Quantum mechanics - Problem Set 2

Ying-Lun Kao(B03202072)
Department of physics, National Taiwan University

October 12, 2016

1. Two observables A1 and A2 , which do not involve time explicitly, are

known not to commute,
[A1 , A2 ] 6= 0,
yet we also know that A1 and A2 both commute with the Hamiltonian:

[A1 , H] = 0, [A2 , H] = 0.

Prove that the energy eigenstates are, in general, degenerate. Are there
exceptions? As an example, you may think of the central-force problem
H = p2 /2m + V (r), with A1 → Lz , A2 → Lx .

Proof. My strategy is postulating an eigenvalue equation of H first, then

I think I can derive another similar eigenvalue equation which shows the
energy eigenstates are, in general, degenerate once we use all above given
conditions. Let us assume that

H |ψi = E |ψi . (1)

In order to use commutation relations, I let AH operator act on the ket

|ψi,
AH |ψi = EA |ψi . (2)
Note that A |ψi is still a ket living in the Hilbert Space. Therefore, we
define |φi ≡ A |ψi. With the commutation relation and Eq.(2),

HA |ψi = H |φi = AH |ψi = E |φi . (3)

(
H |ψi = E |ψi
∴ (4)
H |φi = E |φi
Now, we need to explain the possible interpretations of Eq.(4). We assume
that the energy eigenstates are degenerate. It is what we want. That is
to say
|φi =
6 C |ψi =⇒ A |ψi = 6 C |ψi , (5)
where C is a complex number. That means |ψi is not the eigenket of
operator A if the energy eigenstates are degenerate. On the other hand, |ψi
is the eigenket of operator A if and only if Eq.(4) is just one equation which

1
means we have not found any possible degeneracy of the Hamiltonian, H.
Anyway, there are always lots of state kets which are not the eigenkets
of operator A so that the energy eigenstates are, in general, degenerate.
Note that operator A could be either A1 or A2 . Therefore, we get a general
degenerate principle:
If |ψi is not the eigenket of A1 , yet it is still the eigenket of H,
then its degenerate ket is A1 |ψi. And if |ψi is not the eigenket
of A2 , yet it is still the eigenket of H, then its degenerate ket is
A2 |ψi.
However, there is one more equation we’ve not used. That is

[A1 , A2 ] 6= 0 (6)

My concern is, if |φi = A1 |ψi, then does the above degenerate principle
still apply to |φi? I think this is into where the incompatible relation of
A1 and A2 play. Suppose that |φi = A1 |ψi, then we need to know where
it would be the eigenket of A1 or A2 . Needless to say, |φi must be the
eigenket of A1 . What about A2 ?

A2 |φi = A2 A1 |ψi . (7)

With the definition of commutator, we assume that |φi is the eigenket of

A2 ,
(A1 A2 − [A1 , A2 ]) |ψi = λ |φi
(8)
=⇒ A2 |ψi = λ |ψi and [A1 , A2 ] = 0,
where λ is a complex number. However, we know that [A1 , A2 ] 6= 0 so
that |ψi is not the eigenket of A2 . Finally, we can say that if |αi is the
eigenket of Hamiltonian, rather than A1 , then its energy degeneracies are

{A1 |αi , A2 A1 |αi , A1 A2 A1 |αi , · · · }.

Similarly, if |βi is the energy eigenstate, yet it is not the eigenket of A2 ,

then its energy degeneracies are

{A2 |βi , A1 A2 |βi , A2 A1 A2 |βi , · · · }.

Now we are in the position of finding the exceptions. Is it possible that

premises are not valid? First, there must be energy eigenstates. But,
maybe all of them are also the eigenkets of A1 (or A2 ) just with different
eigenvalues (except for A1 ∝ H or A2 ∝ H, for it leads to [A1 , A2 ] = 0)?
That is to say, A1 (or A2 ) and H have simultaneous but non-degenerate
eigenkets. I think it is mathematically possible because I’ve not thought
of any physical example.

As for the central-force problem example,


2
H = p /2m + V (r)

A1 → Lz (9)

A2 → Lx


2
 For hydrogen atom,

H |n, l, m, si = En |n, l, m, si (10)

Since |n, l, m, si is the simultaneous eigenket of H and Lz , yet it is not the

eigenket of Lx , I think Lx |n, l, m, si is still the eigenket of H. Besides,
from Griffiths p.170-171,
   
1 2 ∂ 2 ∂ 2
H= −~ r + L + V (r), (11)
2mr2 ∂r ∂r
 
~ ∂ ∂
Lx = −sin − cosφ cotθ , (12)
i ∂θ ∂φ
~ ∂
Lz = . (13)
i ∂φ
Therefore, we know that
(
[Lx , Lz ] 6= 0,
(14)
[Lx , H] = 0, [Lz , H] = 0.

Hence, |n, m, l, si is the eigenket of H, yet it is not the eigenket of Lx , so

that

H(Lx |n, l, m, si) = Lx H |n, l, m, si = En (Lx |n, l, m, si). (15)

From Eq.(10) and Eq.(15), we conclude that the degenerate ket of |n, l, m, si
is Lx |n, l, m, si. Moreover, the following eigenkets are also the degenerate
kets of |n, l, m, si,

{Lz Lx |n, l, m, si , Lx Lz Lx |n, l, m, si , · · · }.

2. Find the linear combination of |+i and |−i kets that maximizes the un-
certainty product
h(∆Sx )2 i h(∆Sy )2 i .
Verify explicitly that for the linear combination you found, the uncertainty
relation for Sx and Sy is not violated.

Proof. We want to show that

1
h(∆Sx )2 i h(∆Sy )2 i ≥ | h[Sx , Sy ]i |2 . (16)
4
We know the definition of uncertainty is

∆A ≡ A − hAi I. (17)

Therefore,
2 2
h(∆Sx )2 i h(∆Sy )2 i = (hSx2 i − hSx i )(hSy2 i − hSy i ) (18)

3
Suppose that
|ψi = α |+i + β |−i (19)
In addition,
1 1
|+i = √ |x; +i + √ |x; −i
2 2
(20)
1 1
|−i = √ |x; +i − √ |x; −i
2 2
1 1
|+i = √ |y; +i + √ |y; −i
2 2
(21)
i i
|−i = − √ |y; +i + √ |y; −i
2 2
By Eq.(18), Eq.(19), and Eq.(20), the |ψi can be rewritten as

α+β α−β
|ψi = √ |x; +i + √ |x; −i
2 2
(22)
α − iβ α + iβ
= √ |y; +i + √ |y; −i
2 2
Therefore,  
α+β α−β
hSx i = √ hx; +| + √ hx; −| ×
2 2
 
~ α+β α−β (23)
√ |x; +i − √ |x; −i
2 2 2
~

= αβ + βα
2
 
α + iβ α − iβ
hSy i = √ hy; +| + √ hy; −| ×
2 2
 
~ α − iβ α + iβ (24)
√ |y; +i − √ |y; −i
2 2 2
i~

= −αβ + βα
2
 
α+β α−β
hSx2 i = √ hx; +| + √ hx; −| ×
2 2
~2 α + β
 
α−β (25)
√ |x; +i + √ |x; −i
4 2 2
2
~
|α|2 + |β|2


=
4
 
2 α + iβ α − iβ
hSy i = √ hy; +| + √ hy; −| ×
2 2
~2 α − iβ
 
α + iβ (26)
√ |y; +i + √ |y; −i
4 2 2
~2
|α|2 + |β|2


=
4

4
 (b) side-view figure
(c) side-view figure
(a) Overview

Figure 1: Search for the maximum points

With Born’s rule,

|α|2 + |β|2 = 1, (27)
we define β as p
β≡ 1 − α2 eiδ ,
where δ is a real number. Therefore,
~2
h(∆Sx )2 i = 1 − 4α2 (1 − α2 )cos2 δ


(28)
4
Similarly,
~2
h(∆Sy )2 i = 1 − 4α2 (1 − α2 )sin2 δ


(29)
4
Let us plug Eq.(28), Eq.(29) into Eq.(18), then we will get
2 2
h(∆Sx )2 i h(∆Sy )2 i = (hSx2 i − hSx i )(hSy2 i − hSy i )
~4
1 − 4α2 (1 − α2 )cos2 δ 1 − 4α2 (1 − α2 )sin2 δ



= (30)
16
~4 
1 − 4α2 (1 − α2 ) + 4α4 (1 − α2 )2 sin2 2δ

=
16
Then I use “Grapher” to determine the maximum. I found that there is
maximum once α = 0, ±1 (see fig.(1-a) - fig.(1-c)). Then the maximum is

 ~4
h(∆Sx )2 i h(∆Sy )2 i  = (31)

α=0,±1 16
On the other hand, we know
[Sx , Sy ] = i~Sz
1 ~2
=⇒ | h[Sx , Sy ]i |2 = | hSz i |2
4 4 (32)
 2
~2 ~ ~4
= |α − β|2 = |α − β|2
4 2 16
Therefore, when α = 0, ±1,
1 ~4
| h[Sx , Sy ]i |2 = (33)
4 16
I conclude that the uncertainty relation for Sx and Sy really holds.

5
3. (a) Suppose that f (A) is a function of a Hermitian operator A with the
property A |a0 i = a0 |a0 i. Evaluate hb00 |f (A)|b0 i when the transforma-
tion matrix from the a0 basis to the b0 basis is known.

Proof.
X
hb00 |f (A)|b0 i = hb00 |a(i) i ha(i) |f (A)|a(j) i ha(j) |b0 i
i,j
X
= f (a(j) )δij hb00 |a(i) i ha(j) |b0 i
i,j
X (34)
= f (a(i) ) hb00 |a(i) i ha(i) |b0 i
i
X
= f (a ) ha00 |U † |a(i) i ha(i) |U |a0 i
(i)

(b) Using the continuum analogue of the result obtained in (a), evaluate

hp00 |F (r)|p0 i .
p
Simplify your expression as far as you can. Note that r is x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
where x, y, z are operators.

Proof. For the continuous spectra, the transformation function from

the x-representation to the p-representation is
 0 0
0 0 1 ip x
hx |p i = √ exp (35)
2π~ ~

By using the completeness relations

Z
d3 x0 |x0 i hx0 | = 1, (36)
Z
d3 p0 |p0 i hp0 | = 1, (37)

the hp00 |F (r)|p0 i could be rewritten as

ZZ
hp00 |F (r)|p0 i = d3 x0 d3 x00 hp00 |x00 i hx00 |F (r)|x0 i hx0 |p0 i
 0 0
i(p · r − p00 · r00 )
ZZ 
1 3 0 3 00 0 0 00
= d x d x F (r )δ(r − r )exp (38)
2π~ ~
 0
i(p − p00 ) · r0
Z 
1
= d3 r0 F (r0 )exp
2π~ ~

4. (a) Verify (7.39a) and (7.39b) for the expectation value of p and p2 from
the Gaussian wave packet (7.35).

6
Proof. By the following identity, we can verify the hpi and hp2 i with-
out using the momentum-space wave function (7.42):

∂n
Z
hβ|pn |αi = dx0 ψβ∗ (x0 )(−i~)n 0n ψα (x0 ). (39)
∂x
Therefore, Z  
∂
hpi = dx0 ψα∗ (x0 ) −i~ 0 ψα (x0 ). (40)
∂x
The Gaussian wave packet (7.35) is

x02
   
1
ψα (x0 ) = hx0 |αi = √ exp ikx0 − 2 . (41)
π 1/4 d 2d

Let us plug Eq.(41) into Eq.(40), we get

 02  
x0

−i~
Z
x
hpi = √ dx0 exp − 2 ik − 2
πd d d
Z  02  Z  02  (42)
~k x i~ x
=√ exp − 2 dx0 + √ 3 x0 exp − 2 dx0
πd d πd d

By Gaussian integral,
∞
Z r
2 b2 π
e−ax +bx
dx = e 4a . (43)
−∞ a

We know that ∞  02 
√
Z
x
dx0 exp − 2 = πd (44)
−∞ d
Besides,
x02
Z  
0
x exp − 2 dx0 = 0, (45)
d
since the integrand is an odd function. Hence, after plugging Eq.(44)
and Eq.(45) into Eq.(43), we get

~k √
hpi = √ πd = ~k (46)
πd

Similarly, for hp2 i,

∂2
Z
dx0 ψα∗ (x0 )(−i~)2 02 ψα (x0 )
hp2 i =
∂x
02
2 Z
x02
  2   
−~ x ∂
=√ dx0 exp −ikx0 − 2 exp ikx0
−
πd 2d ∂x02 2d2
(47)
−~2 x02
Z  
=√ dx0 exp −ikx0 − 2 ×
πd 2d
0
x02
   
∂ x 0
ik − exp ikx −
∂x0 d2 2d2

7
 The partial differentiation term is:

x0 x02
   
∂ 0
ik − exp ikx −
∂x0 d2 2d2
x0 x02
   
= ik ik − 2 exp ikx0 − 2
d 2d
02 0 0
(48)
x02
     
1 0 x x x 0
− 2 exp ikx − 2 − 2 ik − 2 exp ikx − 2
d 2d d d 2d
0 02
x02
   
2 1 i2kx x 0
= −k − 2 − + 4 exp ikx − 2 .
d d2 d 2d

Therefore
−~2 x02
Z  
2 0 0
hp i = √ dx exp −ikx − 2 ×
πd 2d
0 02
x02
   
2 1 i2kx x 0
−k − 2 − + 4 exp ikx − 2 (49)
d d2 d 2d
02
 02 
~2
Z  
1 x x
= −√ dx0 −k 2 − 2 + 4 exp − 2 ,
πd d d d

where I’ve used Eq.(45). Then, after taking Gaussian integral Eq.(43)
partial differentiation with respect to a, we get
Z ∞ r
02 02

0 1 π
x exp −ax dx = . (50)
−∞ 2 a3

Therefore,
√ 3 √
x02
Z  02 
x 0 πd π
4
exp − 2 dx = 4
= . (51)
d d 2d 2d

Finally, √ 
~2 1 √
 
π
hp2 i = − √ −k 2 − 2 πd +
πd d 2d
 
1
= −~2 −k 2 − 2 (52)
2d
2
~
= 2 + ~2 k 2
2d

(b) Evaluate the expectation value of p and p2 using the momentum-

space wave function (7.42).

Proof. From the Gaussian wave packet (7.35),

x02
   
0 1 0
hx |αi = √ exp ikx − 2 , (53)
π 1/4 d 2d

8
we can use Fourier transform to get the hp0 |αi.
Z
hp0 |αi = dx0 hp0 |x0 i hx0 |αi

−ip0 x0
Z  
1 0
=√ dx exp hx0 |αi (54)
2π~ ~
x02 p0
 Z  
1 1
=√ √ exp − 2 + i(k − )x0 dx0
2π~ π 1/4 d 2d ~
By Gaussian integral,
∞
Z r
−ax2 +bx b2 π
e dx = e 4a . (55)
−∞ a
We know that
0 !r
−(k − p~ )2
 
0 1 1 π
hp |αi = √ √ exp
2π~ π 1/4d 2/d21/2d2
√ 0 !
1 2πd −(k − p~ )2 d2
=√ √ exp (56)
2π~ π 1/4 d 2
s
−(p0 − ~k)2 d2
 
d
= √ exp
~ π 2~2

Now we can verify hpi and hp2 i directly.

Z
hpi = dp0 hα|p0 i p0 hp0 |αi
(57)
−(p0 − ~k)2 d2
Z  
d 0
= √ p exp dp0
~ π ~2
Let u ≡ p0 − ~k,
∞
u2 d2
Z  
d
hpi = √ (u + ~k)exp − 2 du
~ π −∞ ~
Z  2 2
kd u d
=√ exp − 2 du (58)
π ~
r
kd π~2
=√ = ~k.
π d2
Similarly,
−(p0 − ~k)2 d2
Z  
d
hp2 i = √ p02 exp dp0 (59)
~ π ~2
Let u ≡ p0 − ~k,
Z  2 2
d u d
hp2 i = √ (u + ~k)2 exp − 2 du
~ π ~
 2 2
k 2 ~d
Z Z  2 2
d u d u d
= √ u2 exp − 2 du + √ exp − 2 du (60)
~ π ~ π ~
r r
d 1 π~6 k 2 ~d π~2 ~2
= √ + √ = + ~2 k 2
~ π2 d6 π d2 2d2

9
5. (a) Prove the following:

i. hp0 |x|αi = i~ ∂p
∂ 0
0 hp |αi ,

R ∂
ii. hβ|x|αi = dp0 φ∗β (p0 )i~ φα (p0 ),
∂p0

where φα (p0 ) = hp0 |αi and φβ (p0 ) = hp0 |βi are momentum-space wave
functions.

Proof. We know the commutation relation of x and p,

[x, p] = i~. (61)

Therefore
hp0 |[x, p]|αi = hp0 |xp − px|αi
(62)
= hp0 |xp|αi − hp0 |px|αi
Since momentum operator p is Hermitian,

hp0 |[x, p]|αi = hp0 |xp|αi − p0 hp0 |x|αi (63)

With the commutation relation Eq.(64),

=⇒ p0 hp0 |x|αi = hp0 |xp|αi − i~ hp0 |αi (64)

Now I need to rewritten the hp0 |xp|αi, by the identity relation,

Z
hp |xp|αi = dx0 hp0 |x|x0 i hx0 |p|αi
0

√ Z (65)
ip0 x0
  
−i ~ 0 ∂ 0 0
= √ x exp − hx |αi dx
2π ~ ∂x0

Using integration by parts,

r
ip0 x0 ip0 x0
Z    
0 ~ 0
hp |xp|αi = i hx |αi 1 − exp − dx0
2π ~ ~
ip0 x0
Z  
~
= i√ exp − hx0 |αi dx0 (66)
2π~ ~
ip0 x0 ip0 x0
Z  
~
−i √ exp − hx0 |αi dx0
2π~ ~ ~

Since Z
hp0 |αi = dx0 hp0 |x0 i hx0 |αi
(67)
ip0 x0
Z  
1
=√ dx0 exp − hx0 |αi ,
2π~ ~

10
we can derive that
hp0 |xp|αi = i~ hp0 |αi
ip0 x0
 Z   
∂ 1
+ ip0 ~ √ exp − 0
hx |αi dx0
∂p0 2π~ ~ (68)
∂
= i~ hp0 |αi + i~p0 0 hp0 |αi .
∂p
Now, let us plug Eq.(68) into Eq.(64),
∂
p0 hp0 |x|αi = i~p0 hp0 |αi (69)
∂p0
∂
=⇒ hp0 |x|αi = i~ hp0 |αi (70)
∂p0
For the second formula,
ZZ
hβ|x|αi = dp0 dp00 hβ|p0 i hp0 |x|p00 i hp00 |αi (71)

Besides,
ZZ
hp0 |x|p00 i = dx0 dx00 hp0 |x0 i hx0 |x|x00 i hx00 |p00 i
ZZ
= dx0 dx00 hp0 |x0 i x00 δ(x0 − x00 ) hx00 |p00 i
Z
= x0 hp0 |x0 i hx0 |p00 i dx0 (72)
 00
(p − p0 )x0
Z 
= x0 exp i dx0
~
(p0 − p00 )x0
Z  
∂ ∂
= −i~ 00 exp −i dx0 = −i~ 00 δ(p0 − p00 )
∂p ~ ∂p

Plugging Eq.(72) into Eq.(71),

ZZ
∂
hβ|x|αi = −i~ dp0 dp00 hβ|p0 i hp00 |αi 00 δ(p0 − p00 ) (73)
∂p
Using integration by parts,
"Z
∞
hβ|x|αi = −i~ dp0 hβ|p0 i hp00 |αi δ(p0 − p00 )

−∞
ZZ # (74)
∂
− dp0 dp00 hβ|p0 i δ(p0 − p00 ) 00 hp00 |αi
∂p
Z
∂
=⇒ hβ|x|αi = hp0 |αi
dp0 hβ|p0 i i~
∂p0
Z (75)
∂
= dp0 φ∗β (p0 )i~ 0 φα (p0 )
∂p

11
(b) What is the physical significance of
 
ixΞ
exp ,
~
where x is the position operator and Ξ is some number with the
dimension of momentum? Justify your answer.

Proof. Since the translation operator in position space is

 
ip∆x
T (∆x) = exp , (76)
~
I guess its physical significance should be the translation operator in
momentum space. After all, they have some symmetries of x and p.
If it is the translation operator in momentum space, then
 
ixΞ
exp |p0 i = |p0 + Ξi , (77)
~
just like  
ip∆x
exp |x0 i = |x0 + ∆xi . (78)
~
That means, if we can prove the following equation, then everything
is done!
       
ixΞ 0 0 ixΞ 0
p exp |p i = (p + Ξ) exp |p i (79)
~ ~
There is one way to prove it. Consider the commutator
   " X  k #
ixΞ 1 ixΞ
p, exp = p,
~ k! ~
k
(80)
X 1 (iΞ)k 
p, xk

= k
k! ~
k

By this theorem,
n−1
X
[A, B n ] = B i [A, B]B n−i−1 , (81)
i=0

we can derive that

k−1
1 (iΞ)k X j
   X
ixΞ
p, exp = x [p, x]xk−j−1
~ k! ~k j=0
k

X (iΞ)k k−1
X X (iΞ)k
k−1
= (−i~)x = k(−i~)xk−1
k!~k j=0 k!~k
k k
 k−1   (82)
X 1 ixΞ iΞ
= (−i~)
(k − 1)! ~ ~
k=1
X 1 ixΞ k
  
ixΞ

=Ξ = Ξ exp
k! ~ ~
k=0

12
Let this commutator act on the |p0 i,
      
ixΞ ixΞ ixΞ
p, exp |p0 i = p exp |p0 i − exp p |p0 i
~ ~ ~
     
ixΞ ixΞ ixΞ
∴ Ξexp |p0 i + p0 exp |p0 i = p exp |p0 i
~ ~ ~
        (83)
ixΞ ixΞ
=⇒ p exp |p0 i = (p0 + Ξ) exp |p0 i
~ ~
 
ixΞ
=⇒ exp |p0 i = |p + Ξi
~

13