , void ratio and degree of saturation of soil
23. A sample of dry soil weights 120 gm. and its volume is 80 ml. If specific gravity is
2.8 then find the void ratio of soil sample..?
24. A soil has a bulk density of 2.05 g/cc and water content of 18%. G = 2.67. Find the
void ratio and degree of saturation of the soil sample…?
25. A soil has a bulk density of 2.05 g/cc and water content of 18%. G = 2.67. Find the
void ratio and degree of saturation of the soil sample…?
26. A soil has a bulk density of 2.4 g/cc and water content of 20%, then determine the dry
density of the sample.
27. A natural soil deposit has a bulk density of 1.9 gm/cc and water content of 6%.
Assume G = 2.67. Assume void ratio remain same; what will be the degree of
saturation at a water content of 16%?
28. A soil has a bulk density of 1.8 g/cc at a water content of 5%. If the void ratio remains
constant, then what will be the bulk density for a water content of 10%?
29. The weight of an undried specimen of clay was 34.62gm. The oven dry weight of the
sample was 20.36 gm. Before oven drying, the specimen was immersed in mercury
and its volume found to be 24.66 cc. Assume G = 2.68. Determine the void ratio and
degree of saturation?
30. The mass of a moist soil is 20 kg and its volume is 0.011 m3. After drying in an oven
the mass reduces to 16.5 kg. Determine the water content, density of moist soil, dry
density of soil, void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation. Take G = 2.70.
31. A soil specimen has a water content of 10% and wet unit weight of 20 kN/m 3. If the
specific gravity of the solid is 2.70, determine the dry unit weight, void ratio and
degree of saturation.
32. A sample of dry soil weighs 68 gm. Find the volume of voids if the total volume of
sample is 40 ml and the specific gravity of the solid is 2.65. Also determine the void
ratio
33. A soil has porosity 40%, specific gravity 2.65 and water content 12%. Determine the
mass of water required to be added to 100 m3 of this soil for full saturation?
34. A soil is to be excavated from a borrow pit which has a density of 1.75 g/cc and water
content of 12%. G= 2.7. The soil is compacted to that water content of 18% and dry
density 1.65g/cc. For 1000m3 of soil in fill, estimate (i) the quantity of soil to be
excavated from the pit, in m3 (ii) estimate the amount of water to be added, in tons
35. For constructing an embankment the soil is transported from a borrow area using a
truck which can carry 6 m3 of soil at a time. The details are as follows
Property Borrow area Truck(loose) Field (compacted)
Bulk density (g/cc) 1.66 1.15 1.82
Water content % 8 6 14

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Determine the number of truckloads of soil required to obtain 100 m3 of compacted

earth fill

36. A sample of clay was coated with paraffin wax and its mass, including the mass of
wax, was found to be 697.5 gm. The sample was immersed in water and the volume
of the water displaced was found to be 355 ml. The mass of the sample without wax
was 690.0 gm, and the water content of the representative specimen was 18%.
Determine the bulk density, dry density, void ratio and the degree of saturation. The
specific gravity of the solids was 2.70 and that of the wax was 0.89.
37. A compacted cylindrical specimen, 50 mm dia and 100 mm length is to be prepared
from oven dry soil. If the specimen is required to have a water content of 15% and
percentage air void of 20%, Calculate the mass of soil and water required for the
preparation of specimen. Take G = 2.69
38. A borrow area soil has a natural water content of 10% and a bulk density of 1.80
Mg/m3. The soil is to be used for an embankment which is to be compacted at 18%
moisture content and to a dry density of 1.85 Mg/m3. Determine the amount water to
be added to 1.0 m3 of borrow soil. How may cubic meters of excavation is required
for 1 m3 of compacted embankment
39. There are two borrow area A and B which has soils with void ratio 0.80 and 0.70
respectively. The inplace water content is 20% and 15% respectively. The fill at the
end of construction will have a total volume of 10,000 m3, bulk density 2 Mg/m3 and
a placement water content of 22%. Determine the volume of soil required to be
excavated from both areas. G = 2.65. If the cost of excavation and transportation is Rs
200 per 100 m3 for area A and Rs 220 per 100 m3 for area B, which of the borrow is
more economical?

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CHAPTER 2

IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL

Different soils are idenitfied based on their properties. The different properties and their
determinations are given below

2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

It expresses the percentage of various particle sizes present in soil. It is shown graphically on
a particle size distribution curve

Method of particle size distribution analysis

 Sieve analysis:- For coarse grained soil (D > 0.075 mm)

 Sedimentation analysis:- For fine grained soil (D < 0.075 mm)

Sieve analysis:- For coarse grained soil (D > 0.075 mm)

Procedure:

1. Take a representative sample of soil received from the field and dry it in the oven.
2. Weight the required amount of soil sample for test.
3. Arrange the various sieves one over the other in order of their mesh opening, largest
sieve at the top and smallest at the bottom.
4. The soil sample is put on the top sieve and the whole assembly is fitted to the sieve
shaker. Shake it mechanically for 10 to 15 minutes.
5. The part of the soil sample retained on each sieve is weighed and recorded.

Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

Weight
Sl. No. IS Sieve Weight Percentage Percentage
Retained (g)
Retained (%) Retained (%) Passing (%)

1 4.75mm

2 2.36mm

3 1.18mm

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4 600micron

5 300micron

6 150micron

7 75micron

8 Pan

Calculations

Fineness Modulus, =

Effective size, D10

Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu = D60 / D10

( )
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc =
( )

D10 = A particle size in mm such that 10% of the particles are finer than this size.

D60 = 60% of the particles are finer than the size of the particle at 60% point on the
curve.

D30 = Particle size corresponding to 30% finer

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Grading of Soil

WELL GRADED - Good representation of grain sizes over a wide range and its gradation
curve is smooth.

 Cc between 1 and 3.
 Cu > 4 for Gravels and > 6 for sands

POORLY GRADED – If it has excess of certain particles and deficiency of other, or if it has
most of the particles of about the same size.

UNIFORMLY GRADED – If it has most of the particles of about the same size.

 Cu is nearly unity.

GAP GRADED – A curve with a hump represents the soil in which some of the intermediate
size particles are missing.

Use Of Grain Size Distribution Curve

 Used in the classification of Coarse-grained Soils

 Approximate value of coefficient of permeability can be determined from the particle
size
 To know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action
 Required for the design of drainage filters
 Provides an index to shear strength of the soil. A well graded compacted sand has
high strength.
 Compressibility of a soil can also be judged. A uniform soil is more compressible
than a well graded soil.
 Useful in soil stabilization and for the design of pavements.
 May indicate the age of residual soil deposit. With increasing age, the average particle
size decreases because of weathering.

Sedimentation analysis:- For fine grained soil (D < 0.075 mm)

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Soil particle finer than 75 micron cannot be sieved. Particle size distribution of such soil is
determined by sedimentation analysis. Sedimentation analysis is based on Stoke’s law

Stoke’s law

When a particle settling in a fluid, its velocity first increases under gravity. But due to
buoyant force, velocity dereases and attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.

The terminal velocity is given by

( )

Where, μ- viscosity

g- acceleration due to gravity

D – particle size

ρw– Density of water

G – specific gravity of soil

According to Stoke’s law, the velocity deponds on the particle size. This concept is used for
sedimentation analysis

Method of Sedimentation analysis

 Hydrometer method
 Pippete method

This book explains the hydrometer method of analysis

Procedure:

1. Take about 50g of oven dried soil sample passing through 75 micron sieve in a
container and add distilled water to form a paste.
2. Add 100 ml of deflocculating agent solution and mix. (The solution is prepared by
dissolving 33g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate in
distilled water to make one litter of solution).

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3. Transfer the paste completely to a mechanical stirrer by washing the container. Stir
the mixture well for about 10-15 minutes.
4. Wash the specimen to the graduated cylinder (Hydrometer jar) and make the solution
1000 ml.
5. Mix the suspension thoroughly. After that keep the jar on a table and simultaneously
start the stop watch and insert the hydrometer
6. Readings of hydrometer Rh are taken at ½,1.2 and 4,8, 15, 30 minutes, 1, 2 hr .etc..,
till 24hr

Time, t in Hydrometer Effective Percentage

Diameter, D
minute reading, Rh height (He) finer, N
0.5
1
2
4
8
15
30
24 hr

CALCULATIONS:-

Particle diameter D:

√ ( )
( )

Where,

D= Equivalent diameter in cm

µ= Viscosity of water (0.01 poise)

G= Specific gravity of soil particles

t= Elapsed time in minute

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He= Effective depth in cm

γw= Unit weight of water g/cc

Percentage finer

( )( )

Where

Rh = Hydrometer reading

W = Weight of soil used for the experiment

G = Specific gravity of soil particles

To obtain the grain size distribution of the given soil, the calculated percentage finer than
each determined size is plotted against the corresponding particle diameters on a semi
logarithmic. From the graph, percentage clay size, silt size and sand particles are obtained as
per IS classification system

Note: The terminal velocity is given by

( )

Also

2.2 ATTERBERG LIMITS AND INDICES

 It is also called consistency limits

 Fine grained soil can exist in four stages namely liquid, plastic, semi solid and solid
deponding up on the wter content
 The water content at which the soil changes from one sate toother is called
consistency limits or atterberg limits

Consistnacy limits are

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 Liquid limits
 Plastic limit
 Shrinkage limits

Liquid Limit WL (LL) – Water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to the
plastic state.

 At liquid limit the soil is like a liquid

 It is determined by casagrande’s method

Plastic Limit WP (PL) –Water content at which the soil changes from the plastic state to the
semi solid state.

 Water content at which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material. or Arbitrary
water content between Plastic and Semisolid state of soil.
 It is determined by thread test

Shrinkage Limit WS (SL) – Water content at which the soil changes from the semi solid
state to the solid state.

 Maximum water content at which a reduction of water content will not cause a
decrease in the volume of soil mass.or Lowest water content at which the soil can be
completely saturated.
 It is determined by mercury method

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Determination of Liquid limit

Procedure:

1. Sieve the sample through 425micron IS Sieve.Take 120 g of soil and mix it
thoroughly with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
2. Put the portion of the above paste in the cup, and spread it. Level the above paste with
spatula and smooth the surface
3. Divide the sample in the cup by grooving tool along the symmetrical axis of the cup.
4. Blow the sample by the handle
5. Record the number of blows required to close the grove in the soil for a distance of
1cm.
6. Repeat the test with 4 or 5 samples with varying moisture contents.
7. Make a plot of water content v/s number of blows. Such a plot known as Flow Curve
is usually a straight line.

Casagrande’s apparatus

Soil with groove

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Flow curve

Determination of Plastic Limit:

Procedure:

1. Sieve the given sample of soil through 425 micron IS Sieve. Take 50 g of soil sample
and mixed it with water till the soil becomes plastic
2. Prepare the ball of uniform diameter of the above sample.
3. Roll it on glass plate with just sufficient finger pressure.
4. Continue the rolling operation till the thread is of 3 mm diameter. Compare the
diameter of thread at intervals with the given rod.
5. Again press the soil and roll it. Continue the above process till the threads show sign
of crumble, thus making the soil unable for further rolling.
6. Take a portion of crumbled material. Find the moisture content of the crumbled
material.
7. Repeat the above process for more samples Record the average value as plastic limit
of the given soil sample.

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Determination of Shrinkage Limit:

Procedure

 The volume V1 of the shrinkage dish is first determined by using mercury. The mass
of mercury contained in the dish, divided by its density (13.6 gm/cm3) gives the
volume of the shrinkage dish.
 About 50 g of soil passing 425 micron IS Sieve is mixed with distilled water to make
the soil pasty
 Fill the dish with the soil paste. The mass W1 of the wet soil pat, of volume V1 is
then determined
 The dish along with soil is oven dried. The mass W2 of the dry soil pat is found.
 The volume V2 of the dry soil pat is determined using mercury and glass cup

( ) ( )
Shrinkage Limit is given by, wS =

Some useful relations

( ) ( )
 Shrinkage limit wS =

 Also

 Shrinkage index (Is)

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( )⁄
 Shrinkage ratio (SR) ( )

 Volumetric shrinkage * +

 Also ( )

Atterberg index

 Plasticity index

 Liquidity index

 Consistancy index

 Flow index
( )

 Toughness index

2.3 RELATIVE DENSITY OR DENSITY INDEX (DR OR ID)

It is used to express the relative compactness of a natural soil deposit only for a cohesionless
soil

emax = void ratio in the loosest state

emin = void ratio in the densest state

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2.4 IS CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

 Soil is classified based on their particle size

Coarse grained soil

Sand or gravel

 Over 50% of soil retained on 75 micron sieve

Primary classification Group symbol Description

GW Well graded Gravel
Gravels
GP Poorly graded Gravel
Over 50% of coarse material
GM Silty Gravels
retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve
GC Clayey Gravels
SW Well graded Sand
Sand
SP Poorly graded Sand
Over 50% of coarse material
SM Silty Sand
passed 4.75 mm IS Sieve
SC Clayey Sand

For Equal Percentage Of Coarse Grained And Fine Grained Fractions

GM-ML, GM-MI, GM-MH, GC-CL, GC-CI, GC-CH, SM-ML, SM-MH, SC-CL, SC-CI,
SC-CH

If Between 5% And 12% Passes Through 75μ Sieve

GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GC, GP-GM, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SC, SP-SM

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Fine grained soil

Fine grained soil classified based on Plasticity chart

 Low compressibility – liquid limit < 35%

 Medium compressibility – liquid limit between 35% and 50%
 Low compressibility – liquid limit > 50%

Plasticity chart

Example:

Soil No. 1

% of Silt and Clay = 89% > 50%

So Fine Grained Soil

Liquid Limit WL = 55% > 50%

So High compressibility (H)

Plastic Limit WP = 23%,

Plasticity Index IP = WL - WP = 55 – 23 = 32%

Value of IP on A-line = 0.73 x (WL – 20) = 0.73 x (55 – 20)

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= 25.55 < 32

So soil is classified Above A-line

Clayey Soil (C)

Soil is classified as CH, ie Clay with High compressibility

Soil No. 2

% of Silt and Clay = 91% > 50%

So Fine Grained Soil

Liquid Limit WL = 30% <35%

So Low compressibility (L)

Plastic Limit WP = 25%,

Plasticity Index IP = WL - WP = 30 – 25 = 5%

Value of IP on A-line = 0.73 x (WL – 20) = 0.73 x (30 – 20)

= 7.3 > 5

Soil is classified Below A-line

Silty Soil (M)

Soil is classified as ML, ie Silt with Low compressibility

2.5 SENSITIVITY

 Field soil is in equilibrium and it is undisturbed. If the soil is remoulded (disturbed by

any action), the strength varies.
 Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of strength of undisturbed soil (qu) to the strength of
remoulded soil (qr)

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 Sensitivity indicate the weakening of soil due to remoulding

Sensitivity Soil
≤1 Insensitive
1–2 Little sensitive
2–4 Moderate sensitive
4–8 Highly sensitive
8 – 16 Extra sensitive
> 16 Quick sensitive

2.6 THIXOTROPY

If the remoulded soil is allowed to stand, it regain some of its strength with passage of time. It
is called thixotropy. It is due to:

 Rearrangement of water particle

 Reestablishment of equilibrium

Sample questions

1. Explain the significance of grain size distribution curve

2. Explain IS classification and Plasticity chart
3. Give reason for determining the grain size distribution of a soil mass. Why this study
is generally confined to coarse grained soil..?
4. A soil has a liquid limit and plastic limit of 47% and 33% respectively. If the
volumetric shrinkage at the liquid limit and plastic limit are 44% and 29%, determine
the shrinkage limit.
5. The plastic limit of the soil is 25% and plasticity index is 8%. When the soil is dried
from its plastic state, the volume changes to 25% of its volume at plastic limit.
Similarly the corresponding volume change from liquid limit to dry state is 34% of its
volume at liquid limit. Determine the shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio
6. A relative density test was conducted on a sandy soil yielded the following results.
Max void ratio = 1.23; min void ratio = 0.48; relative density = 42%; G = 2.67. Find

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the dry density soil in the present state. If 3m thickness of this stratum is densified to a
relative density of 62%, How much will be the soil reduced in thickness..? What will
be the new density in dry and saturated conditions..?
7. The shrinkage limit of clay is 22%, its moisture content is 34.7% and its specific
gravity 2.7. Calculate the decrease to be expected in a unit volume of clay, if the
moisture content is reduced by evaporation to 18.2%
8. A soil sample consists of particles of size ranging from 0.5 mm to 0.01 mm is put
onto the surface of still water tank 5 m deep. Calculate the time of settlement of the
coursest and finest particles of the sample to the bottom of the tank. Assuming
specific gravity of sample is 2.66 and viscosity of water as 0.01 poise.
9. The plastic limit of the soil is 25% and plasticity index is 8%. When the soil is dried
from its plastic state, the volume changes to 25% of its volume at plastic limit.
Similarly the corresponding volume change from liquid limit to dry state is 34% of its
volume at liquid limit. Determine the shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio
10. In a sedimentation analysis 48 g of soil passing 75 micron is dispersed in 1000ml of
water I order to estimate the percentage of particles less than 0.003 mm, how long
after the commencement of sedimentation, is the hydrometer reading to be taken. The
center of the hydrometer is 165 mm below the surface of the water. G = 2.72 and
viscosity of water = 0.01 poise
11. A relative density test was conducted on a sandy soil yielded the following results.
Max void ratio = 1.23; min void ratio = 0.48; relative density = 42%; G = 2.67. Find
the dry density soil in the present state if 3m thickness of this stratum is densified to a
relative density of 62%. How much will be the soil reduced in thickness..? What will
be the new density in dry and saturated conditions..?
12. A soil has a liquid limit of 25% and flow index of 12.5%. If the plastic limit of soil is
15%, then determine the plasticity index and Toughness index.
13. In liquid limit test, the water content for 10 and 100 blows are 40% and 10%.
Determine the flow index of the soil
14. A soil sample has a shrinkage limit of 10% and specific gravity as 2.7. Determine the
porosity of soil at shrinkage limit
15. The unit weight of sand backfill is 1746 kg/m3. The water content is 8% and unit
weight of soil constituent is 2.6 g/cc. The void ratio in the loosest and densest state is
0.642 and 0.462. Determine the relative density
16. The following data is obtained from shrinkage limit test
Initial weight of saturated soil = 95.6 gm
Initial volume of saturated soil = 68.5 cc
Final dry weight = 43.5 gm
Final dry volume = 24.1 cc
Determine shrinkage limit, specific gravity and initial and final void ratio

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CHAPTER 3

PERMEABILITY OF SOIL

3.1 SOIL WATER

Types of Soil water

Soil water classified into

 Free water
 Held water

Free water: The water which is free to moves in the pores of soil under gravity.

 Free water moves from one point to other wherever there is a difference in head
 Flow is like laminar flow in pipes
 Velocity head is neglected. Total head is the sum of pressure head and elevation head

Held water: Water held in the pores of soil

 It cannot move under gravity

 Held Water classified into
 Structural water
 Adsorbed water
 Capillary water

Structural water

 Chemically combined water

 Considered as an integral part of soil solid

Adsorbed water or hygroscopic water

 Water held by electrochemical force in the soil

Capillary water

 The water in the pores of soil due to capillary rise

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3.2 PERMEABILITY OF SOIL

 The ability of soil which allows water particle to pass through it is called permeability
of soil. Soil is pores. Water can move through the pores.

Permeable soil: Soil permits the water to flow through it

Impermeable soil: Soil does not permit the water to flow through it

Hydraulic Gradient (i): The loss of head per unit length of flow through the soil

h
i

Where h – hydraulic head

L – Length of soil sample

3.2.1 Darcy’s aw

The flow of water through the soil is governed by Darcy’s law.

Darcy’s law states that the velocity of flow through soil is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient

The velocity of flow (v) is given by

v= ki it is also called discharge velocity

v
Seepage velocity (vs) = n

where k – coefficient of permeability in cm/sec

v – velocity of flow in cm/sec
n – porosity of soil
The discharge of flow(q) is given by

q = vA = kiA

Where A – cross-sectional area of soil

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3.2.2 Validity of Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s law is valid if the flow through the soil is laminar. Flow through the soil is laminar if
the Reynolds Number (R) ≤ 1
vd
ie ≤ 1

3.2.3 Coefficient Of Permeability (k)

It is defined as the velocity of flow under unit hydraulic gradient

ie k = v at i = 1

Coefficient of permeability
Soil Type
(k) in cm/sec
Gravel 102 – 10
Sand 10- 10-3
Silt 10-3 - 10-5
Clay <10-6

3.2.4 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Coefficient of permeability can be determined by

1. Constant –Head permeability test

2. Variable –Head permeability test

Constant –Head Permeability Test

 For relatively more permeable soils

Instruments used: Permeameter, Mould (100 mm diameter, 127.3 mm height, 1000 ml

capacity), collar, constant head flow tank

Procedure:
1) The soil sample is placed inside the mould between two porous stones.

2) The soil specimen is saturated by allowing water to flow through the soil

3) The head in the constant head tank is kept constant

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4) Constant head tank is connected to the permeameter and water is allowed to flow through
the soil

5) Water after flowing through soil, drain out through the outlet

6) Water through outlet is collected in a graduated jar for a specific time

Calculations:

Area of soil sample =

d- diameter of permeater mould

Coefficient of permeability (k)

k i t

q- discharge in ml
i= hydraulic gradient
A- Cross-sectional area of soil sample in cm2
t- time in sec

Variable –Head permeability test

 For relatively less permeable soils

Instruments used: Permeameter, Mould (100 mm diameter, 127.3 mm height, 1000 ml

capacity), collar, graduated vertical stand pipe

Procedure:
1) The soil sample is placed inside the mould between two porous stones.

2) The soil specimen is saturated by allowing water to flow through the soil

3) The stand pipe is filled with water and connected to the permeameter

4) Water in the stand pipe is allowed to flow through the sample

5) As the water flows through the soil, the water level in the stand pie falls

6) The time required for the water level to fall from a known initial head (h1) to a known
final head (h2) is determined

Calculations:

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Area of soil sample =

d- diameter of permeater mould

Coefficient of permeability (k)

a h
k log
t h

a- Cross-sectional Area of stand pipe in cm2

L- Length of soil sample in cm
A- Cross-sectional area of soil sample in cm2
t- time in sec
h1- initial head
h2- Final head

3.2.5 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils

The general expression for the Coefficient of permeability of soil

γ e3
k C ( w) ( ) D2
μ 1 e

Where, k- coefficirnt of permeability

C- coefficient related to the shape of particle
µ-viscosity of water
e- void ratio
D- particle size

Factors affecting compactions are:

1. Particle size
2. Properties of water
3. Structure of soil mass
4. Impurities in water
5. Void ratio
6. Degree of saturation
7. Adsorbed water
8. Shape of particle

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1) Particle size
 Coefficient of permeability of soil is proportional to the square of particle size (D)

 Permeability of coarse grained soil is large as compared to that of fine grained soil

2) Properties of water

 Permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of water and inversely

proportional to the viscosity of water
w
k

 Permeability Increase with increase in temperature due to reduction in viscosity

k k

3) Structure of soil mass

 Permeability of flocculated structure is large as compared to that of dispersed

structure

4) Impurities in water

 Presence of impurities in water reduces the permeability

5) Void ratio

 Permeability of soil increase with increase in void ratio

e
k or
e

k e

6) Degree of saturation

 Permeability of partially saturated soil is less than that of fully saturated soil due to
the presence of air voids

7) Adsorbed water

 Presence of adsorbed water reduces the permeability

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8) Shape of particle

 Permeability of rounded particles is large as compared to that of angular particles

3.2.6 Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposit

A stratified soil deposit consists of soil layers having different permeability. The average
permeability of the deposit as a whole can be determined as explained below.

1) Flow parallel to the plane

 Loss of head or hydraulic gradient (i) is same in all layers

 Total discharge = sum of all discharge in each layer

Q q1 q2 q3 ….

k h kh k h
kh
h h h

Kh – average permeability of soil deposit with parallel flow

k1- permeability of first layer with thickness h1
k2- permeability of first layer with thickness h2
k3- permeability of first layer with thickness h3

2) Flow normal (perpendicular) to the plane

 The discharge is same in all layer

 Total head = sum of head in all layers

H h1 h2 h3 …

h h h
kv
h h h
k k k

 kh > kv

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Sample questions

1. Write down the factors affecting permeability

2. Write a note about Soil Water…?
3. Write the procedure to determine the permeability of soil by constant head method
4. State Darcy’s law and what its limitations
5. Prove that for stratified soil deposit, the average permeability in the horizontal
direction is greater than the average permeability in the vertical direction
6. Derive an expression for finding the coefficient of permeability of fine grained soil
using falling head permeameter
7. A stratified soil deposit consist of 4 layers of equal thickness, the coefficient of
permeability of second, third and fourth layers are respectively 1/3, ½ and twice of the
coefficient of permeability of the top layer. Compute the average permeability of the
deposit parallel and perpendicular to the direction of stratification in terms of the
permeability of the top layer.
8. In a falling Head Permeameter test, the initial head is 40 cm. The head drops by 5 cm
in 10 minutes. Calculate the time required to run the test for the final head to be at 20
cm. If the sample is 6 cm in height and 50 cm2 in cross-sectional area, calculate the
coefficient of permeability, taking area of stand pipe is 0.5 cm2
9.

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CHAPTER 4

EFFECTIVE STRESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discuss about the stress experienced at point in a soil mass due to the self-weight
of soil solid and water and any other loading imposed on soil

otal stress σ

The stress acting on the point or the total load acting per unit area

σ ϒH

Pore water Pressure or Neutral stress (U)

Pressure in the water in the voids

U = ϒw Hw

Hw – Height of water table above the point of concern

Effective stress σ’

The part of stress carried by the soil solids

σ’ σ-U

σ – Total vertical stress in kN/m2

ϒ – unit weight of soil in kN/m3
ϒw - unit weight of water in kN/m3
H – Thickness of soil in m
Hw – Height of water table above the point

4.1.1 Homogenous Soil mass

Total stress (σ) ϒH

Pore water pressure (U) = 0

Effective stress (σ’) ϒH

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4.1.2 Strata of different soil mass

Total stress (σ) = ϒ1h1 + ϒ2h2 + ϒ3h3

Pore water pressure (U) = 0

Effective stress (σ’) ϒ1h1 + ϒ2h2 +

ϒ3h3

4.1.3 Effect of water table on effective stress

Consider a soil with water table at DD

The variation of stress is shown in a table

Stress Total stress, σ Pore water Effective pressure,

at point pressure, u σ’ σ-u
AA 0 0 0
DD ϒ1H1’ 0 ϒ1H1’
BB ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ ϒwH1” ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ – (ϒwH1” )
CC ϒsat2H2 + ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ ϒw(H2 + ϒsat2H2 + ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ –
H1”) (ϒw(H2 + H1”))

4.1.4 Effect of surcharge on effective stress

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The variation of stress is shown in a table

Stress Total stress, σ Pore water Effective pressure,

at point pressure, u σ’ σ-u
AA Q 0 q
BB q + ϒ1H1 0 q + ϒ1H1
CC q + ϒsat2H2 + ϒ1H1 ϒwH2 q + ϒsat2H2 + ϒ1H1 – (ϒwH2 )

4.1.5 Effect of capillarity on effective stress

Water table is at BB. Soil is saturated up to DD

The variation of stress is shown in a table

Stress Total stress, σ Pore water Effective pressure,

at point pressure, u σ’ σ-u
AA 0 0 0
DD ϒ1H1’ - ϒwH1” ϒ1H1’ – (- ϒwH1”)
BB ϒ1H1’ ϒsat1H1” 0 ϒ1H1’ ϒsat1H1”

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CC ϒsat2H2 + ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ ϒwH2 ϒsat2H2 + ϒsat1H1” ϒ1H1’ –

(ϒwH2)

4.2 QUICK SAND

Effective stress is reduced due to upward flow of water and finally reduced to zero at a
particular head. Shear strength becomes zero for cohesionless soils when effective stress is
zero. Such condition is called as Quick Sand Condition.

This condition occurs in Silt and Fine sand. If a weight is placed on the surface of soil, it
sinks down as the soil behaves as a liquid having no shear strength

4.3 CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

The hydraulic gradient at which the effective stress becomes zero is known as Critical
Hydraulic Gradient

If σ’ 0, γ’ L γw h

Critical Hydraulic Gradient

4.4 PHREATIC LINE

In the case of seepage through an earth dam the upper boundary or the uppermost flow line is
a free water surface and will be referred to as the line of seepage or phreatic line.

The seepage line may therefore be defined as the line above which there is no hydrostatic
pressure and below which there is hydrostatic pressure.

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4.5 EXIT GRADIENT

The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream end of the flow line where
percolating water leaves the soil mass and emerges into the free water at the downstream

The conditions prevailing at the downstream toe of the dam affect the type of exit of the flow
line at the discharge face.

Sample questions

1. The water table in a certain area is at a depth of 4m below the ground surface. To a
depth of 12 m soil consist of fine sand having void ratio 0.65. Above the water table
the sand has a degree of saturation of 50 %. Calculate the effective pressure on a
horizontal plane at a depth of 10 m below the ground surface
2. The water table in a deposit of sand 8m thick is at a depth of 3 m. below the surface.
Above the water table the sand is saturated with capillary water. The bulk density of
sand is 19.62kN/m3. Calculate the effective pressure at 1 m, 3 m and 8 m below the
surface. Hence plot the variation of total pressure, neutral pressure and effective
pressure over the depth of 8 m.
3. A 10 m thick bed of sand is underlained by a layer of 6m thickness, the water table
originally at the ground surface lowered by drainage to a depth of 4m, thereupon the
degree of saturation above the lowered water table reduces to 20%. Determine the
increase in magnitude of vertical effective pressure at the middle of clay layer due to
lowering of water table. Saturated unit weight of sand and clay are 20.6 kN/m 3 and
17.6 kN/m3 respectively and the dry unit weight of sand is 16.7 kN/m3
4. The water table in a certain area is at a depth of 4m below the ground surface. To a
depth of 12 m soil consist of fine sand having void ratio 0.65. Above the water table
the sand has a degree of saturation of 50 %. Calculate the effective pressure on a
horizontal plane at a depth of 10 m below the ground surface
5.

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CHAPTER 5

SHEAR STRENGHT OF SOIL

5.1 INTRODUCTION

 The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil
mass can offer to resist failure and sliding
 It is the maximum shear stress before failure
 Soil resists the failure by friction, interlocking and cementation of particles

5.2 PRINCIPLE PLANES AND PRINCIPLE STRESSES

 The planes on which shear stresses are zero are called principle planes
 Major principle plane :The plane with maximum compressive stress (σ1) and zero
shear stress is called major principle plane
 Minor principle plane : The plane with minimum compressive stress (σ3) and zero
shear stress is called minor principle plane
 Intermediate principle plane : The plane which subjected to a stress intermediate to
σ1 and σ3 and zero shear stress

Relation Between σ and σ

( ) ( )

C – cohesion of soil in kN/m2

Φ – Angle of internal friction

(45 ) - Angle of inclined plane with the major axis

2

5.3 STRESS ON ANY INCLINED PLANE

The stress on any plane inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal

σ σ σ -σ
Normal Stress σ = cos

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σ -σ
Shear stress sin

5.4 MOH ’S CI C E

 It is the graphical representation of stresses on any plane

 Normal stress plot along horizontal axis and shear stress along vertical axis

 The point E represent minor principle stress σ3 and point F represents major principle
stress σ1. The point C is the midpoint ( ).

 The circle is drawn with C as center and EF as diameter

 Each point on the circle gives the stress σ and τ on a particular plane

Importants of Mohr’s circle

1. The maximum shear stress τmax is equal to and it occur on a plane inclined at

450 to the principle plane

2. Point D represents the stress (σ , τ) on a plane making an angle θ with major principle

plane and the resultant is √ and its angle with normal is ( )

3. The maximum angle is βmax ( )

4. The shear stress on a plane at right angles to each other are numerically equal but are
of opposite signs

5.5 MOHR- COULOMB THEORY

It states that the failure occur by the critical combination of normal stress and shear stress.
There exists a unique shear stress for a normal stress for failure

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Failure envelope: It is the plane connecting all the critical combination of shear stress and
normal stress at failure

The shear strength of soil is given by

S=c σ tanΦ

Where S- shear strength of soil in kN/m2

C – Cohesion of soil in kN/m2

σ – Normal stress in kN/m2

Φ – Angle of internal friction

C and Φ are called the shear parameters

5.6 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

The following tests are used to measure the shear strength of soil

1. Direct shear test

2. Triaxial shear test
3. Unconfined compression test
4. Vane shear test

The shear test must be conducted under appropriate drainage conditions that simulate the
actual field condition. In shear test, there are two stages:

1. Consolidation stage in which normal stress is applied and allowed to consolidate

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2. Shear stage in which shear force is applied

Depending upon the drainage condition, there are three types of tests

1. Unconsolidated – undrained test (UU test) : No drainage is permitted in both

consolidation and shear stage. As no time is allowed for consolidation the test can be
conducted quickly in a few minutes. Hence it is also called as Quick test or Q test
2. Consolidated- Undrained test (CU test): Drainage is permitted in consolidation stage
but not permitted on shear stage. It is also called R test
3. Consolidated – Drained test (CD test): drainage is allowed in both consolidation and
shear stage. Since this test is very slow , it is also called slow test or S test

5.6.1 Direct Shear Test

Instruments used: Split shear box, container, grid plates, loading frame, set of weights,
proving ring with dial gauge

Procedure:

1. Weigh the required quantity of sand to make the volume of the test specimen in shear
box to the specified density.
2. The two halves of the shear box are held together by locking pins. Insert the bottom
plate and on top of this plate, place the plane grid with serrations at right angles to the
direction of shear.
3. Prepare the sample of size 60x60x25 mm in this box to the specified density.

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4. Insert the plain grid on top of the specimen. Insert the top loading plate and place the
steel ball.
5. Keep the shear box in the container for shear box and set up the loading frame.
6. Keep the loading arm of the shear box in contact with the proving ring. The normal
load is applied on the soil sample.
7. Set up dial gauges for shear displacement and normal displacement measurements.
8. The locking pins are removed.
9. The sample is sheared at a constant rate of deformation (1.25mm/minute or
0.625mm/minute).
10. For specific shear displacement dial readings record proving ring reading and normal
displacement reading.
11. The test is carried out till failure
12. Minimum of three tests on identical specimens for three different normal loads are
carried out in the above manner.
13. The failure envelope is plot for every normal stress and the shear parameters are
determined

Merits and demerits of Direct shear test

 The test is simple and the sample preparation is easy

 Test can be performed rapidly
 Apparatus is relatively cheap

Demerits

 The intermediate stress conditions cannot be determined. So Mohr’s circle cannot be

drawn
 Stress distribution is not uniform
 Orientation of failure plane is fixed as horizontal
 Control of drainage condition is difficult
 Measurements of pore water pressure is not possible

5.6.2 Triaxial Shear Test

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Instruments used: Triaxial loading unit, Triaxial cell, proving ring, dial gauge, split mould,
rubber membrane, pressure unit

Procedure

1. Preparation of Specimen: Take necessary

quantity of soil; prepare the specimen of
specified diameter, with a diameter to height
ratio about 1:2. Prepare at least three
samples under the same conditions.

2. Keep the soil sample inside a rubber

membrane without any entrapped air

3. Fix the specimen on the pedestal of the

triaxial cell by keeping a plane metal disc at bottom of sample and fix the O - ring to the
pedestal.

4. Place the loading pad on the top of the specimen.

6. Connect the pressure unit to the cell to apply the desired lateral pressure (Say 1kg /cm2)

8. Start axial loading immediately. Take axial load reading and the deformation reading at
failure of the specimen.

9. Repeat the test two or more times with identical specimen for different cell pressure (Say,
2 kg /cm2 and 3 kg /cm2).

10. Draw Mohr's stress circle for each test result. Find C and Φ from the shear strength
envelope.

Result and discussion

Confining stress (σc) minor stress (σ3)

Axial stress/ deviatoric stress (σd) σ1 – σ3

5.6.3 Unconfined Compression Test

 This test is conducted for clay soil

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Instrument used: UCC testing unit, proving ring, dial gauge, split mould

Procedure

1. The specimen is prepared at the required

density and water content.
2. Fix the proving ring and the dial gauge to
measure the axial load and the deflection
respectively.
3. Use a strain rate of 1.25 mm percent per
minute.
4. Record the proving ring reading
corresponding to specific deformation shown by dial gauge.
5. Compress the specimen until cracks have definitely developed or the stress - strain
curve is well past its peak or until a vertical deformation of 20 % is reached.
6. Sketch the failure pattern. Take a sample for the determination of moisture content.
7. The maximum value of the axial stress is the unconfined compressive strength of the
sample (qu). The result is reported with water content. Three samples are tested
under the same conditions and the average of the results is to be reported as the
unconfined compressive strength.

 Mohr’s circle can be drawn with minor principle stress (σ3) 0. So the Mohr’s circle
passes through the origin.
 The unconfined compressive strength (qu) = Major principle stress (ie the stress at the
failure)
 The shear strength of soil (undrained shear strength) =

5.6.4 Vane Shear Test

Instruments used: Vertical steel rod with four blades

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Test conducted at the field at the bottom of bore hole

Procedure:

1. Level the ground to be tested

2. The vane shear apparatus is placed over the ground
3. Torque is applied gradually at the handle of vane shear apparatus
4. The Torque is continued till the soil fail in shear. The torque acting is indicated by a
pointer on the apparatus.
5. The shear strength of soil can be determined by using the equation

s
dh d
( )

S – Shear strength in N/cm2

T – Torque applied in N-cm
d- Diameter of vane in cm
h- Height of vane in cm

The vane shear test can be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil

After the initial test the vane is rotated rapidly through the soil such that soil become
remoulded, The test is repeated in remoulded soil and the shear strength in remoulded state is
determined. Thus,

Sensitivity (St) =

Sample questions

1. A specimen of fine dry sand when subjected to triaxial test fails at a deviator stress of
400 kN/m2. The sample failed with an angle 240 to the axis of sample. Compute the
lateral pressure to which the specimen would have been subjected to
2. Differentiate between CU, UU, CD
3. How are the drainage conditions adopted in a triaxial shear test are realized in the
field

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4. Two identical specimen of dry sand are tested in a triaxial cell apparatus with
confining pressure of 150 kPa and 250 kPa respectively. If the angle of internal
friction is 350, what are the values of additional axial stress at the failure of the
specimen
5. A saturated specimen of cohesionless sand was tested in a triaxial compression and
test sample failed at a deviator stress of 482kN/m2 when the cell pressure was
100kN/m2 under the drained conditions. Find the effective angle of shearing
resistance of sand. What would be the deviator stress and the major principle stress at
failure for another identical sample of sand, if it is tested under a cell pressure of
200kN/m2
6. On a saturated triaxial cylindrical specimen of soil, the major and minor principle
stresses applies are 200kN/m2 and 60 kN/m2 respectively. Check whether the test
specimen will fail, if it is assumed that the soil will have c = 5 kN/m2 and angle of
internal friction = 250 with pore water pressure developed being 20 kN/m2
7. A shear vane of 7.5 cm diameter and 11 cm length was used to measure the shear
strength of a soft clay. If a torque of 600 N-m was required to shear the soil, calculate
the shear strength of soil. The vane was then rotated rapidly to cause remoulding of
the soil. The torque required in the remoulded state was 200 N-m. Determine the
sensitivity of the soil.
8.

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CHAPTER 6

CONSOLIDATION

Compression of soil due to the escape of water when external load is applied is called
consolidation

6.1 INITIAL. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

Consolidation of soil can be divided into 3 stages

 Initial Consolidation
 Primary Consolidation
 Secondary Consolidation

Initial Consolidation

 The reduction in volume of soil just after the application of load

 It is due to compression of solid particle

Primary Consolidation

 After initial consolidation, reduction in volume occur due to expulsion of water from
voids

Secondary Consolidation

 The reduction in volume continues even after the primary consolidation is over.
 It is due to the rearrangement of soil and water particles.

6.2 SPRING ANALOGY FOR CONSOLIDATION

 Given by Terzaghi
 The process of consolidation is explained with the help of spring analogy
 The system consists of a cylinder fitted with a piston having a valve. The cylinder is
filled with water and contains a spring.
 Consider initially the length of spring is 100 mm
 When a load P (say 1N) is applied to the piston, with valve closed, the entire load is
taken by water. No load is taken by Spring
o Load taken by water = 1N
o Load taken by spring = 0
 If the valve is gradually opened, water starts escaping from the cylinder. The spring
starts sharing the load and a decrease in its length occurs
 As more and more water escapes from cylinder, the load carried by the spring
increases

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 Finally steady conditions are established and the total load is taken by the spring. The
load causes a decrease in its length to 90 mm
 Now if the load P is increased to 2N, the process of transfer of load repeats and finally
the spring takes the complete load and its length become 80 mm. Likewise the process
is repeated

6.3 CONSOLIDATION TEST

Instruments Required: Loading Device. Consolidometer

Procedure:

1. The consolidation ring is filled with soil paste

2. Transfer the consolidation ring to the loading device and fix the compression dial
gauge.
3. Apply a seating load of 0.05kg/cm2.
4. Take the initial dial reading and apply the specified load increment without causing
any shock. Start the stopwatch simultaneously.
5. Take dial gauge reading at time intervals of 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 12.25, 16, 20.25,
25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400, 500, 600
and 1440 minutes
The coefficient of consolidation can be determined by the two method as explained
below

aylor’s method or square root of time fitting method t0.5 v/s d):
1. Draw the curve with square root of time on the abscissa and dial gauge reading
as ordinate.
2. Extend the straight portion of the curve back and mark the corrected zero
point (ds) which is the intersection of this extension with dial gauge reading
axis.
3. Draw a straight line through the corrected zero (ds) having all abscissa 1.15
times larger than the previous straight line portion of the curve.
4. Mark the point where this line cuts the previous curve, the ordinate of which
corresponds to 90% consolidation (d90) and the abscissa represents
corresponding time (t900.5)

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5. Calculate the dial reading d100 corresponding to 100% primary compression

from these values.

Coeffficient of consolidation is given by

B Casagrande’s Method or og Fitting Method:

1. Extend the two straight portion of the curve between the point of inflection at
the top and the final part to meet at a point, the ordinate of which gives d100.
2. locate the corresponding zero points (ds) by laying off above a point in the
neighborhood of t minute a distance equal to the vertical distance between 4t
minute and t minute.
3. Mark the points corresponding to 50% consolidation (d50) which is at the
middle of the ds and d100 and its corresponding time (t50).

Coeffficient of consolidation is given by

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6.4 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Coefficient of compressibility (av)

Decrease in void ration per unit increase in effective stress

Coefficient of volume change (mv)

Volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress

Compression index (Cc)

( )

For undisturbed soil ( )

For remoulded soil ( )

6.5 E Z GHI’S HEO Y OF CONSO IDATION

Assumptions

 Soil is homogenous and isotropic

 Soil is fully saturated
 Solid particle and water are incompressible
 Coefficient of permeability is same at all points
 Darcy’s law is valid
 Soil is laterally confined

Darcy’s law

The dissipation of pore water pressure with depth due to consolidation is given by

The differential equation for consoliadtion

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Where

The solution of difrential equation is given by

( ) ( )

6.6 COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION, CV

Coefficient of Consolidation,

Also

( )

(no unit)

(in cm)

(in minute)

Time facter, Tv

It is a unit less quantity

For U < 60% ( )

For U > 60% ( )

Where U – Degree of consolidation in %

Drainage Path, d

It is the maximum distance travelled by a water particle to escape from the soil

For single drainage, d = H

For Double drainage, d = H/2

6.7 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

(i) Using coefficient volume change

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Settlement

(ii) Using void ratio

Settlement

(iii) Using compression index

Settlement ( )

( )

For undisturbed soil ( )

For remoulded soil ( )

6.8 PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE, NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY

AND OVER CONSOLIDATED CLAY

 Preconsonsolidation: If a soil is consolidated before the stages of construction, it is

said to be preconsolidation

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 Preconsolidation Pressure: It is the maximum stress experienced by a soil in its life

history

Causes of Preconsolidation

1. Due to loads from building and other structures

2. Due to overburden of soil which is later removed by erosion
3. Due to melting of ice
4. Due to tectonic force (Earthquake)
 Normally consolidated Clay (NC) : If the stress in the soil at present is as same as
that of the maximum stress
 Over consolidated Clay (OC) : If the stress in the soil at present is less than that of
the maximum stress
 Over consolidation Ratio (OCR) : it is the ratio of preconsolidation pressure to the
present pressure

For NC , OCR = 1

For OC , OCR > 1

Sample questions

1. Explain piston –spring analogy of Terzaghi to demonstrate consolidation in soil

2. Enumerate the cause of preconsolidation
3. What is preconsolidation pressure..? what is its significance…?
4. Define Coefficient of compressibility, coefficient of volume change and compression
index
5. Write a short note on Drainage Path
6. Define coefficient of volume change and coefficient of compressibility.
7. Explain any one method of determination of coefficient of consolidation, Cv
8. Discuss Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation, stating the various assumptions and their
validity.
9. A saturated clay layer of 5 m thickness taken 1.5 years for 50% consolidation, when
drained on both sides. If the coefficient of volume change mv = 1.5x10-3 m2/kN.
Determine the coefficient of consolidation in m2/year and the coefficient of
permeability in m/year. Assume ϒw = 10 kN/m3
10. Two clay layer A and B are respectively 4 m and 5 m thick. The time taken for layer
A to reach 50% consolidation is 6 months. Calculate the time taken by layer B to

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reach the same degree of consolidation. The coefficient of consolidation of layer B is

half that of A. Both the layers have double drainage.
11. A 3 m thick clay layer beneath a building is overlained by a permeable stratum and is
underlained by an impervious rock. The coefficient of consolidation of the clay layer
was found to be 0.025 cm2/minute. The final expected settlement of the clay layer is 8
cm.
(a) How much time will it take for 80% of the total settlement to take place..?
(b) Determine the time required for a settlement of 2.5 cm to occur
(c) Compute the settlement that would occur in one year
12. The average effective pressure in a normally consolidated clay layer 3 m thick is
doubled due to the construction of a structure. The initial void ratio of the clay is 1.0
and its liquid limit is 54%. Calculate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer
13. A 6 m layer of sand is underlained by 3 m thick layer of clay. There is layer of dense
sand below clay layer. Water table is up to ground level. Submerged unit weight of
sand is 10 kN/m3. Clay layer has a compression index of 0.35, water content 40%,
specific gravity 2.7. Calculate ultimate settlement of clay layer due to increase of
vertical stress of 150 kN/m2 at the center of clay layer.
14. The thickness of saturated specimen of clay under a consolidation pressure of 100
kN/m2 is 22.12 mm and its water content is 14%. On increase of consolidation
pressure to 200 kN/m2, the specimen thickness decrease by 1.28 mm. Determine the
compression index of soil. Assume specific gravity of soil solid as 2.70
15. A soil ha a compression index Cc of 0.28. At a stress of 120 kN/m2. The void ratio
was 1.02. Calculate
(i) The void ratio if the stress on the soil is increased to180 kN/m2.
(ii) The total settlement of the stratum of 6 m thickness
16. A clay stratum 2.5 m thick lies over a sandy stratum and has drainage on both sides.
Calculate the values of pore water pressure and effective stress at the middle of the
clay layer when 60% consolidation has taken place under an increment of load from 5
kg/cm2 to 25 kg/cm2
17. In an odometer test, a clay specimen initially 25 mm thick attains 90% consolidation
in 10 minutes, in the field the clay stratum from which the specimen was obtained ha
a thickness of 6 m and is sandwiched between two sand layers. A structure
constructed on his clay experience an ultimate settlement of 200 mm. Estimate the
settlement at the end of 100 days after construction.

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CHAPTER 7

STABILITY OF SLOPES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

 Any inclined soil mass is called as soil slope

 The stability of soil slope depends on the strength of the Soil slope. If the stress
developed in the soil slope is more than the strength of the soil slope, then it will fail

The factors causing slope failures

 Due to surcharge loads
 Increase in pore water pressure
 Seepage pressure
 Steepening of slopes
 Due to excavation or erosion
 Increase in water content
 Due to cyclic loads like earthquake

7.2 TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE

Different types of slope failures are

1. Rotational failure
2. Translational failure
3. Compound failure

Rotational failure
 Failure occurs by the rotation along a slip surface by downward and outward
movement of soil mass
 The slip surface is generally circular
Rotational failures are further divided into
a) Toe failure: The failure occurs along the surface that passes through the toe
b) Slope failure: The failure occurs along the surface that intersect the slope above the
toe
a. Weak plane exists above toe
c) Base failure: The failure occurs along the surface that passes below the toe
a. Weak plane exist below toe

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Translational failure
 Occurs in infinite slope
 Occurs along the surface parallel to the slope

Compound failure
 Combination of rotational failure and translational failure
 A compound failure is curved at both ends and plane in the middle

7.3 SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

The stability of slopes depends on the stress developed and the strength of the slope. The
ratio of strength to the stress developed is defined as the factor of safety of slope. The slope is
stable if the factor of safety is greater than 1.

The Factor of safety for slope is defined in three different terms

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1. Factor of safety with respect to Shear strength (Fs)

The ratio of shear strength to the shear stress developed is defined as the factor of safety with
respect to Shear strength

S – shear strength
τm – Shear stress developed
c – cohesion
cm – Cohesion mobilized (developed)
σ – Normal presusure
ϕ – friction angle
ϕm – friction angle mobilized (developed)

2. Factor of safety with respect to Cohesion (Fc)

The ratio of available cohesion (c) to the mobilized cohesion (cm) is defined as the factor of
safety with respect to cohesion

3. Factor of safety with respect to friction (Fϕ)

The ratio of available friction (ϕ) to the mobilized friction (ϕm) is defined as the factor of
safety with respect to friction

In slope stability analysis, Generally the three factor of safety are taken equal

7.3.1 aylor’s Stability Number and Stability Charts

Stability number
The stability number (Sn) is defines as

Stability charts
Stability charts indicates the stability number for different slope angle i and friction angle ϕm

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7.3.2 Graphical Method of Slope Stability Analysis

1. Swedish Circle Method

2. Friction Circle Method

Swedish Circle Method

 It is also called method of slices
Procedure
1. Consider a slope ADB
2. AB be the circular surface with radius r and center O
3. Take a trial wedge (AB) and divide it into number of slices
4. Determine weight of each slice
5. The weight is resolved into normal and tangential components
Normal component = N
Tangential component = T
6. The curved length of each slice is determined
7. The factor of safety is determined using equation
∑ ∑
∑
8. The whole procedure is repeated for a new trial wedge and corresponding factor of
safety is determined
9. The circular wedge which gives the minimum factor of safety is the critical circle

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Friction Circle Method

 Failure slip surface is assumed as circular arc

Procedure
1. Determine c, ϕ, γ and slope angle I of the soil slope
2. Draw the slope on a graph sheet with suitable scale
3. Consider a trial slip surface with radius r and and center O
4. Draw a friction circle with radius rsinυ
5. Draw tangent to the friction circle. The tangent direction is the dirction of normal
reaction and direction of mobilized friction υm
6. Determine Fϕ for ϕm obtained

7. For the slope angle I, determine Sn For ϕm from the stability charts
8. Determine Cm for Sn

9. Calculate Fc for Cm

10. Similarly consider several trial failure surface and obtain values of Fc and Fϕ for each
trial surface
11. Plot a graph between Fc and Fϕ and determine the factor of safety Fc = Fϕ = Fs

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Sample Questions
1. What are the different types of slope failure?

2. Explain the method of slope stability analysis by Swedish circle method

3. Explain the method of slope stability analysis by friction circle method

4. What is the significance of stability number?

5. A vertical cut is made in a clay deposit having c = 30 kN/m, υ = 0, and ϒ = 16 kN/m3.

Find the maximum height of cut which can be temporarily supported

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CHAPTER 8
COMPACTION OF SOIL

 Densification of soil by removal of air, by mechanical means. It is by the

rearrangement of soil particles into a closest state by the expulsion of air
 When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the
soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position.
 The density first increases as the moisture content increases. Beyond certain moisture
content, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight. This
phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the spaces that would have been
occupied by the solid particles. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit
weight is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture content (OMC).

8.1 OBJECTIVES OF COMPACTION

 To increase strength and bearing capacity of soil

 To reduce the settlement of soil
 To reduce the permeability of soil

8.2 LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST

 To determine the optimum moisture content to obtain maximum density

 Two tests
1. Light compaction test (Standard procter test)
2. Heavy compaction test (Modified procter test)

1. Light compaction test (Standard procter test)

Test Apparatus

1. Cylindrical mold with diameter of 10cm and height of 12.7 cm.

2. Hammer with a mass of 2.6 kg and free fall height of 31 cm.

Procedure:

1. The soil is compacted in the cylindrical mold. During the test, the mold is attached to
a base plate at the bottom and to an extension at the top.
2. The soil (3 kg) is mixed with varying amounts of water
3. The soil is compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to
each layer.
4. For each test, the wet density of compaction can be calculated as

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5. Dry density of soil is calculated as

The values of dry density determined can be plotted against the corresponding moisture
contents to obtain the maximum dry density (MDD) for the soil and the optimum moisture
content (OMC).

Compaction curve

2. Heavy compaction test (Modified procter test)

Test Apparatus

1. Cylindrical mold with diameter of 10cm and height of 12.7 cm.

2. Hammer with a mass of 4.9 kg and free fall of 45 cm.

Procedure:

The procedure is same as that of light compaction test. The soil taken is 5 kg. The soil is
compacted in five layers with 25 tamping.

8.3 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

1. Type of soil : Coarse grained soil attain high dry density at low OMC than that of fine
grained soil (Fig f1)

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Fig f1 Fig f2 Fig f3

2. Water content: Initially the dry density increases with water content. Beyond a certain
limit the dry density decreases (Fig f2)
Initially at lower water content, soil is stiff. As the water content increases the soil get
lubricated. Hence on compaction the soil particles slide over the other and achieve
most dense state increasing the density of soil. But beyond optimum, water takes up
the spaces that would have been occupied by the solid particles. Hence density
decreases.
3. Compaction effort: As the amount of compaction ( or number of blow) increases, the
dry density also increases. (Fig f3)
4. Method of compaction: The soils in the fields are compacted using different methods.
The density achieved also depends on the methods adopted.
5. Admixtures: The compaction of a soil can be improved by adding some admixtures.
The commonly using admixtures are lime, cement and bitumen

8.4 EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The effect of compaction on various soil properties is discussed below. Here dry of optimum
means when the water content is less than the optimum and wet of optimum means when the
water content is more than the optimum

Soil properties Dry side Wet side

1. Soil structure Flocculated structure Dispersed structure
Decrease with increase in Increase with increase in
2. Permeability
water content water content
3. Swelling More swelling Less swelling
4. Pore water
Less PWP High PWP
pressure(PWP)
5. Shrinkage Less shrinkage More shrinkage
6. Compressibilty Less compressible Highly compressible
7. Stress-strain Steeper stress-strain curve and Flattened stress-strain curve
relationship high modulus of elasticity and low modulus of elasticity
8. Shear strength More Shear strength Less Shear strength

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8.5 PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT

 The water content applied in the field for compaction is called placement water
content
 It may be different from OMC obtained in the lab.
 To avoid large swelling, soils are compacted with water content more than the OMC
 To obtain more shear strength, soil is compacted with water content less than the
OMC

8.6 RELATIVE COMPACTION

The maximum dry density obtained in the field may be different from maximum dry density
obtained in the lab

The ratio of dry density in the field to the mximum density obtained in the lab is known as
the Relative Compaction

8.7 COMPACTION CONTROL

 It is necessary to check the density and water content in the field to achieve effective
compaction
 Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and water content of the
compacted soil in the field

Control of Density

 Dry density in the field are measured by core cutter method or sand replacement
method

Control of Water content

 Water content in the field is measured by calcium carbide method, alcohol method,
sand bath method and Procter needle method

Compaction control by Procter needle method

 Used to measure the water content in the field

 Proctor’s needle consists of a point, attached to graduated needle shank and spring
loaded plunger.
 Varying cross sections of needle points are available.
 The needle is penetrated into the soil
 The penetration force is read on stem at top.
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 The force required for penetration depends upon the water content
 A calibration curve is prepared between water content and penetration resistant
 Water content is determined from the calibration curve corresponding to the
penetration

Procter Needle

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Sample questions

1. Differentiate between compaction and consolidation

2. What do you mean by field compaction control…? How is it achieved..?
3. Write a short note on Compaction Control…?
4. Discuss on factors affecting compaction
5. Mention objectives of compaction
6. With sketches, discuss on the use of procter needle in field compaction control
7. Explain modified procter test
8. What is the effect of compaction on the engineering properties of the soil..?
9. What are the different methods of compaction adopted in the field…? How would you
select the type of roller to be used.
10. The following are the results of standard Procter test performed on a sample of soil

Water 7.7 11.5 14.6 17.5 19.7 21.2

content%
Weight of 1.7 1.89 2.03 1.99 1.96 1.92
wet soil
(kg)

If the volume of the mould used was 950 cc and the specific gravity of the soil solid is
2.65, make necessary calculations and plot the water content-dry density curve and
obtain the optimum water content and the maximum dry density

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