Container Terminal in Durban Port

Compiled by: Mrs M.B. Masuku

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Message from the Author

Maritime education normally begins at Tertiary level however implementation of maritime

studies at Secondary level will give learners a wide scope of career choice. Furthermore, career
choice can be affected by not having a variety of things to choose at. One cannot choose an
invisible career henceforth, knowledge about sea careers can attract young people to join
seafaring profession in a long term. Culture of going to sea should be injected to the learners
as early as in Secondary School.

Education should develop interest and promote awareness.

It should be noted that students learn about careers through interaction with their families,
schools, society, peer group and media, One should ask that if the family members do not know
about seafaring professions, society is not well informed, the media saying nothing about
maritime careers only sea accidents, schools not providing maritime knowledge, how are they
going to be attracted to this profession?.

Therefore, Maritime careers and skills development (MCSD) intends to encourage and
assist schools to provide maritime education so that all communities should understand and
appreciate the benefit and career prospect in maritime environment.

Contact us:

Mobile phone: 078 0075 188

Fax no. 086 568 4682

Email address: [email protected]

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TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Employment of the crew 8
1.1.1 Deck Department 8-9
1.1.2 Engineering department 10
1.1.3 Regulating crew size 11

1.2 Role of various parties with respect to ship’s crew 12

1.2.1 Ship Operator - Employment of the crew 13
1.3 International Transport Workers Federation 13
1.3.1 Objectives 13-14
1.3.2 Flag of Convenience compaign 14
1.3.3 What is FOC 16
1.3.4 FOC Countries 17-18
1.3.5 What do FOC mean to seafarers 18

1.4 International Labour Organization 20

1.4.1 Introduction 20
1.4.2 Structure of the ILO 21
1.4.3 The Governing Body 22
1.4.4 The International Labour office 22-23

1.5 Ship Ownership, Management and Operation Company Plan 24

1.5.1 Basic ship owning company functions 24
1.5.2 Ship operating functions 24
1.5.3 Other shipping company functions 24
1.5.4 Operations - department functions 24

1.6 Ship Management Functions 25

1.6.1 Technical Management 25

1.6.2 Crewing 26
1.6.3 Insurance 26
1.6.4 Freight Management 26
1.6.5 Accounting 26
1.6.6 Chartering 26
1.6.7 Vessel sale or purchase function 26
1.6.8 Provisions 26
1.6.9 Bunkers 26
1.6.10 Operations 26

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1.7 Ship’s costs and Budgets 27
1.7.1 Capital costs 27
1.7.2 Voyage Costs 27
1.7.3 Operating or running costs 27
1.7.4 Ship’s Budget 27

1.8 Charter Parties 28

1.8.1 Voyage Charter 28
1.8.2 Time Charter 28
1.8.3 Bare boat Charter 29

1.9 Modes of ship employment

1.9.1 Employment of a ship as cargo liner 29
1.9.2 Employment of a ship as a tramp 29
1.9.3 Employment as special service vessel 29
1.9.4 Parties involved in chartering
(a) Ship agent 30
(b) Ship broker 31
1.9.5 The Baltic Exchange 31
1.9.6 Ship agent 32
1.9.7 Role, responsibilities and obligations of the ship agent in the international
transport chain 32
1.9.8 Main categories of ship agent
(a) Port agent 33
(b) Cargo agent 33
(c) The owners / Charterers agent 35
(d) Other agency appointment 35
1.9.9 Duties of the agent / delegated authority from the principal
(a) As agent only 35
(b) Agency fee 36

CHAPTER 2
2.1 DEMAND OF MARITME TRANSPORT 36
2.1.1 Introduction 36
2.1.2 Maritime Shipping and Goods Movement 36
2.1.3 Demand factors and international seaborne trade 37
2.2 Major factors affecting the demand of maritime transport 37
2.2.1 Economics factors 37
2.2.2 Political events and development 37

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2.2.3 Natural factors 38
2.2.4 Technical reasons 38
2.2.5 Value vs volume 38
2.2.6 Short term vs long term 38
2.2 Factors influencing types of shipping organization 39-41

CHAPTER 3
3.1 Registration of a ship and Classification 42
3.1.1 The register 43
3.1.2 Classification rules 43
3.1.3 Rules for ship in Lloyds Register 43
3.2 Classification with other societies 45
3.3 Flag state control 46
3.4 Port state control 46
3.5 Classification societies, definition 46
3.6 Classification notations 47
3.7 Assignment, maintenance, suspension and withdrawal of class 48
3.7.1 Assignment of class 48
3.7.2 Maintenance of class
3.7.3 Suspension of class 49
3.7.4 Withdrawal of class 50
3.7.5 Notification of suspension or withdrawal 50
CHAPTER 4 Port operations: Harbours / Port as an Interface 51
4.1 Four important port functions 51
(a) Administration 51
(b) Development 51
(c) Industries 51
(d) Commercial 51

4.2 Major port of the world 53

4.3 Role of a port 54
4.3.1 Who runs a port 54

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4.3.2 Port structure 55-56
4.4 Safety and the environment 58
4.5 Role of stevedores 58
4.6 Port facilities, equipment and their functions 59
(a) Quarantine 59
(b)Customs and immigration 60
© Harbour master 60
(d)Role of the fire emergency services 61
(e) Port security and arrangements 62
(f) Role of tugs 63
(g) Role of harbor pilots 63
(h) Mooring lines 64
(i) Bunker barge 65
(j) A ship’s agent 66
(k) A ship’s chandler 67
(l) Shelter from weather 67
(m)Access to transport 68
(n) Pier 69
(o) Wharfs 69
(p) Bollards 70
(q) Container cranes 70
(r) Mobile cranes 71
(s) Fork lift 72
(t) Straddle carriers 73
(u) Bulk loaders 73
(v) Conveyer Belt 74
(w) Grabs 75
(x) Hoopers 76

4.7 The marine environment 76

4.8 International Laws 78
4.9 Ship’s rubbish 78
(a) ship’s cleaning 79
(b) emptying the bilge 80
4.10 Ship’s emergency plan 81
4.11 Ballast water 81
4.11.1 Discharge of ballast water 82

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4.11.2 Port pollution response 82
4.12 Loading fuel 83
4.12.1 Skimmers 84
4.12.2 Floating boom 85
4.13 Environment monitoring 86
4.14 Port terminals 87
4. 15 New deepwater quay 87
4.16 Basics information on a port 90
CHAPTER 5 CARGO WORK / STOWAGE PLAN
5.1 Cargo work 92
5.1.1 Mate’s receipt, boat notes, bill of lading and manifest 93
5.1.2 Cargo storage 94
5.2.3 Cargo stowage 95
(a) stowage factors 96
(b) stability 96-103
5.2 Loading, discharging and stowing cargo 104
5.2.1 General cargo 106
5.2.2 Refrigerated cargo 107
5.2.3 Liquid bulk cargo – oil tankers 113
5.2.4 Dry bulk cargo 117-120
5.3 Loading & unloading containers 121
5.3.1 Container lashing 125
5.3.2 Container position numbering 126
5.3.3 Vocabulary of conventional cargo stowage 129
CLASS EXERCISE AND HOMEWORKS 134
REVISION QUESTIONS AND TEST QUESTIONS 137
GLOSSARY 156
REFERENCES 158

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CHAPTER 1
1.1 EMPLOYMENT OF CREW

1.1.1 Deck Department

Master
Usually addressed as the Captain. Is in overall command of the ship and is effectively her
general manager and ultimately responsible for the safe navigation and operation of the ship.
The master keeps no regular watches but when the ship is in pilotage or close waters or in
particularly bad weather or when conditions dictate would closely overseas the navigation of
the ship. He is the owner’s representative and deals with charterers, port agent and cargo
formalities. Holds a master marines certificate of competency (CoC) occasionally in some
smaller ships a lesser certificate with a command Endorsement.

Chief Officer
Often known as addressed as the mate is responsible for the day to day working of the deck
crew and for the stowage, loading, carriage and discharge of the cargo with particular At sea
he keeps the morning and evening watches. Holds a Chief’s Mate CoC.

Second Officer
Also known as a Second Mate. Is ship’s navigator with a prime responsibility for the upkeep
of charts and passage planning. At sea he keeps the 12-4 watches and in port shares cargo
watches with the Third Mate. He is often the ship’s medical officer. Holds a OOW CoC.

Third Officer
The third mate holds a class 4(OOW Deck) certificate and assists both the Mate and second
Mate, keeps the morning and evening 8-12 watches at sea and shares watches with the second
Mate in port. He is also responsible for the ships lifesaving and fire-fighting equipment.

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 Deck Rating
Under the Bosun (Petty Officer) the deck ratings-Able Seamen and Ordinary Seaman-carry
out routine upkeep work and provide thehelmensmen and lookouts whilst the ship is at port.

Master (Captain)

Chief Navigating Officer

oOfficer
2nd Navigating Officer

3rd Navigating Officer

Deck Cadet

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1.1.2 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Chief Engineering Officer

The Chief Engineer is effectively the ships technical manager and is responsible for the
operation and upkeep of all machinery, engineering systems and the structure integrity of the
ship.

Second Engineer Officer

The Second Engineer is responsible for the day to day management of the Engineers and
engine-room crew. He has a prime responsibility for the main engines as well as spare gear and
stores.

Third Engineer Officer

The Third Engineer works closely with the Second Engineer and often has prime responsibility
for the ships electrical plant (alternators). He also assists with any main engine upkeep. In the
absence of a dedicated Electrician or Electro-Technical Officer he would also be responsible
for the ships electrics.

Fourth Engineer Officer

The Fourth Engineer holds a minimum of an Engineering Officer of the watch certificate and
assists with all aspect of machinery upkeep. He is usually responsible for the fuelling and daily
monitoring of fuel supplies.

Electrical/Electro Officer
Some ships carry Electrical or Electro-Technical Officer responsible for the vast amount of
electrical and electronic equipment fitted. When the ships are in pilotage or coastal waters or
in fog or very adverse weather, the engineers may be required to keep traditional 4 hours in the
engine room. However, when on passage the machinery is monitored by data loggers and
engine-rooms are classified as Unmanned Machinery space, with the engineers working a day
work routine with designated on-call Duty Engineer.

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Engine room rating

Under the Petty Officer (Motorman) are the engine-room ratings who assist the engineers with
machinery upkeep and watch keeping.

Catering Officer, Purser, Chief Steward

Depending on the business of the ship, the catering staff is managed by a Purser Catering
Officer who is responsible for the ships “hotel service and paper work”.

Unlicensed crew
Chief Cook (Chief Steward)
The Chief Cook reports to the Master and is responsible for all aspects of the catering
department, including the catering staff. Other duties include ordering and inventory control.

Second Cook
The Second Cook reports to the Chief Cook and is mainly responsible for the pastry in the
kitchen, as well as any other function assigned by the Chief Cook

Cadet
Both Deck and Engineer Cadets follow a structured training programme with academic studies
ashore coupled with practical experience afloat.
Whilst onboard they are required to complete various assignments towards their first ‘OOW’
Deck or Engineer Certificate and both assist and understudy the ship’s officers in their duties.

1.1.3 Regulating Crew Sizes

International the IMO Resolution 481 (XII) lays down the factors that should be considered
when determining the size of crew required for the safe and efficient operation of a ship.

The principles of Safe Manning can be summarized from the IMO Resolution as:

1. The capability for the vessel to maintain a safe bridge watch, engine room watch and
radio watch.
2. The capability to manage all safety functions.
3. The capability to maintain the vessel and its machinery in a working condition.
4. Provision for medical care onboard.

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One of the major problems voiced by the unions and others concerned with safe manning in
an era of international crewing is that of multilingual crews.
During periods of routine operation there may be no problems but in an emergency, as many
emergencies have shown, there can be considerable and dangerous consequences.

Marine Management

Chief Marine Engineering Officer

2nd Engineering Officer

3rd Engineering Officer

4th Engineering Officer

Cadet

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1.2 ROLE OF VARIOUS PARTIES WITH RESPECT TO SHIP’S CREW

1.2.1 Ship Operator – Employment of the crew

1. To employ own staff or use an agency to supply “contract” crew.

2. To use local e.g. South African crews or foreigners or a combination.
3. To link the risk and especially with the cost of employment.
4. Negotiate salary package – local union/ITF.
5. Ensure crew are properly certificated (STCW`95) with recognition from Flag State.
6. Ensure crew are competent for tasks allocated.
7. Size of crew will depend on a number of factors (flag state requirements, type of vessel,
trade)

1.3 INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT WORKER’S FEDERATION

The International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF) is an international trade union

federation of transport workers’ unions. Any independent trade union with members in the
transport industry is eligible for membership of the ITF. Over 600 unions representing more
than five million transport workers in over 140 countries are members of the ITF. It is one of
several Global Federation Unions allied with the International Confederation of Free Trade
Union (ICFTU).
The ITF’s headquarters is located in London and it has offices in Nairobi, Ouagadougou,
Tokyo, New Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, Georgetown, Moscow and Brussels.

Objectives
The aims of the ITF are set out in its Constitution. They are:
1. To promote respect for trade union and human rights worldwide.
2. To work for peace based on social justice and economic progress.
3. To help its affiliated union defend the interests of their members.
4. To provide research and information services to its affiliates.
5. To provide general assistance to transport workers in difficulty.

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Although the range of ITF activities is very wide, they can be best summed up under three key
headings:

Representation
Information
Practical Solidarity

The ITF represents the interest of transport workers’ unions in bodies which take decisions
affecting jobs, employments or safety in the transport industry, such as the International
Labour, Organisation (ILO), and the International Maritime Organization (ICAO).
A major function of the ITF is informing and advising union about development in the transport
industry in other countries or region of the world. The ITF also maintains a specialist education
department, dedicated to the development of strong and democratic transport unions. The ITF
organizes international solidarity when transport union in one country is in conflict with
employers or government and need direct help from unions in other countries.

The kind of solidarity needed can range from protest messages, demonstration and political
pressure, to direct industrial action in the form of strikes, boycotts etc. The ITF’s worldwide
campaign in the maritime industry against the use by ship owners of Flags of Convenience
(FOC’s) to escape from national laws and national unions is a good example of solidarity.

Flags of Convenience campaign

The ITF is unique amongst international trade union organisations in having a powerful
influence on wages and conditions of one particular group of workers, seafarers working on
ships flying Flags of Convenience (FOC’s).
FOC’s provide a mean of avoiding labour regulation in the country of ownership, and become
a vehicle for paying low wages and forcing long hours of work and unsafe working
conditions.Since FOC ships have no real nationality, they are beyond the reach of any single
national seafarers’ trade union.

The ITF has therefore been obliged to take on internationally the role traditionally exercised
by national trade unions –to organize and negotiate on behalf of FOC crews.
For 50 years the ITF, through its affiliated seafarers’ and dockers’ unions, has been waging a
vigorous campaign against ship owners who abandon the flag of their own country in search

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of the cheapest possible crews and the lowest possible training and safety standards for their
ship. In defining an FOC the ITF takes as its most important criterion whether the nationality
of the ship owner is the same nationality.
In 1974 the ITF defined an FOC as:
“Where beneficial ownership and control of a vessel is found to lie elsewhere then in the
country of the flag the vessel is flying, the vessel is considered as sailing under a flag of
convenience”

The ITF campaign against flags of convenience, which was formally launched at the 1948
World Congress in Olso Norway, has two elements:

A political campaign designed to establish by internationally governmental agreement a

genuine link between the flag a ship flies and the nationality or residence of its owners,
managers and seafarers, and also eliminate the flag of convenience system entirely.
An industrial campaign designed to ensure that seafarers who serve on flag of convenience
ships, whatever their nationality, are projected from exploitation by shipowners. Over the past
50 years the ITF’s maritime affiliates have developed a set of policies which seek to establish
minimum standard applicable to seafarers serving on FOC vessels.

The policies from the basis of an ITF Standard Collective agreement which sets the wages and
working conditions for all crew on Flag of Convenience vessel irrespective of nationality. It is
the only agreement normally available to ship owners run into industrial action. All FOC
vessels covered by an ITF –acceptable agreement issued an “ITF blue certificate” by the ITF
secretariat, which signifies the ITF’s acceptance of the wages and working conditions on board.
About a quarter of all FOC vessels are currently covered by ITF agreement thus giving direct
protection to over 90,000 seafarers.

Compliance with ITF recognized agreement is monitored by a network of over 100 ITF
inspectors in ports throughout the world. ITF inspectors are union official who are either full
time or part time working directly with the ITF. By inspecting FOC ships monitor the payment
of wages and other social and employment conditions and if necessary take action to enforce
ITF policy. In recent years the number of inspectors has doubled and they are now to be found
in ports in every region of the world. The FOC Campaign is the joint responsibility of the
Seafarers’ and Dockers’ Sections and it is the Fair Practices Committee (FPC) which has, since
1952, provided the key forum by which both sections’ representatives have come together to
review the day to day running and effectiveness of the Campaign.

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The involvement of the dockers’ union, whether through direct action or through co-operation
with seafarers’ union has continued to be vital to the success of the campaign.
The FPC is elected at each Congress by a joint Conference of the Seafarers’ and Dockers’
Sections. It usually meets once a year (around May-June). Between
meetings, urgent matters maybe referred to the Fair Practices Committee steering Group which
deals with matters connected with the approval of collective agreements and non-compliance
with ITF policy by ITF maritime affiliates, monitors and develops the strategy and direction of
the FOC Campaign, and considers new initiatives and means for expanding and developing the
FOC Campaign.

The role of the FPC steering group is to monitor the activities of the ITF inspectors and to make
recommendations to the appropriate ITF bodies on the practical implementation of FOC
policies and on any other matter relating to the effectiveness of the campaign.
While the political campaign has not so far succeeded in preventing a constant growth in ships
using FOC registers, the industrial campaign has succeeded in enforcing decent minimum
wages and conditions on board nearly 5,000 FOC ships.

In addition, the ITF has become the standard-bearer for exploited and mistreated seafarers,
irrespective of nationality or trade union in membership, throughout the world.
Every year millions of dollars are recovered by the ITF and its affiliated unions in back pay
and in compensation for death or injury on behalf of seafarers who have nowhere else to turn.

What are flags of convenience?

A flag of convenience ship is one that flies the flag of country other than the country of
ownership.
Cheap registration fees, low or no taxes and freedom to employ cheap labour are the
motivating factors behind a ship owner’s decision to ‘flag out’.

The ITF takes into account the degree to which foreign owned vessels are registered and fly
the country flag, as well as the following additional criteria, when declaring a register an FOC:

The ability and willingness of flag state to enforce international minimum social standard on
its vessels, including respect for basic human and trade union right, freedom of association and
the right to collective bargaining with bona fide trade unions.
The social record as determined by the degree of ratification and enforcement of ILO
Conventions and Recommendations.
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The safety and environmental record as revealed by the ratification and enforcement of IMO
Conventions and revealed by port state control inspections, deficiencies and detentions.
The ITF believes there should be a ‘genuine link’ between the real owner of a vessel and the
flag the vessel flies, in accordance with the United National Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) there is no ‘genuine link’ in the case of FOC registries.

Some of these register have poor safety and training standards, and place no restrictions on the
nationality of the crew. Sometimes, because of language differences, seafarers are not able to
communicate effectively with each other, pitting safety and the efficiency operation of the ship
at risk. In many cases these flags are not even run from the country concerned. Once a ship is
registered under an FOC many ship owners then recruit the cheapest labour they can find, pay
minimal wages and cut costs by lowering standard of living and working conditions for the
crew. Globalization has helped to fuel this rush to bottom. In an increasingly fierce competitive
shipping market, each new FOC is forced to promote itself by offering the lowest possible fees
and the minimum of regulation. In
the same way, ship owners are forced to look for the cheapest and least regulated ways of
running their vessels in order to compete, and FOCs provide the solution.

FOC Countries
The following 28 countries have been declared FOCs by the ITF’s Fair Practices Committee
(a joint committee of ITF seafarers’ dockers’ unions), which runs the ITF campaign against
FOCs.

Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica

Bahamas Lebanon
Barbados Liberia
Belize Malta
Bermuda(UK) Mauritius
Bolivia Marshall Island (USA)
Burma Netherlands Antilles
Cambodia Mongolia
Cayman Island Panama
Comoros Sao Tome and Principe
St Vincent Cyprus

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Equatorial Guinea German International Ship Register(GIS)
Tonga Gibraltar(UK)
Vanuatu Honduras Sri Lanka

What do FOCs mean to Seafarers?

Seafarers who are employed on FOC ships are often denied their basic human and trade union
right since FOC registers do not enforce minimum social standards.
This is what makes the flag so attractive to shipowners. The home countries of the crew can do
little to protect them because the rules that apply on board are those of the country of
registration. As a result, most FOC seafarers are not members of trade union. For those who
are, the union is often powerless to influence what happens on board. Seafarers are vital to us.

They travel the globe with everything we need, from bananas, oil, gas and building materials
to cloth, grain and frozen meat. They are also an invisible labour force.

What goes on at sea is mostly out of sight of regulators, so shipowners can get away with
abusing seafarers’ rights without detection. In nearly 55 years of campaigning against FOCs
the ITF has developed a network of inspectors to investigate suspect ships. Their reports reveal
a catalogue of abuse seafarers:

Very low wages

Poor on-board conditions
Inadequate food and clean drinking water
Long periods of work without proper rest leading to stress and fatigue

Unsafe

Many FOC vessels are older than the average age of the rest of the world fleet.
Tens of thousands of seafarers endure miserable, life-threatening conditions on substandard
vessels.
Many of the detentions by port state control authorities involve ageing and badly maintained
FOC vessels that should never have sailed.
Many of these ships have been referred to as “floating coffins”.
Casualties are higher among FOC vessels.

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In 2001, 63 per cent of all losses in absolute tonnage terms were accounted for by just 13
FOC registers.
The top five registers in term of numbers of ships lost were all FOCs: Panama, Cyprus, St
Vincent, Cambodia and Malta.

Unprotected

Poor safety practices and unsafe ships make seafaring one of the most dangerous of all
occupations, it is estimated that there are over 2,000 deaths a year at sea.
Accidents are frequent, but for many shipowners the delivery of cargoes and the costs of any
delay are their only concerns. Seafarers on their own have little chance of winning
compensation. A severed hand can ruin a life, end a seafaring career and rob a large extended
family of a regular income. The ITF pursues these cases through the courts but often they must
unravel complex company structures before they can work out who has responsibility for the
ship and its crew.

Unpaid

The ITF hears daily of crew owed large sum of money. Some crews simply aren’t paid. Those
that are sometimes find that companies delay, or fail to make, payments to their families when
they want to send money home. In many cases months go by without any sign of money
promised to seafarers. With no pay they cannot even afford to escape and make their own way
home. One of the most successful aspects of the ITF Inspectors’ work is gaining back pay for
seafarers. From 1996 to 2001, US$163.3 million has been recovered by the ITF for crew who
had not been paid –average of US$ 28 million a year. Many FOC vessels are now covered by
ITF agreements, giving direct protection to over 140,000 seafarers.

Undervalued

Despite the hardship, many FOC seafarers are too frightened to complain. Unscrupulous
manning agents circulate the names of seafarers who complain to the ITF or PSC inspectors.
It is common practice for a ship’s captain to write “ITF Troublemaker” in a seafarers discharge
book. With such a mark on their record a seafarers may never be employed again. Some

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seafarers have been jailed on returning home. And with even more cheap sources of labour
opening up-notably China-conditions and pay risk becoming worse.
The ITF’s campaigns against FOCs has resulted in better working and living conditions on
FOC ships by a way of collective agreements there would be no protection and rights for
thousand seafarers today. Standardization of working conditions is the ultimate goal and trade
unions play a crucial role in achieving this. When national regulation can be so easily
undermined, trade unionism is essential. Without it, working conditions inevitably plummet.

Insecure

In the raised security environment growing from September 11th attack, concerns have been
raised that terrorist organisations can own and operate ships under the FOC system with
impunity.
Arms smuggling, the ability to conceal large sums on money, trafficking in goods and people,
and other illegal activities can also thrive in the unregulated havens which the FOC systems
provides. Corporate investigators who have attempted to check who owns certain ships have
acknowledged that the ships owning structures of today are virtually impenetrable if the owner
of a ship wishes to remain anonymous.

1.4 INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION

1.4.1 Introduction

The international labour organisation is the UN specialized agency which seeks the promotion
of social justice and labour rights. It was found in 1919 and the only surviving major creation
of the Treaty of Versailles which brought the league of Nation into being and it became the
first specialized agency of the UN in 1946.

Thousands of events can have an impact on the cost of sea transport and anyone moving bulk
commodities operates in an extremely volatile environment. Seaborne
trade is a vital in enabling the global economy to function.

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1. The ILO formulates international labour standards in the form of Conventions and
Recommendations setting minimum standards of basic labour right: freedom of
association, the right to organize, collective bargaining, abolition of forced labour,
equality of opportunity and treatment and other standard regulating conditions across
the entire spectrum of work related issues. It provides technical assistance primarily in
the fields of:

2. Vocational in the fields of:

3. Employment policy
4. Labour law and industrial relations
5. Working conditions
6. Management development
7. Cooperatives
8. Social security
9. Labour statistics and occupational safety and healthy

It promotes the development of independent employers’ and workers’ organisations and

provides training and advisory services to those organizations. Within the UN system, the ILO
has a unique tripartite structure with workers and employers participating as equal partners
with governments in the work of its governing organs.

The ILO accomplishes its work through three main bodies, all of which encompass the unique
feature of the Organization: its tripartite structure (government, employers, and workers).

1.4.2 Structure of the ILO

International Labour Conference:

The member states of the ILO meet at the international labour conference in June of each
year, in Geneva. Each Member State is represented by two government delegates, an
employer and a worker delegate.

They are accompanied by technical advisors.

It is generally the Cabinet Ministers responsible for labour affairs in their own countries who
head the delegations, take the floor and present their governments points of view.

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Employer and worker delegates can express themselves and according to instructions received
from their organizations.

They sometimes vote against each other or oven against their government
representatives.

The Conference plays a very important role. It establishes and adopts international
labour standards. Its
acts as a forum where social and labour questions of importance to the entire world are
discussed. The Conference also adopts the budget of the Organization and elects the
Government Body.

1.4.3 The Governing Body

It is the executive council of the ILO and meets three times a year in Geneva. It takes decisions
on ILO’s policy. It establishes the programme and the budget which it then submits to the
Conference for adoption. It also elects the Director-General. It is composed of 28 government
members, 14 employers’ members and 14 workers members. At the conference every three
years, taking into account geographical distribution. The employer and workers elect their own
representative respectively.

1.4.4 The International Labour Office

It is the permanent secretariat of the international Labour Organization and the focal point for
the overall activities that it prepares under the scrutiny of the Governing Body and the
leadership of Director-General, who is elected for five-year renewable term.

The office employs some 1,990 official of over 110 nationalities at the Geneva headquarters
and in 40 offices around the world. In addition, some 600 experts undertake missions in all
regions of the world under the programme of technical cooperation. The office also constitutes
a research and documentation centre and a printing house issuing a board range of specialized
studies, report and periodical.

The world relies on the fleet of ships with a cargo carrying capacity of 762 million deadweight
tonnes (source: Clarksons Research) to carry every conceivable type of product.
From grain to crude oil, iron ore to chemicals, the latest United Nations figures show that more
than 5.89 billion tonnes of trade was transported by sea in Baltic
Exchange members are at the heart of world trade, arranging for the ocean transportation of

22
industrial bulk commodities from producer to end user.
The bulk freight market relies on the co-operation of shipbrokers, shipowners and charterers to
ensure the free flow of trade. World trade is dependent upon the availability of adequate
shipping capacity.

Vast amount of fuels, foodstuffs and fertilizers, construction materials and other raw goods are
moved by sea. Half of these cargos are energy related –oil, coal and gas. Container traffic is
just over 10% by weight, but much higher in terms of value. The growth of world economy has
seen a huge growth in the volume of seaborne cargo. The volume of global seaborne trade is
now 50 per cent higher than in 1990.

1. World oil demand has increased at an annual average rate of 1.75 per cent since 1970.
2. The cargo carrying capacity of the dry bulk fleet is 317 million dwt.
3. A record 514 million tonnes of iron ore was transported by sea in 2003.
4. The volume of the container trade has increased seven fold since 1980.

The freight market is subject to a wide range of external variables, but it fundamentally driven
by the following factors:

5. Fleet supply. How many difference types of ships are available? How many vessels are
being delivered and how many are being scrapped?
6. Commodity demand. What are the levels of industrial production? Has the grain harvest
been successful? Are the power stations importing more coal? How is the steel industry
performing?
7. Seasonal pressures. The weather has a big impact on the shipping markets from the size
of harvests to ice in ports and river levels.
8. Bunker prices. With bunker fuel accounting for between one quarter and one third of
the cost of running a vessel, oil price movements directly affect ship owners.
9. Choke points. This factor can particularly affect tankers with almost half of the world’s
oil passing through a handful of relatively narrow shipping lanes. These points include
the straits of Hormuz and Malacca, the Suez and Panama canals, the Bosporus and other
important channels whose closure –either from conflict, terrorist attack or a collision in
the overcrowded shipping lanes –would change the entire world’s supply patterns.
10. Market sentiments. Because probably as little as half of the demand side is known in a
timely fashion, market opinion affects the freight market just as much as the actual
supply and demand of ships and cargoes.

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1.5 SHIP OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION COMPANY
FUNCTIONS

1.5.1 Basic ship owning company functions

Ship management or husbandry functions.
Fleet maintenance and repair –include dry-docking and surveys.
Ship supplies
Ship insurance –including Hull and Machinery and P&I.

1.5.2 Ship operating functions

Obtaining employment for the company’s ships
Scheduling the fleet
Ordering bunker fuel
Arranging loading and discharge of cargoes and associated port activity.

1.5.3 Other shipping company functions

Finance –including budgeting, arranging loans and mortgages, sale and purchase of new
vessels. Accounting –including producing financial figures for tax purposes.
Administration –running company internal affairs, maintain its building and equipment.
Marketing/Sales –obtaining more business
Quality assurance

1.5.4 Operations Department Functions

Act as a link between:
The ship and its owners
The owners and the charterers
The owner and other cargo interests

Should ensure that the master knows and understands his voyage instructions
Should monitor each voyage with the aim of minimizing expense and maximizing profit.

24
If the vessel is fixed on charter, will need to know the following:
Cargo type and quantity
Load and discharge ports
Notices of readiness required to be given by the Master to the Charterer, Shippers and Agents
Any special instructions or advice in connection with the cargo

Need to arrange the following the ship’s voyage:

Crew changes
Crew mailing arrangements
Engine and deck spares
Stores, lubricants, bunkers and water
Survey requirements
Master’s cash

Agents should give the Operations Department the following information:

A detailed pro-forma disbursements account
Confirmation of any restriction at the port
Advice as to berthing and loading prospects
Any other relevant information.

SHIP MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

Technical management
Provision of competent personnel to supervise the maintenance and general efficiency of the
vessel.
Arrangement and supervision of dry-dockings, repairs, alterations and the upkeep of the
vessel to the standards required by the owner
Supply of necessary stores and spares
Appointment of surveyors and technical consultants as required.

Crewing
Employment of master, officers and ratings.
Arrangement of transportation of the crew including repatriation

25
Training of the crew
Administration of all crew matters.
Payroll arrangements
Discipline and Union negotiations.
Enforcement of appropriate standards

Insurance
Including arranging such insurance as the Owners have instructed or agreed.

Freight Management
Provision of voyage estimates and accounts and calculation of the hire freights and/or
demurrage and dispatch moneys due from or due to the Charterers of the vessel.
Arrangements of the proper payment to the Owners of all hire and/or freight revenues due.

Accounting
Establishing an accounting system meeting the requirements of the Owner.
Maintaining the records of all costs and expenditures incurred under the management

Chartering
Seeking and negotiating employment for the vessel

Vessel sale or purchase function

Supervising the sale or purchase of the vessel, including the performance of any sale or
purchase agreement.

Provisions
Arranging for the supply of provisions

Bunkers
Arranging for the position of bunker fuel of the quality specified by the Owner.

Operations
Issue of voyage instructions
Appointment of agents
Appointment of stevedores
Arranging for the survey of the cargo.

26
1.7 SHIP’S COSTS AND BUDGETS
Classification of Costs
1.7.1 Capital Costs
Are fixed costs associated with the ship’s purchase
Include pre-delivery expenses, loan repayments, interest, initial registration fees, and taxes.
These costs are the Owner’s responsibility.

1.7.2 Voyage Costs

Are variable costs associated with the commercial employment of the ship
Includes bunkers, ports and canal charges, pilotage, tug hire, agency fees and
loading/discharging expenses
These costs are the responsibility of the ship’s commercial operator.

1.7.3 Operating or running costs

Are semi-variable costs which fall between capital and voyage costs
Include screwing, storing, maintenance, insurance and administration
Responsibility of the ship owner or manager.

1.7.8 Ship’s Budgets

The ship manager is usually required under the management contact to present to the owners
an annual 12-month budget.
If the budget is agreed to the managers will also produce a monthly comparison between the
ship’s budgeted and actual income and expenditure.
The categories most likely to be used in pro-forma budget estimates and monthly reports are
the operating costs (crewing, storing, maintenance)
The total of the above costs, added to the annual dry-docking allowance will give the grand
total. The grand total divided by 365 gives the vessel’s daily rate.

1.8 CHARTER PARTIES

1.8.1 Voyage Charter

Responsibilities of the Ship Owner:

To provide a seaworthy ship suitable to carry the intended cargo
To bring the ship to the agreed loading port by the agreed date

27
To load the agreed cargo
To carry the cargo to the agreed destination
He must pay both the ship’s running costs and voyage costs, with the possible exception
where ‘free in and out’ (FIO) terms are agreed, of loading and discharging of cargo.

Responsibilities of the Charterer

To provide the cargo at the agreed loading port
To load the cargo within the agreed period of lay-time
To pay the agreed rate of freight at the agreed time
Where FIO terms are agreed he must pay the loading and discharge costs.

1.8.2 TIME CHARTER

A contact of hire of a named vessel complete with crew for a specified period of time.

Responsibilities of the Ship Owner

All running costs:
Cost of screwing
Repairs and maintenance, including statutory and class survey and certification costs.
Stores
Hull and machinery insurance
Owners operate the vessel technically but not commercially. Owners bears no cargo-handling
expenses and do not appoint stevedores.

Charterers Responsibilities:
Commercial employment of the vessel
Bunkers
Canal dues
Port charges including pilotage, light dues, linesman, and towage.
Loading, discharging, stowing and trimming costs.
The normally nominate port agents and hire stevedores.
Since the time charterers are beneficiaries of the freight, they pay all the cost earning it.

1.8.3 BAREBOAT CHARTER

A contact for the lease of vessel for an agreed period during which the charterer acquires
most of the rights of the owner.
Basically the vessel owners put the vessel, without crew, at the complete disposal of
charterers and pay her capital cost, but no other cost.

28
Charterers have commercial and technical responsibility for the vessel and pay all costs
except capital costs.
Bareboat charterers become deponent owners under the charter-party.

1.9 MODES OF SHIP EMPLOYMENT

1.9.1 Employment of a ship’s as a cargo liner

The vessel operates on a fixed route, with scheduled sailings advertised in freighting journals
such as Lloyds loading list
She is said to load ‘on berth’.
She is likely to be a container ship, ro-ro or multipurpose vessel
She will accept any suitable cargo if space permits
The vessels operator may be her real owners or time charterers
The operator/carrier will normally issue a bill of lading (B/L) as a form of receipt to the
shipper of each consignment of goods loaded
The operator will normally employ liner agents and/or loading brokers booked the cargoes.
The operator may be a member of a liner conference or maybe a non conference operator

1.9.2 Employment of a ship as a tramp

The vessel is employed in the charter market where is she normally fixed on a succession of
charters.
She may be employed in the voyage charter market or time charter market.
She will not operate on fixed routes or to an advertised scheduled.
She is likely to be dry bulk carrier, tanker or reefer.

1.9.3 Employment as special service vessel

The vessel is employed for a special duty (oil filled supplied or anchor handling, heavy lift,
towage, surveying)
The vessel may or may not be owned by her operators
She may be employed charter, which may be for several years or just one day, depending on
the purpose for which she is required by the charterers
Charters are normally oil companies, drilling contractors.

29
1.9.4 PARTIES INVOLVED IN CHARTERING

(a) Ship agents

The chief duty of a party agent is to look after the needs of his principal’s ship and the ships
personnel while arriving, staying and departing from the port. The ships agent should:
Represent his principal
Assist the ship so as to achieve the quickest possible turnaround with maximum efficiency at
minimum cost
Assist the master in his dealing with port, state and other officials
Procure any provision, stores or other requirement of the master
Communicate message between the owner and the master
Be reliable and energetic
Use all due care, skill and diligence in the performance of the agency
The agent serves his principal, who generally the party is paying his fees

Under a voyage charter

Commercially powerful and influential voyage charters often insist on nominating port
agents, and are entitled to do so if the charter party (C/P) is suitably clause to that effect.
If agents nominated by voyage charter appear to act primarily for charters, to the ships
detriment, they should be reminded that their prime duty to their principal.

Under a time charter

Loading and/or discharging cost usually for time charters account, and in this case it can be
expected that port agents will be appointed by time charters to look after their commercial
interests
Time charters agents automatically becomes the ships agent on arrival and have an agents
usually duty to use all care, skill and diligence in the performance of their agents
They may be concerned more with commercial matters such as cargo entry and clearance,
loading and discharging, etc then with ships husbandry matters
Where there is risk of a time charters agent acting to the detriment of owners interest, owners
should appoint a protecting agent or husbandry agent to deal exclusively with ships affairs.

30
(b)Shipbrokers
Ships are normally fixed on charters arranged between ship owners and charterers by ship
brokers acting as negotiators for the two parties ship brokers include:
Owner’s brokers who find and arrange employment for their principal ships
Charterer’s brokers who finds ships to carry their principal’s requirement
Tanker brokers who arrange oil cargo fixtures in the specialist tanker market
Liner brokers or liner agents who finds cargoes for liner owners and operators
Sale and purchase brokers who sell and buy ships and can arrange new building contract for
theirprincipals.
Many ship brokers are self employed, while others work in large firms active in several of the
above disciplines.

Ship brokers are remunerated by commission (usually 1,25%) called brokerage, payable to
each ship broker involved for arranging a contract
The professional body for ship broker worldwide is the London based institute of chartered
shipbrokers
The institute Tutorship correspondence causes enable ship broking students (including
mariners to study for the institute annual exams from which qualified mariners are granted
some exemptions)

London is the hub of the international ship broking community, and many individual brokers
and broking firms are members of the Baltic Exchange, which is essentially ship broking
market place.

1.9.5The Baltic exchange

Baltic exchange ship brokers undertake to abide by a code of business conduct based on the
motor “Our Word Our Bond” and those who breach the code are disciplined or expelled.
With a totally membership of 520 companies and 1,600 individuals (April 2004),
approximately 400 Baltic member company are based in the United Kingdom and in 2002
contribute $320 million in overseas earning to the UK economic.
The Baltic also has a growing membership based in the USA, Europe and the Far East.
Membership of Baltic exchange is not just limited to ship brokers and ship owners but also
include financial institutions maritime lawyers, educators, insured and related associations.

31
The Baltic is governed by a board of between 12 and 15 directors, with up to 12 elected by
shareholders and up to three elected by non-shareholding members.

1.10 SHIP AGENT

1.10.1 The role, responsibilities and obligations of the ship agent in the international
transport chain

A ship agent, as enshrined by international maritime convention, is primarily the servant of the
master and owners of the vessel, the “principal
In practice however, the agent can act for any of the parties involved in the voyage and in any
capacity as agreed between the agent and his principal.
agent is any person or company that carries out the functions of an agent, irrespective of
whether they are in business as a ship agent, or they perform such functions as an adjunct to,
or in conjunction with, other activities such as ship owning or operating, providing cargo
handling or similar

FONASBA makes no distinction between those providing agency services as their main
business activity or as a part of a portfolio of marine related services.
Acting as the local representative of the principal, the agent provides local knowledge and
expertise and ensures that the principal’s requirements are performed with the utmost
efficiency and despatch.
Accordingly the agent requires to be fully conversant with all the appropriate regulations and
requirements relating to the port, area or sector in which they operate, to have a wide range of
relevant contacts and be sufficiently well established and founded to be able to provide the
level of service and support the principal needs

1.10.2 MAIN CATEGORIES OF SHIP AGENT

PORT AGENT: organises and coordinates the port call, acting on behalf of the owner or
operator of the vessel.

CARGO AGENT solicits cargo on behalf of the owner, or operator, usually within a defined
geographical area

OWNERS/CHARTERERS AGENT: acts for another party that has an interest in the port
call. The specific duties undertaken vary depending on the relationship between the parties
OTHERS: as the principal may decide or require

32
 (a) THE PORT AGENT
The port agent is central to all trades and is responsible for organising, overseeing and
coordinating all aspects of the port call, from booking berth allocations and services ahead of
the vessel’s arrival to finalising the accounts and other paperwork after the vessel has sailed.
Functioning as the de facto port single window, the agent is the conduit for all information
exchanged between the vessel and the shore. In order to operate effectively, the port agent is
required to be fully conversant with the safety, commercial and statutory requirements and
regulations applicable to the port and ensure the vessel complies fully, in to ensure that no
delays are caused as a result of failure to meet its obligations.

The port agent will also require wide ranging and effective contacts within the regulators, port
operators and service providers in order to ensure that the actions taken, and information
provided, are correct and appropriate

When developing its unique Port Procedures Survey, FONASBA identified more than 130
separate operations that a port agent may be required to undertake. Whilst it is unlikely that an
agent will have to carry out all 130+ operations in a single port call, the extent of the duties and
disciplines covered is indicative of the breadth of knowledge and experience that the port agent
is required to have and, importantly, to keep up to date

33
 Tugs/ Stevedores Other
Shippers,
Pilots /Terminals Port
Services
Receivers,
Forwarding
Statutor
Agents,
y
Authorities
NVOCC’s
PORT
Surface AGENT Other
Transport/ Contractors
SSS/Road/Rail / Social
Services

The Master and Owners/Operators

34
 (b) THE CARGO AGENT
Operating primarily in the liner and break bulk trades, the cargo (or liner) agent is responsible
for securing cargo for the line or ship operator. This requires the agent to be in regular contact
with local shippers and be ready to provide information on vessel schedules, competitive rates
and conditions of carriage. The agent may also offer or provide inland transportation, customs
clearance and other related services.
The cargo agent may be independent and represent more than one principal but in many cases
the agent is tied to, or is often a subsidiary of, one specific principal.
© THE OWNERS/CHARTERERS AGENT
Depending on the circumstances of the port call, there may be more than one agent
attending the vessel. One party may decide that their best interests will be represented
by appointing their own independent representative, rather than using the primary
nominated agent.
The exact role and responsibilities of this second agent (and indeed the title under which they
operate) will be determined on a case by case basis.
(d)OTHER AGENCY APPOINTMENTS

An agent may be appointed to undertake other duties on behalf of a principal and the extent of
those duties may be specific or general in nature as the principal requires. Such appointments
often derive from unscheduled occurrences such as port calls arising as a result of an
emergency, vessel breakdowns or pollution incidents, or action by statutory authorities such as
customs or immigration

1.10.3 DUTIES OF THE AGENT / DELEGATED AUTHORITY FROM THE

PRINCIPAL
At the time of initial appointment, the principal will issue instructions to the agent detailing
the services required and the limits of delegated authority. Within the limits of that authority,
the agent is entitled to enter into agreements or contracts, disburse funds and make other
arrangements that may bind the principal or incur costs on their behalf.
(a) AS AGENTS ONLY”
Assuming that the agent has not exceeded the delegated authority granted by the principal, the
principal agrees to assume the obligations and to indemnify the agent for any costs resulting
from any contract or arrangements entered into by the agent on the principal’s behalf.

35
The agent is entitled to benefit from the protections available to it under the above agreement
but in order to do so must describe itself in all correspondence, written verbal and otherwise,
“as agents only

(b) THE AGENCY FEE

The agent will charge the principal a fee based on the volume of work undertaken. The fee is
agreed through negotiation between the agent and the principal and is often subject to
competition from other agents.

The precise form of the fee, for example a flat fee or one based on the duties undertaken, can
vary widely. The flat fee is common in port agency whilst the component based fee is more
normal for cargo agencies

CHAPTER 2
2.1 DEMAND OF MARITIME TRANSPORT
2.1.1 Introduction
Shipping has been an important human activity throughout history, particularly where
prosperity depended primarily on international and interregional trade. In fact, transportation
has been called one of the four cornerstones of globalization, along with communications,
international standardization, and trade liberalization (Kumar and Hoffmann, 2002). Due to a
number of technological, economic, and socio-cultural forces, only the rare countries have seen
amazing economic growth in the recent past due to their willingness to open their borders and
markets to foreign investment trade.

2.1.2 Maritime Shipping and Goods Movement

Global goods movement is a critical element in the global freight transportation system that
includes ocean and coastal routes, inland waterways, railways, roads and air freight. In some
cases the freight transportation network connects locations by multiple modal routes,
functioning as modal substitutes. A primary example is a containerized shortsea shipping,
where the shipper or logistic provider has some degree of choice how to move freight between
locations. Howeve,r international maritime transportations more commonly a complement to
other modes of transportation. This is particularly true for intercontinental containerized

36
cargoes and for liquid and dry bulk cargoes, such as oil and grain. Here, international shipping
connects roads, railways, and inland waterways through ocean and coastal routes.

2.1.3 Demand factors and international seaborne trade

Maritime transport is an integral part of international logistics and accounts for 80% of the
volume of global trade. While the physical continuity of freight movements requires the use of
multimodal transport systems, shipping remains the backbone of globalized international trade.
As shipping is a derived demand, developments in maritime transport and international
seaborne trade are shaped by worldwide macroeconomic conditions.

2.2 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEMAND OF MARITIME TRANSPORT

2.2.1 Economic factors

Development of world economy and trade

World trade growth > world production
Seaborne trade > world trade growth
The change of economic policy
US adopted a high interest rate – US import from Europe increase while import from
Europe drop
Economic structure change – Heavy and dirty industries to light, high value added and
technology incentive industries

2.2.2 Political events and development

Political alliance may also have significant impacts – when the UK joined the EEC.
Old trade patterns with the former colonies were given up in favor of EEC internal
trade
While Political alliance may adopt a liberal trade policy among the member countries,
they may become protective blocks vis-à-vis other countries outside the alliance.
Decline demand of Pure Car Carriers and increase in transport of Complete Knock
Down ( CKD) car parts
Oil Transport is another example demonstrates the political impact (export reduction
of former USSR).

37
2.2.3 Natural factors

Maritime Transport demand of grain (changes in harvest)

More and more seasonal agricultural products (not traditional items) are traded
(coffee, cocoa, tea, fruits and vegetables)

A severe winter may boss the import of energy materials such as coal and oil.

2.2.4 Technical reasons

Fresh fruits, vegetables and meats need reefer transport

LNG/LPG Transport technology brought a new and increasing maritime demand

Nuclear sourced energy effect seaborne trade of oil and coal

English Channel Tunnel attracts to use land transport

2.2.5 Value vs. Volume

Advantages of maritime transport are low cost, high value, time sensitive cargo tends to
use other mode of transport.

Disadvantage is in its long transit time.

Even within maritime transport, there are low value and high value cargo. This is
because in volume terms general cargo constitutes only about 15% of the world total
traffic, in value terms general cargo makes more than 70% of the world total.

2.2.6 Short term vs. Long term

1. When analyzing maritime demand, it is essential to differentiate long term changes

from short term variations.
2. Overall long term trend of seaborne trade is of great important for making
development strategies.
3. Even for a declining trade, a short run boom is possible and makes a company profits.
4. Short term is a period that is too short to vary all the factors of production.
5. Long term is a period in which all inputs including plant and equipment can be varied.

38
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING TYPES OF SHIPPING ORGANIZATION

Sizes of average ship load (consignment)

Seaborne trade can be divided into:

1. Transport consignment of full shipload: when the consignment is large enough to fill
in a ship’s cargo space, the corresponding shipping practice is called tramp shipping.
Tramp shipping is realized through Chartering.
2. Transport consignment of less than full stop load: when the consignment is NOT large
enough to fill in a ship’s cargo space, the corresponding shipping practice is called
liner shipping.

Frequency and regularity of demand

1. Both frequent and regular: the shipper may use tramp ships for a long time or
organize the maritime transport himself.
2. Neither frequent nor regular: the shipper should use tramp ships for the particular
voyage or for consecutive voyages or a short period of time.
3. Frequent but nor regular, vice versa: if the consignment is of less than full shipload,
liner shipping should be used.

Three groups of shippers

Group 1: includes big industrial shipper in oil industry, iron/steel industry, electricity
industry, chemical industry, paper/forest products industry, car industry, food
industry etc. Their cargo is of full ship load and the transport requirement is
regular and frequent: either owing/operating their own shipping fleet or
operating ships on long time charter, called industrial shipping. 50% of the
world tanker fleet is owned or long time chartered by the oil companies. In the
dry bulk market about 30% of the tonnage is owned and operated by big
industrial companies. Thus, we can conclude that almost 2000 million tons of
cargo is being carried by the industries themselves, which means that this
amount of cargo is out of the normal open shipping market.

39
Group 2: Tramp shipping

Bulk cargo shipper (medium and small industrial or trading group/shipper of

seasonal cargo: grain, fertilizer, coal/other liquid or dry bulk cargoes: oil, ore)

Group 3: Liner services

Shipper with consignments and parcels are far too small to fill in a ship’s load
whether the transport requirement is regular or irregular.

Tramp shipping

Bulk cargo and transport (cargo without packing in complete loose type, which can be
loaded, stowed and unloaded easily and quickly by using specialized equipment in and out of
bulk carriers in a continuous manner)

Reasons for bulk cargo transport development

1. Is an enormous need of bulk cargo

2. Primary raw materials homogeneous in nature
3. Bulk cargo can be handled rapidly at ports using specialized equipment

Tramp shipping is more used in the transportation of large quantity of homogeneous cargo
which is called bulk cargo: cargo without packing in complete loose type, which can be
loaded. Stowed and unloaded easily and
quickly by using specialized equipment in or out of bulk carriers in a continuous manner.
Terminal requirements in handling bulk cargo: deep water draft/specialized handling
equipment or large storage are and facilities/good onward transport connection.

Main characteristics of the tramp markets

1. Globally competitive markets
2. Close to perfect competition model

40
3. Different sub-market segments in response to customer needs
4. Competition between sub-market segments for cargo
5. Volatile and unpredictable demand
6. Many small entrepreneurial shipping companies
7. Global ship trading patterns including “cross trades”
8. Ease of entry and exit
9. Very cost effective
10. Responding to the development of markets and shippers’ needs

Challenges to liner Shipping

Problems with the number of “port call”
Problems with ship size and company size
Problem with trade imbalance and empty containers
Challenge of logistic and supply chain Discussions with the regulators
Motives of maritime transport co-operations
Economic consideration
Ocean going ship is more and more expensive
As the need of economies of scale in international liner shipping, it needs to supply with
bigger ship to meet the market requirement
Therefore, only a few financially and commercially very strong companies can afford such
expansion program.
New big ship has the disadvantage in capital cost whereas small old ship has the
disadvantage in high operation cost.
Commercial arrangements
Market coverage
The world economy becomes more and more integrated
Example, Japan sells his products to not only North America but to every continent of the
world.
Therefore, the shipper would prefer to select a maritime transport supplier who has a service
of worldwide coverage.

41
CHAPTER 3

3.1 REGISTRATION OF A SHIP

3.1.1 Classification

Classification symbols of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping Hull and equipment:

Lloyd’s register of Shipping

1. LR/IMO Number
2. Owner
3. Flag
4. Status
5. Length (metres)
6. Deadweight (tonnes)
7. Breadth (metres)
8. Gross tonnage (tons)
9. Draught (metres)
10. Classification details
11. Ship type
12. Builder
13. Year of build
14. Yard number
15. Country of build
16. Propulsion summary

From Lloyd’s Register Group Limited (LR) is a global engineering, technical and business
services organisation and a maritime classification society, wholly owned by the Lloyd’s
Register Foundation. A UK charity dedicated to research and education in science and
engineering. The organisation dates back to 1760. Its stated aims are to enhance the safety of
life, property and the environment by helping its clients to ensure the quality construction and
operation of critical infrastructure.

Basically, the history background of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: it was a specifically

maritime organisation. During the late 20th century, it diversified into other industries including
oil and gas, process industries, nuclear, and rail. Through its 100% subsidiary Lloyd’s

42
Register Quality Assurance Ltd (LRQA), it is also a major vendor of independent assessment
services including management systems certification for quality certification to ISO9001,
ISO14001 and OSHASI8001.

Lloyd’s Register is unaffiliated with Lloyd’s of London. On 2 July 2012, the organisation
converted from an industrial and provident society to a company limited by shares, named
Lloyd’s Register Group Limited, with the new Lloyd’s Register Foundation as the sole
shareholder. At the same time the organisation gifted to the Foundation a substantial bond and
equity portfolio to assist it with its charitable purposes and it will benefit from continued
funding from the group’s operating arm, Lloyd’s Register Group Limited.

The organisation’s name came from the 17th century coffee house in London frequented by
merchants, marine underwriters and others, all associated with shipping. The coffee house
owner, Edward Lloyd, helped them to exchange information by circulating a printed sheet of
all the news he heard. In 1760, the Register Society was formed by the customers of the coffee
house who assembled the Register of Shipping, the first known register of its type. Between
1800 and 1833, a dispute between ship owner and underwriters caused them to publish a list
each –the “Red Book” and the “Green Book”. This brought both parties to the verge of
bankruptcy. Agreement was reached in 1834 when they united to form Lloyd’s Register of
British and Foreign Shipping, establishing a General Committee and charitable values. In 1914,
with an increasingly international outlook, the organisation changed its name to Lloyd’s
Register of Shipping.

3.1.2 The Register

The Society printed the first Register of Ships in 1764 in order to give both underwriters and
merchants an idea of the condition of the vessels they insured and chartered: ship hulls were
graded by a lettered scale (A being the best), and ship’s fittings (masts, rigging, and other
equipment) were graded by number (1 being the best). Thus the classification “A1”, from
which the expression A1 or A1 at Lloyd’s is derived, first appeared in the 1775-76 edition of
the Register.

The Register, with information on all seagoing, self-propelled merchant ships of 100 gross
tones or greater, is published annually. A vessel remains registered with Lloyd’s Register until
it is sunk, wrecked, hulked, or scrapped. The Register was published formerly by the joint
venture company of Lloyd’s Register-Fairplay, which was formed in July 2001 by the merger

43
of Lloyd’s Register’s Maritime Information Publishing Group and Prime Publications Limited.
Lloyd’s Register sold its share of the venture to IHS in 2009.

3.1.3 Classification rules

Lloyd’s Register provides quality assurance and certification for ships, offshore structures, and
shore-based installations such as power stations and railway infrastructure. However, Lloyd’s
Register is known best for the classification and certification of ships, and inspects and
approves important components and accessories, including life-saving appliances, marine
pollution prevention, fire protection, navigation, radio communication equipment, deck gear,
cables, ropes, and anchors.

3.1.4 Rules for Ship in Lloyd’s Register

LR’s Rules for Ships are derived from principles of naval architecture and marine
engineering, and govern safety and operational standards for numerous merchant, military,
and privately owned vessels. LR’s Rules govern a number of topics including:

Materials used for construction of the vessel

Ship structural requirements and minimum scantlings, depending on ship type

Operation and maintenance of main auxiliary machinery

Operation and maintenance of emergency and control systems

Specific editions of the rules are available to cater for merchant ships, naval ships, trimarans,
special purpose vessels and offshore structures. A ship is known as being in class if it meets
all the minimum requirements of LR’s Rules, and such a status affects the possibility of a ship
getting insurance. Class can be withdrawn from a ship if it is in violation of any regulations
and does not maintain the minimum requirements specified by the company. However,
exceptional circumstances may warrant special dispensation from Lloyd’s Register. Any
alteration to the vessel, whether it is a structural alteration or machinery, must be approved by
Lloyd’s Register before it is implemented.

44
Ships are inspected on a regular basis by a team of Lloyd’s Register surveyors, one of the most
important inspections being a ship’s annual Load Line survey. Such a survey includes an
inspection of the hull to make sure that the load line has not been altered. Numerous other
inspections such as the condition of hatch and door seals, safety barriers, and guard rails are
also performed. Upon completion the ship is allowed to be operated for another year, and is
issued a Load Line Certificate.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION WITH OTHER SOCIETIES

If a ship is classed with another Society, the initial letters of the Society are recorded as shown
below. Where these letters are shown in parentheses, this indicates that the ship was previously
classed with that Society.

AB American Bureau of Shipping

BR Bulgarski Register
BV Bureau Veritas
DSRK DDR Deutsche Schiffs-Revision und-Klassifikation
GL Germanischer Lloyd
HR Hellenic Register of Shipping
IRS Indian Register of Shipping
JR JugoslavenskiRegistarBrodova
KI Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia
KR Korean Register of Shipping
NK Nippon KaijiKyokai
NV Det Norske Veritas
PR PolskiRejestrStatkow
RI RegistroItalianoNavale
RNR RegistruVaval Roman
RS Register of Shipping of the USSR
ZC ZianlianChuen (Register of Shipping of the People’s Republic of
China

45
3.3 FLAG STATE CONTROL (COUNTRY OF REGISTRY)

 Approves the plan

 Ensures construction is according to the specifications
 Ensures vessel meets specifications before delivery to the owner
 Does surveys periodical to ensure that ship is sea worthy
 Approves any modification/changes
 Must declare her sea worthy before she can sail or return to service after an accident
 Register the ship
 Check qualifications and competence of the crew
 Check the compliance to MARPOL

3.4 PORT STATE CONTROL

Each and every port has go its own control over ships calling their port

South African port state control is SAMSA.

 To ensure the safety of life at sea

 To prevent and combat pollution of the marine environment by ships
 Enforcing training standards and competency of seafarers
 Develop and implement national and international laws
 Check the seaworthiness
 Check the compliance to MARPOL
 Check the certificate of the ship
 Check the qualification and competence of the crew
 Detain/suspend the ship
 Check stowaways

CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES - DEFINITION

The following definition applies in respect of the membership of IACS.
A Classification Society is an organisation which:

46
(i) publishes its own classification Rules (including technical requirements) in relation to the
design, construction and survey of ships2, and has the capacity to (a) apply, (b) maintain and
(c) update those Rules and Regulations with its own resources on a regular basis;
(ii) verifies compliance with these Rules during construction and periodically during a classed
ship's service life;
(iii) publishes a register of classed ships;
(iv) is not controlled by, and does not have interests in, ship-owners, shipbuilders or others
engaged commercially in the manufacture, equipping, repair or operation of ships; and
(v) is authorised by a Flag Administration as defined in SOLAS Chapter XI-1, Regulation 1
and listed accordingly in the IMO database, Global Integrated Shipping Information System
(GISIS).

3.6 CLASSIFICATION NOTATIONS

Classification notations are indicative of the specific Rule requirements which have been
met. Additional voluntary notations are offered by individual Societies and may be selected
by an owner wishing to demonstrate that the vessel conforms to a particular standard that
may be in excess of that required for classification. Depending on the Classification Society,
the classification notations are assigned to the ship according to ship type, service, navigation
and/or other criteria which have been provided by the owner and/or builder, when requesting
classification. Classification notations assigned to a ship are indicated on the certificate of
classification as well as in the Register of Ships published by the Society. These notations
can be generalized by the following types which may be used in combination:
• main class symbol;
• construction marks;
• service notations with additional service features, as applicable;
• navigation notations;
• geographic notations;
• additional class notations

47
3.7 ASSIGNMENT, MAINTENANCE, SUSPENSION AND WITHDRAWAL OF
CLASS
3. 7.1 Assignment of class
Class is assigned to a ship upon the completion of satisfactory surveys, held to verify that the
vessel is in compliance with the relevant Rules of the Society. This assignment may be given
in the following cases:
• on completion of the new building, after satisfactory surveys have been performed;
• on completion of a satisfactory survey of an existing ship carried out in accordance with
the agreement developed by the IACS Member Societies for ships transferring class between
Members; or
• on completion of a satisfactory specific class survey of an existing ship not classed with an
IACS Society, or not classed at all.

3.7.2 Maintenance of class

Classed ships are subject to surveys for maintenance of class. These surveys include the class
renewal (also called “special survey”), intermediate, annual, and bottom/docking surveys
(either a survey in dry dock or an in-water survey) of the hull, tail shaft survey, boiler survey,
machinery surveys and surveys for the maintenance of additional class notations, where
applicable. Such surveys are carried out at the intervals and under the conditions given below.
The surveys are to be carried out in accordance with the relevant requirements in order to
confirm that the condition of the hull, machinery, equipment and appliances comply with the
applicable Rules. It is the owner’s duty to ensure that the ship’s maintenance is kept at a
satisfactory level in order to maintain the condition between surveys.

The extent of any survey depends upon the condition of the ship and its equipment. In
addition to the minimum required extent of surveys specified in the Rules, should the
surveyor have a doubt as to the maintenance or condition of the ship or its equipment, or be
informed by the owner of any deficiency or damage which may affect class, further
examination and testing may be conducted as considered necessary.

48
3.7.3 Suspension of class
Class may be suspended following a decision made by the Society when one or more of the
following occurs:
• when a ship is not operated in compliance with the Rule requirements;
• when a ship proceeds to sea with less freeboard than that assigned;
• when the owner fails to request a survey after having detected defects or damages affecting
the class;
• when repairs, alterations or conversions affecting the class are carried out without
requesting the attendance of a surveyor.

In addition, class is automatically suspended:

• when the class renewal/special survey has not been completed by its due date or within the
time granted in special circumstances for the completion of the survey, unless the ship is
under attendance by the Society’s surveyor(s) with a view to completion prior to resuming
trading;
• when the annual or intermediate surveys have not been completed by the end of the
corresponding survey time windows.

Suspension of class with respect to the above cases will remain in effect until such time as
the due surveys and any other survey deemed appropriate by the Society have been
completed.
In addition to the circumstances for which automatic suspension may apply, the class of a
ship will be subject to suspension procedures following a decision of the Society:
• when a recommendation/condition of class is not dealt with within the time limit specified,
unless it is postponed before the due date by agreement with the Society;
• when one or more other surveys are not held by their due dates - or the dates stipulated by
the Society also taking into account any extensions granted;
• when, due to the nature of reported defects, the Society considers that a ship is not entitled
to retain its class even on a temporary basis (pending necessary repairs or renewals, etc.);
• in other circumstances where the owner fails to submit the ship to a survey in accordance
with a special requirement.

49
In all cases suspension will remain in effect until such time as matters are rectified and the
class is reinstated or class is withdrawn.
Depending on the Society’s procedures, the suspensions of class which are not automatic
may take effect either when they are decided by the Society or from the date when the
conditions for suspension occurred. However once the conditions for class
suspension/withdrawal are met and before any decision by the Society can be taken, either
because the Society is not aware of the circumstances (surveys dates, etc. are recorded but
not systematically monitored) or because the decision is not yet taken, maintenance of class
cannot generally be confirmed by the Society during this period.
3.7.4 Withdrawal of class
The Society will withdraw the class of a ship when:
• requested by the owner;
• the class has been suspended for more than six months;
• the ship is reported as a constructive total loss and the owner does not advise his intention
to repair the ship for re-instatement of class;
• the ship is reported lost;
• the ship will not trade further as declared by its owner.
Withdrawal of class takes effect from the date on which the circumstances causing such
withdrawal occur or when it is decided.

3.7.5 Notification of suspension or withdrawal

When class is suspended or withdrawn, the Society will at the same time:
• inform the owner, flag Administration and underwriters (the latter at their request);
• publish the information on its website and convey the information to appropriate databases

50
CHAPTER 4
PORT OPERATIONS

HARBOURS / PORTS AS AN INTERFACE

Link between sea, road and rail transport

Basic terms for learners to know:

• port, harbour, haven • Port Authority
• port structures • Harbour(master’s) Office
• wharf • port areas
• berth • storage facilities
• quay • port facilities
• pier • maritime administration
• jetty • bething accommodation
• dock • dock basin
• mole
• port regulations
• breakwater
• dock basin • port facilities
• terminal • port dues

At the end of this chapter a learner should know:

How many organisations does it take to operate a port?

What are the responsibilities of each organisation?

Which organisations help with safety and the environment?

Which organisations help with the operation of the ships?

Which organisations help with the movement of cargo

4.1 PORTS AND HARBOURS CONDUCT FOUR IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS:
(a) Administrative (ensuring that the legal, socio-political and economic interests of the state
and international maritime authorities are protected),
(b) Development (ports are major promoters and instigators of a country’s or wider regional
economy),
© Industrial (major industries process the goods imported or exported in a port), and
(d)Commercial (ports are international trade junction points where various modes of transport
interchange; loading, discharging, transit of goods).

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A port is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo. They are usually situated at the
edge of an ocean, sea, river, or lake. Ports often have cargo- handling equipment such as cranes
(operated by longshoremen) and forklifts for use in loading/unloading of ships, which may be
provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities
will be located nearby. Harbour pilots and tugboats are often used to manoeuvre large ships in
tight quarters as they approach and leave the docks. Ports which handle international traffic
have customs facilities. (Source: Wikipedia)

The terms "port" and "seaport" are used for ports that handle ocean-going vessels, and "river
port" is used for facilities that handle river traffic, such as barges and other shallow draft
vessels. Some ports on a lake, river, or canal have access to a sea or ocean, and are sometimes
called "inland ports". A "fishing port" is a type of port or harbor facility particularly suitable
for landing and distributing fish. A "dry port" is a term sometimes used to describe a yard used
to place containers or conventional bulk cargo, usually connected to a seaport by rail or road.
A "warm water port" is a port where the water does not freeze in winter. Because they are
available year-round, warm water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest, with
the ports of Saint Petersburg and Valdez being notable examples. A "port of call" is an
intermediate stop, for example to collect supplies or fuel.

Cargo containers allow efficient transport and distribution by eliminating loading of smaller
packages at each transportation point, and allowing the shipping unit to be sealed for its entire
journey. Standard containers can easily be loaded on a ship, train, truck, or airplane, greatly
simplifying intermodal transfers. Cargo often arrives by train and truck to be consolidated at a
port and loaded onto a large container ship for international transport. At the destination port,
it is distributed by ground transport.

The world's busiest port is contested by several ports around the world, as there is as yet no
standardised means of evaluating port performance and traffic. For the past decade the
distinction has been claimed by both the Port of Rotterdam and the Port of Singapore. The
former based its measurement on cargo tonnage handled (total weight of goods loaded and
discharged), while the latter ranks in terms of shipping tonnage handled (total volume of ships
handled). Since 2005, the Port of Shanghai has exceeded both ports to take the title in terms of
total cargo tonnage.

52
According to Wikipedia, the following ports have variously made claims to be largest world
port: Port of Shanghai, Port of Singapore, Port of Rotterdam, Port of Hong Kong, Port of
New York/New Jersey.

Various definitions for the word ‘port’:

A a place on a waterway with facilities for loading and unloading ships.
B a city or town on a waterway with such facilities.
C the waterfront district of a city.
D a place along a coast that gives ships and boats protection from storms and rough
water; a harbor.

In what follows several aspects of ports worldwide will be discussed (port structures, port
terminals, basic port information, port regulations, etc.).

53
4.3 ROLE OF A PORT

A port is a key business in South Africa’s economy. It provides the link between sea
transportation and land freight. A port is a place where’ cargoes are transferred between ships
and trucks and/or railway wagons. A port provides storage areas on land, sheds, wharfs, piers,
ship channels and arrangements for ships to dock. It has the correct equipment for ships to
load and unload their cargoes safely.

A ship must arrive at the correct place in the port where its new cargo is either waiting to be
loaded or where its cargo can be unloaded. The faster the ship can get out of the port, the more
money the ship owner will save. There may be a need to load fuel, food and water. Rubbish
and oily sludge may need to be placed into proper disposal containers.

A port has equipment to help transport the cargo to storage areas. The cargo will be stored until
trains, trucks or other ships can transport it to its next destination.

4.3.1. WHO RUNS THE PORT

Ports in S.A can be managed by either the

State government or by a public or private company (Transnet). It might be called an

authority, corporation, company etc. The management organisation is the responsibility of
this organisation to make sure the port runs smoothly.

54
They make the regulations (rules) that the ships and other organisations using the port must
follow .Some of the responsibilities include:

Through the Harbour Master they control the movement of ships in and out of the port and
make sure that ships remain safe.

• They collect the fees and charges from those who use the port.

• They make sure that all matters that involve safety and protecting the environment are
being looked after. They try to prevent problems but have in place ways to reduce the damage
if a problem should occur

4.3.2 Port structures

The terms port, harbour and haven are more or less synonymous, but each of them also has
specific meanings.

Port layout: A harbour (US spelling "harbor") is a place of security and comfort, a small bay
or other sheltered part of an area of water, usually well protected against high waves and
strong currents, and deep enough to provide anchorage for ships and other craft. It is also a
place where port facilities are provided, e.g. accommodation for ships and cargo handling
facilities.

Ships are accommodated and handled, i.e. loaded and unloaded, at such port structures as;
wharfs or quays, piers and jetties, and sometimes alongside moles or breakwaters.
Any place where a ship can safely lie alongside a quay, pier or dock, at anchor or a buoy, and
where she can carry out loading/discharge operations or embark and disembark passengers is
called a berth.

A dry dock is a type of dock consisting of a rectangular basin dug into the shore of a body of
water and provided with a removable enclosure wall or gate on the side toward the water,
used for major repairs and overhaul of vessels. When a ship is to be docked, the dry dock is
flooded, and the gate removed.

A jetty (gat) is a small pier, usually made of timbers for boats, yachts or fishing
boats (fisherman jetty), but it also refers to large ships
(tanker jetty, T-jetty)

The term dock has a number of meanings. It is an artificially enclosed basin into which
vessels are brought for inspection and repair. A dock is a place, usually man-made area of
enclosed water, where ships are loaded, unloaded or repaired. Originally, it denotes an area of
water that can accommodate a ship and can be closed off by locks to allow regulation of the
water level. It also means a space between two wharves or piers for the mooring of ships, i.e.

55
a dock basin. Often it can be interchanged with the terms wharf or pier. In US it often
indicates a small landing pier for accommodating boats in a river or lake creek.

Layout of a port – port structures:

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57
4.4 SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Surveyor inspect the ship

Inspections of ships
A ship’s flag State is the country in which a ship is registered. The ship flies the country’s
national flag at its stern. The Port State is the country which the ship is visiting.

The flag State makes safety and environmental laws and regulations with which their
registered ships must comply. To make sure this happens flag States inspect their ships,
usually at the ship’s home port. However, they can do inspections in any port in the world on
their own flag ships. This is called Flag State Control.

Port State Control is the inspection of all foreign ships, visiting a port. These inspections are
done by government employed surveyors and inspectors.
Inspections are to make sure ships from other countries are up to standard and the ships don’t
pose a risk to the marine environment. Surveyors inspect the ship’s safety equipment,
including life rafts and firefighting equipment. They also check the crew’s qualifications and
the seaworthiness of the ship.

In S.A, Port State Control inspections are carried out by the South African Maritime Safety
Authority (SAMSA). For more information go to www.samsa.org
4.5 ROLE OF STEVEDORES
Stevedores are the people who work on the wharfs and on the ships, loading and unloading
the cargo. They operate derricks and cranes on the ship as well as the huge container cranes
on shore. On container ships, stevedores take containers from the storage area to the crane
and from the crane to the storage area. They secure containers to the ship and to each other.
On some wharfs they may also operate conveyor belts or drive cars on or off ships.

58
Many of the stevedores need to be strong and fit. Those that work outdoors need to wear
warm clothes during winter and wet weather gear when it is raining. They work in shifts so
that port can operate 24 hours a day.

PORT FACILITIES , EQUIPMENTS and THEIR FUNCTIONS

(a) QUARANTINE

Quarantine officers make sure no new diseases or pests are brought into South Africa.

There are many diseases and pests from other countries that don’t live in South Africa. These
could get into South Africa when live animal or plant material is imported.

A quarantine system enables the safe importation of live animal and plant material. When the
animals and plants arrive in Australia they are stored and looked after in a secure area for
several weeks where pests and germs can’t escape.
While they are being cared for, they are closely watched to see if they get sick. If they get sick
experts (e.g. vets, horticulturalists, entomologists) must find the cause.

If there is a problem, the plants or animals can be destroyed so there is no risk to South African
animals or plants. Otherwise, after the required quarantine period the animals and plants can
be collected by the importers.

Quarantine officers also check ships’ ballast water. They make sure there are no marine pests
from another country in the ballast water.

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 (b) CUSTOMS AND IMMIGRATION

Once the ship has berthed at the wharf and the gangway is down or the ship is well
anchored within the harbour limits, an immigration officer will visit the ship. The officer
will want to see the passports of the ship’s crew. They need to make sure that those on the
ship do not stay in Australia when it leaves

Customs officers are interested in what is being imported into South Africa. Some of their
roles are
• To inspect the ship looking for illegal goods, like drugs and firearms
• To make sure taxes (import duty) are paid on certain imported goods
© HARBOUR MASTER

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The Harbour Master is responsible for safety in a port. They make sure:

• the port is safe for ships to navigate to and from their berth to load and unload their
cargo;

• there is sufficient depth of water in the ship channels and alongside the wharfs, jetties and
piers within the port;

• if there is not enough depth, the Harbour Master must warn shipping visiting the port and
arrange for the channel to be dredged to the required depth;
• navigation marks are in position to assist ships navigate within the port.

Harbour Masters usually supervise the work of the harbour pilots making sure they provide a
good service.

Harbour Masters make sure that ships using the port obey the port laws and other
regulations. The Harbour Master can lay charges against people who break the port’s laws
and take them to court where they may be fined.

(d)ROLE OF THE FIRE AND EMERGENCY SERVICES

In ports, the fire fighting and emergency services include fire prevention. The organisation
responsible needs to know what dangerous chemicals are being loaded or unloaded from
ships and where they are stored.
They are able to respond to emergencies in the port, both on land and above and under water.
In large ports they will have boats that can fight fires with water or foam. They must also be
able to respond to and clean up oil spills

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 (e) PORT SECURITY AND ARRANGEMENTS

The area around ports where cargo is handled is securely fenced. Security guards make sure
that only those people who have permission to visit a port can go in. There are usually
security cameras and precautions for keeping unwanted people out.

Security is very important in ports.

• Wharfs are very dangerous places for people to be wandering around. There could be
many large transport machines and cranes at work. Large conveyors can also be dangerous
Security prevents cargo from being stolen.

• Security stops people removing illegal imports before customs has a chance to check on
the contents of containers.

• Security helps prevents terrorist attacks on ports and ships.

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 (f)ROLE OF TUGS

Ships are slow to turn and take a long time to stop. When using only their own power, ships
risk damaging the dock and the ship. A ship will order one or more tug boats to help it dock
at its berth. Tugs are necessary in smaller spaces and when the ship is close to a dock. Tugs
are small but have powerful engines.
They can push a ship as well as use lines to pull it.

Most of the time, tugs will turn the ship around so that it faces the way it will be leaving. The
tugs will slowly nudge the ship towards the dock so that it can berth safely. They can push a
ship as well as use lines to pull it.

Most of the time, tugs will turn the ship around so that it faces the way it will be leaving. The
tugs will slowly nudge the ship towards the dock so that it can berth safely.
(g)ROLE OF HARBOUR PILOTS

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When ships get close to a port, they need to pick up a harbour pilot to guide them in unless
the captain on board has been to the port many times before. A pilot provides local navigation
advice to the ship’s captain. The ship must book the pilot 24 hours before it either arrives at a
port or is due to sail from a port. Before the ship gets to the port, the pilots board ships where
the crew needs assistance. When the ship is at sea, pilots use a boat or helicopter to get on
board.
The pilot has special local knowledge of the channels and how currents and winds can affect
ships. Ships are large and can’t stop and turn quickly. The pilot knows when to start a turn
and if the wind and currents will push the ship off its course. The pilot is a guide to the ship’s
captain and officers and does not take over the controls. If the pilot makes a mistake, the
ship’s captain and crew are still responsible as they control the ship at all times.

(h) MOORING LINES

MOORING LINES
Ship needs to be secured to the wharf or it will move and bump about, possibly damaging the
ship and the wharf.

Special boast called mooring boat can take the mooring line from a ship to the wharf.
Another way to do this is for the ship’s crew, at each end of the ship, to throw a heaving line
to the lines people on the wharf.
The heaving line is a thinner line connected to a much heavier mooring ropes. The end of the
mooring rope is placed over a bollard. The mooring rope is tightened by a winch (machine)
on board the ship. To secure a ship, there are a minimum of three mooring ropes at each end
of the ship secured to bollards on the wharf.

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 (i) BUNKER BARGE

While in port, ships need to have a range of services. Often ships need to be ‘refueled’ this
is called bunkering. A boat called a bunker barge, rather like a floating petrol station, goes
alongside the ship. The bunker barge has powerful pumps and loads fuel oil, called
bunkers, into the ship’s storage (bunker) tanks. The transfer of fuel must be done properly
and securely to prevent any oil spills.
There are other businesses that may visit the ship and take orders for food and other things
the crew needs. These are delivered before the ship leaves.
The ship may also take on fresh water.

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 (j) A SHIP’S AGENT

The ship’s agent is the ship owner’s or ship operator’s representative in a port.

The ship’s agent deals with everything between the ship and the port and the authorities
ashore
The ship’s agent also brings mail onboard to the ship’s crew and looks after other paperwork.

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 (k) A SHIP’S CHANDLER

The ship’s chandler receives orders for supplies from the Captain, Chief Steward and Chief
Engineer on board a ship. They order and handle food, spare parts and other goods needed by
the crew to operate the ship.
The ship’s chandler is the person who communicates between the ship and those on the shore
who supply the goods.
(l) SHELTER FROM WEATHER

The best place to have a port is in a location where the water is deep enough and the ships
will be protected from bad weather and big waves. Ports also need easy access to roads and
railways to transport cargo to and from the ships. Many coastal cities have grown around
good locations for ports.
In the past, ports were built at the mouths of rivers. This gave ships shelter and access to fresh
water. The rivers were also used to transport freight by barge to and from inland towns. The
location of most of South Africans coastal cities were chosen because there was a good
natural place to build a shipping port.

67
Today bigger ships are being built and these carry more cargo. Bigger ships can’t be handled
by some ports because either the water may not be deep enough or the ship is too long to turn
around. Some ports need to dredge deeper channels to handle these larger ships.

(m) ACCESS TO TRANSPORT

Most ports have both railways and roads entering. Areas are needed where road trucks and
railway wagons can be loaded and unloaded. The trucks need areas where they can wait
and areas with enough space to turn around. The gates need to be large to allow trucks to
enter and leave at the same time.

Road trucks need to get to major highways. It is much better if they don’t need to drive
past people’s homes and shopping areas.
Trains need enough room as there may be dozens of container wagons, coal wagons or
grain wagons waiting to be loaded. Coal and grain wagons are designed like hoppers. The
bottom opens and the contents spill into a pit below where conveyors move it to storage
facilities.

Ports that handle wet bulk cargo such as oil and chemicals are serviced by pipes that take
the liquids to storage containers and sometimes refineries.

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 (n) PIER

A pier is a long platform built on piles or columns. A pier usually goes out to sea where the
water is deeper making it easier for ships to dock. The seawater flows around the piles
below the pier. The pier does not affect the movement of the tide or waves. Piers can be
light structures that can also be used by small boats to tie up Larger piers may be used by
ferries, while very large piers may take ships; some have trains moving along the middle.
Piers are also called jetties

(o) WHARFS

Wharfs (wharves?) are often built along the side of a river bank or the shoreline. A wharf is a large
platform above the water. It can be built on piles or columns or on a solid base. The water alongside a
pier needs to be deep enough so that the ship remains afloat as the tide goes out. A wharf has bollards
for the ship’s mooring lines.
Many wharfs have equipment such as cranes or conveyor belts to move cargo. Some wharfs
(wharves) have ramps so that forklifts and vehicles can drive onto roll-on roll-off ships.

69
The main difference between a pier and a wharf is that a pier goes out to sea while a wharf is built
parallel to the shoreline.
(p) BOLLARDS

Ships need something very solid to tie up to. A ship will use bollards on a wharf or pier as
well as on the ship. A ship’s mooring lines may be made of rope, polyurethane or wire. The
end of each mooring line at the shore end is looped into what is called an ‘eye’ so it can be
placed over the bollard. This makes it easier for the ship’s crew to tighten the line if the
mooring line becomes slack. Wrapping a rope around the bollard on a ship can also be used
as a brake (not clear).
Slacken the rope and it will allow the rope to slip a little. Bollards are made from metal and
are bolted solidly to a wharf or pier and to a ship’s deck.

(q) CONTAINER CRANES

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Container cranes are also called ship-to-shore gantry cranes. These cranes have a long
horizontal arm that reaches out over the container ship. The crane rests on rails so that it can
be moved up and down the wharf between the ship and the loading point. The job of the
crane is to lift containers from the wharf onto the ship and from the ship onto the wharf. The
crane has cables for lifting and moving the containers. At the end of the cables are spreaders
with twist locks
The containers have fittings at each corner into which these twist locks. Once locked in, the
container can be safely moved by the crane. These cranes are powered by either electricity or
a powerful diesel engine.

Container cranes are very expensive so not all ports will have them. A good gang of
stevedores can move more than 30 containers an hour.

(r) MOBILE CRANES

Mobile cranes are placed on the wharves and can move from place to place. They are used
for both general cargo and containers. They are less expensive than container cranes, but
are not as fast for container loading and unloading
Less expensive mobile cranes can be used to move containers if container cranes are not
available.

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 (s) FORKLIFT

Containers need to be moved around a wharf, but are heavy and can weigh up to 35
tonnes. A forklift moving them around and stacking them must be very heavy, so that it does
not tip over. Forklifts can stack containers five high. Such big forklifts are called
reachstackers.

A forklift picks a loaded container up at the corners using a spreader and special twist locks
to keep it in place. Forklifts can be fitted with other attachments, so they can be used to move
logs, coils of wire and other materials.
Some of the jobs of forklifts are to:

• Move containers on and off trucks and rail cars

• Move containers to storage areas or to the crane

• Stack containers in storage areas

• Move cargo on pallets on and off ships with ramps (roll-on roll-off ships).
When containers are stacked one on top of the other, special twist locks can be placed in
between so the containers can be locked together.

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 (t) STRADDLE CARRIERS

STRADDLE CARRIERS

These are special machines on wheels for transporting containers around a wharf. They drive
over a container stack. They pick up containers either from a wharf or from the top of a pile
of containers. Containers are attached to the straddle carrier using twist locks on the corners.

Straddle carriers drive containers to where they need to go. Some of these machines can stack
containers very high.

Straddle carriers are another very expensive piece of equipment on a wharf.

(u) BULK LOADERS

Bulk loaders are large machines a bit like ship-to-shore container cranes. They are fitted with
either a conveyor belt from which the bulk cargo falls into the ship’s cargo holds, or a chute.
The chute may handle grain and spread it evenly inside the cargo holds.
Some bulk loaders are fitted with very large grabs. Grabs take big bites of loose material such
as grain and ore and load it on and off bulk carriers.

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BULK LOADERS

(v) CONVEYER BELT

Conveyor belts are useful for moving dry bulk cargo. Examples of dry bulk cargo are wheat,
coal, minerals and woodchips. This material is moved from rail or truck to storage and
stockpiled on a wharf. When a ship arrives at a port the cargo must be quickly transported to
the ship’s holds (storage area inside a ship).

When a ship arrives at its destination the bulk cargo needs to be removed from the ship’s
holds and moved to a new storage area.

In most dry bulk ports conveyor belts are enclosed. This prevents the cargo dust from
blowing around the port and over surrounding homes.

If there is dust from loading and unloading cargo it can be a major problem. Ports take action
to make sure this does not happen.

Some conveyor belts can be moved around so that they can be used to service different ships
and different cargoes,

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Conveyer belt

(w) GRABS

These are like giant jaws suspended from a crane. They can take big bites of dry bulk cargo
such as wheat, coal, woodchips or minerals. The crane holding the bulk graps can swing the
load around, open the jaws and drop the contents.

Sometimes the grabs are covered to limit dust from escaping. Sometimes the grabs need to be
lowered into holds to avoid the wind blowing dust all over the place.
Often when the grabs are not able to remove all the cargo, it is removed from the ship’s hold
using a large suction pipe or a machine with a screw auger.

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 (x) HOOPERS

Hoppers are temporary storage containers that allow the material being stored to be filled
from the top and to pour out of the bottom through gate. Hoppers are used for the short-term
storage of dry bulk cargo on land. Conveyor belts are used to transport the material to the top
of the hopper where it falls in.
A gate at the bottom of the hopper allows the material to pour out into truck or rail cars when
they are placed under the hoppers. Trucks can drive under some hoppers to be filled up and
driven away.
Silos are for long-term storage of bulk material on land.

Wheat is often stored in large silos.

Hoopers

4.7 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Would you like a sea port in your neighbourhood?

Is it good to have a port or does it cause problems for a community?

Do ports create jobs?

Are transport trucks to and from ports a problem?

76
The impact of a port on the local and regional community
Some other risks
Ports need to have environmental protection and safety plans. The first thing port authorities
want to do is to try to prevent problems occurring. If there is a problem, they need to act
quickly to keep the trouble under control. These are some of the things ports need to consider
when planning to reduce risks:

• Fire on board a ship while docked alongside the wharf

• Fire on board a ship on the water at anchorage

• Ships sinking in the port

• Fire on the shore

Dangerous chemical spill

• Oil spill

• Explosion

• Escape of dangerous gas (poisonous or explosive)

• Accidents on shore

• Collision of ships

• Train or road accident in the port

• Invasion of marine pests in ships’ ballast water or stuck to the ships’ hulls

• Armed intruders.

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4.8 INTERNATIONAL LAWS

IMO
Ships and ports must do all they can to protect the marine environment. There are
international laws that ships and ports must obey. No pollution, such as rubbish, oil or
chemicals from ships, must ever get into the waters of a port or harbour. If this happens there
are severe penalties for the ship and the ship’s Captain and/or crew.
International laws for ships are made at the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in
London, England. For more information see www.imo.org

4.9 SHIPS RUBBISH

At sea, ships will burn some of their rubbish in an incinerator. An incinerator is a special fire
box designed to burn paper, card and some food rubbish. It cannot burn metal or glass. Ships
are not allowed to throw overboard any plastic material. Other rubbish may not be thrown
overboard closer than 12 km from shore.

Some plastic can last longer than 100 years in sea water. Plastic can be found in all oceans
around the world including the Antarctic seas; most of it comes from the land and not from
ships. Plastic bags are particularly harmful to marine animal life like turtles and sea birds.
These creatures can mistake plastic bags for jellyfish, which are an important source of food
for them
It is much better if ships don’t throw any rubbish overboard at all. It is best that their
incinerator is used or dispose of rubbish in waste containers when they reach their next port.

Ports supply bins for rubbish and recycling bins for other waste that can be recycled. In
Australia only ships operating solely between In some countries ports can recycle their
waste. Quarantine regulations are designed to prevent new diseases and pests coming into

78
Australia on ships coming from other countries. Rubbish from ships coming from foreign
countries goes to special quarantine rubbish tips where it is buried.
Ship rubbish

(a) SHIPS CLEANING

Ship tank and hold cleaning

Tanks and holds in ships must be cleaned after their cargo has been emptied. Regulations
explain how ships’ holds and tanks can be cleaned, where they can be cleaned and if there
is waste left over, what must happen to the waste.

Cleaning the tanks in oil tankers is dangerous as there is a chance of an explosion. Fuel
vapours in an empty tank are very explosive. Oil tankers always clean their tanks at sea.
The waste must be stored on the ship and taken from the ship when it is in port.
The waste is processed so that it can’t harm the environment.

Cargo holds need to be cleaned between different cargoes. A hold might be transporting
fertiliser and then wheat. When the hold is cleaned, dust must not be allowed to spread in the
air. The waste being cleaned and collected must be disposed of so it does it does not pollute
the environment. The workers that enter the holds need to be trained in safety and wear the
correct safety clothing.

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 (b) EMPTYING THE BILGE

Residues from engine room bilges

Have you ever looked under a car bonnet at the engine? As the car gets older, more and more
oil and grime coats the engine. This also happens inside a ship’s engine room and other
places where there is mechanical equipment.

Below the ship’s engine room is a space that collects the oily waste from the ship. This is
called the engine room bilge
To prevent the bilge from filling up, which can be a fire hazard; it must be emptied almost on
a daily basis. If the liquid in the bilge is pumped overboard without treatment, the sea will be
polluted.

Ships are permitted to pump water from their bilges providing this is done through a special
oily water filter or separator.
This avoids oil polluting the sea. The oily water separator ensures the water pumped
overboard contains less than 15 parts per million of oily substance. This is such a small
amount that you could not see it. Oil can only be seen in the sea when it is 50 parts per
million.

Ships must not pump their bilges when sailing through designated sensitive areas like the
Great Barrier Reef.

The oily waste from the bilge that remains in the ship, together with other polluting
substances like chemicals used for cleaning the machinery, must be carefully removed in port
so that it can be treated and disposed of in an environmentally safe way.

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4.10 SHIPS EMERGENCY PLAN
Each ship has a fire and emergency response plan. The most important part of the plan is to
prevent fire or an emergency. The ship must at all times be properly maintained and the crew
is ready and trained in safety. When a ship has a serious accident it can have a severe impact
on the environment and place the crew at risk from injury and death.

The ship’s crew is trained to respond to fire and other emergencies. They have regular
training exercises and the ship’s communication system is regularly tested. The ship has its
own fire-fighting equipment which is regularly maintained.
The crew needs to understand how to fight different types of fire depending on the kind of
cargo they are carrying.

Fires can be attacked by pumping seawater through fire hoses. If too much water enters the
ship, the ship can become unstable and sink. It only takes a limited amount of water in open
spaces in the ship such as car decks and cargo holds to make the ship roll over and sink.
Ship fire and emergency response plans

4.11 BALLAST WATER

An empty ship is usually very unstable. If a ship becomes very unstable it can roll over and
sink. Empty ships are also higher in the water and the propeller and the rudder become less
effective if they are above the water line.

The quickest and easiest way to increase the weight of a ship is to pump water in. This is
called ballasting. Water is pumped into tanks in the bottom and sides of the ship. As an empty
ship is loaded, the water can be pumped out. This water in the ship is called ballast water.
The ballast water will have many tiny living marine animals in it. Most sea creatures produce

81
eggs and have tiny young, so the ballast water can have very young, but very small marine
animals that in time will grow much larger
However ships from other countries will probably have some marine animals in their ballast
water that don’t live in Australia’s waters. In this way many marine creatures have lifted a
ride to our ports. Some of these animals can become major marine pests.

To prevent this happening, ships that could be holding pest species in their ballast water must
exchange their ballast water while traveling over the ocean. This may not be possible if the
weather is bad. Ships must keep permanent written records about the movement of water in
and out of their ballast tanks.
4.11.1 DISCHARGE OF BALLAST WATER

4.11.2 PORT POLUTION RESPONSE

The job can be contracted out to oil companies or tanker terminals that will have this
equipment for their own use.
A port together with the maritime safety authority and the State environment protection
agency or authority must have oil and chemical pollution response plans. They have teams of
people and equipment available to respond to any oil and chemical pollution in the port or
within the harbour area.

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ROLE OF PORT AUTHORITIES IN POLLUTION RESPONSE

4.12 LOADING FUEL

These barges are like floating petrol stations. They fill the ship’s fuel tanks with diesel fuel
and bunker oil. Exchanging fuel between the bunker barge and ship must be done so that not
even a drop of oil escapes.

The fuel hoses that are used are specially sealed with valves so that no oil can leak from
them. The hoses are hoisted onto the ship and locked onto the ship’s fuel pipe
The locking device is checked to make sure it is secure. Once locked on, the valve opens.
Fuel can then be pumped from the barge into the ship’s fuel tanks.

Even the smallest spill is immediately reported. Spilt oil on water spreads very quickly. The
sooner the oil can be contained, the easier it will be to do the cleanup. There is no hiding even
a small oil spill in a port and it is not difficult to find who is responsible. The offending ship
will be prosecuted in court and may have to pay a very costly fine.

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LOADING OIL FROM BUNKER BARGE

4.12.1 SKIMMERS
The first response to an oil spill is to control and where possible stop the oil leak and make
sure people are safe. The oil can then be contained and mopped up. Skimmers are used to
suck up the oil. Skimmers can be either small circular devices that float or be small powered
boats with special equipment. There are different types of skimmers, but they all do the same
job.

The boat could be designed to be used only as a skimmer, or the boat could have skimming
equipment attached to the front. Because oil floats on water, a skimmer only needs to treat the
oil floating on the surface. The skimmer separates the oil from the water by the skimmer
using an oily water separator. The oily sludge is safely stored on the boat and can be disposed
of properly later.

Skimmers work well for small oil leaks that have have been spread and in conditions when
the wind and waves are not strong.

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Skimmers

4.12.2 FLOATING BOOM

The first response to an oil spill is to fix the cause of the leak or spill and make sure people
are safe. Floating booms can be used to stop the spread of oil over water. They look like long
floating sausages. They can be rolled onto a trailer for storage and are easy to transport to
where they are needed. Small powered boats are needed to get them into place. The boats
drag them around the edge of the oil spill.

With a boom placed around the oil it will not spread further. This will keep beaches and other
parts of the coast and the structures inside a port safe
If the weather and waves are not too strong the oil can be kept inside the booms. A skimmer
can then mop up the oil.

However out at sea and in strong winds floating booms may be impossible to use. Chemicals
can be sprayed on the oil spill to break it up. When oil is treated with chemicals, it is less
likely to coat and kill birds and other marine life and affect the quality of the water.

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Floating boom

4.13 ENVIRONMENT MONITORING

International and local rules require ports, maritime safety authorities and environmental
protection agencies to monitor anything in a port which can damage or harm the
environment. The places to be monitored include the cargo loading and unloading areas in the
port, anchorages, channels and nearby coastal waters.

Role of port authorities in monitoring the impact of port operations on

the marine environment

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4.14 PORT TERMINALS
Word terminal refers to a complete port facility for accommodating, loading/ discharge of
ships and for the storage, stacking and handling of cargo on shore (e.g.bulk cargo terminal,
oil terminal, livestock terminal, etc.).The are many types of terminals available in ports such
as:
LNG terminal
Bulk cargo terminal
Product tanker terminal
Container terminal
Oil terminal
Oil jetty
Cruise terminal
Roll-on/roll off
LPG terminal

A mole or breakwater is a massive port structure made of masonry or large stone blocks laid
in the sea to protect the harbour from waves and current. Sometimes the terms jetty and pier are
used to mean the same.

NEW DEEPWATER QUAY

A new deepwater quay and adjacent backup land within the ports’ existing deep-water basin is
planned to meet the growing demand from the Atlantic Frontier and the expected development
of the Pentland Firth as a major tidal energy supplier. There are a range of options for
development and a preliminary visualisation of the development is shown below:

The project would create a modern supply base and enable the port to offer the same range of
supplies as found in the more distant east coast ports. In particular the development offers the
following:

Increased deep water berthing (at 8 metres water depth). An additional 400m of quay would be
created (at 8-9 metres at chart datum). The overall length of available deepwater quay at the
port would increase to 730 metres. The supply basin would be capable of accommodating 6
vessels at any time.
Increased lay down areas, open storage and warehousing. Additional land will also be acquired
by the Trust, at close proximity to the port, providing opportunities for further lay down areas,
storage and fabrication areas

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Enhanced Heavy Lift capability
Capacity to deliver new services such as bulks and fuel. An improved supply of water is already
available from new storage tanks installed in 2006. Water is available at rates up to 100 tonnes
per hour. Supplies of water have increased by tenfold in 2006, a further 100% growth has been
experienced in the first seven months of 2007.
Access to high quality responsive services, skills and project support

The works will enhance Scrabster’s ability to accommodate the increased demand from oil
supply boat traffic and the marine logistics required to support development on the Atlantic
Frontier and service the needs of the emerging renewable sector closer to home.

Service installations in the Atlantic Frontier can save in excess of 20 hours on a round trip by
using Scrabster rather than the principal North East Ports. Scrabster already offers the oil sector

88
Significant competitive advantages and operating cost reduction through:

Faster deliveries of materials

Higher vessel utilisation
Reduced downtime

The new development further enhances Scrabster’s position as a more cost effective base
over distant east coast ports. Port development: master plan 1

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4.14.2 Basic information on a port:

Port Handbooks such as "Guide to Port Entry and Lloyds Port of the World" usually include
basic information on any port:
- latitude, longitude - dangerous goods
(Admiralty Chart, Time - ship repairs, dry docks
Zone, UNCTAD locoed - airport
(local code) - medical facilities
- authority - working hours
- towage - local holidays,
- traffic - development
- provisions (supplies) - port operators,
- bunkers - cargo handling equipment
- officials - terminals
- pilotage - berthing accommodation
- approach - storage accommodation
- tides - shipping companies,
- radio frequency information - custom authorities, etc.

Port accommodation is divided into berthing and storage accommodation. Berthing

accommodation includes general cargo berths (wharves, quays, piers, docks), oil tanker jetties
or terminals, bulk cargo facilities, container and roll- on/roll-off terminals, liquefied gas
terminals, etc. Storage facilities include transit sheds (along the wharves or docks), back-
up storage located away from the dock, warehouses, stockyards and stacking areas for
containers, stockpiles for bulk cargo etc.

New Berth Layout – Oil Terminal

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The figure above shows the proposed marine berthing structure. Four fenders are mounted on
four breasting dolphins which form the fender line, with which the moored ship will be in
contact. The fender line is approximately 280 feet from the shore line. The unloading platform
is the larger rectangle in the middle that is inside the fender line so the ship won’t actually
touch it. The unloading platform supports the unloading arms, pumps and the operator’s shed.
The north trestle (shown on the left) connects the unloading platform to the shore and includes
a roadway and the oil pipelines. The six smaller squares are mooring dolphins, which hold the
mooring lines that secure the ship in place at the berth. The various size ships will use the
appropriate mooring dolphin to maintain the correct mooring line geometry. The south trestle
is the smaller connection to shore and used primarily for access to the gangway tower.

This figure below shows the silhouette of the four basic “design vessels” that the berth is
anticipating. They are:

A.The Panamax
B.The Aframax
C.The Suezmax
D.The VLCC

Permission is required from the Harbour Master before reducing that separation or overtaking a
specified vessel.

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CHAPTER 5

5.1 CARGO WORK / STOWAGE PLAN

5.1.1 MANAGEMENT OF SHIP’S CARGO OPERATIONS

Reception, Delivery, Documentation and Checking (Tallying).

To tally is to ‘check’ or ‘keep a record’ of all cargo loaded into and/or discharged from a vessel.
It is an essential part of cargo work in order to prevent claims, sometimes illegitimate, upon
the ship for short discharge. However efficient the system of tallying instituted by a port/dock
authority, officers should realize that any short delivery of cargo will result in claims upon the
ship.
As is often the case, so many are the channels through which consignments have to pass before
they eventually reach the ship for loading, or eventually reach the consignee after discharge,
that much confusion and worry can be saved if the ship safeguards its own interests.
The tallying of cargo should be made in alphabetically indexed books, one for each hatch and
each port of discharge and loading and should consist of records of all marks and numbers of
the goods, description, quantity and disposition of stow within a compartment.
As a ship’s responsibility does not begin nor end until the cargo crosses the rail, tallying should
be made on board the vessels and not, as often happens, ashore in the warehouse or on the
wharf.
It is sometimes customary for the shipper and/ or consignee to provide his own tally clerks.
Particularly with cargoes of a straight nature, such as bags, bales etc., whereas it is frequently
the practice for the warehouse/ shed authorities to provide their own clerks when handling a
general cargo. Whatever the system, comparison should always be made at the end of the day
between the ship tally and the shore tally and any differences immediately investigated. It may
even be necessary to retally a consignment if any discrepancy is large.
Upon an efficient system of tallying depends the ability of the Chief Cargo Officer to give
proper receipts and, in the case of discharge, allows the ship to check against the Bill of Lading
when it is proffered. It also assists in the preparation of a cargo plan and loading list.

Two pages of a tally book are reproduced at the back of this book and attention is drawn to the
method of ‘tallying’ in a general cargo and retallying on discharge. Not all tally books are
similar in design; much depends upon the practices required by the shipping company.

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Tallying a general cargo results in greater effectiveness by doing so in the compartment where
the sling is ‘broken open’. By so doing it is comparatively easy to obtain all marks and numbers;
to supervise and note the disposition of stowage and to ensure correct handling, according to
any particular instructions applying to the goods. Tallying and checking is a major component
of cargo documentation which, in modern transportation, has become a complex undertaking.
With a bagged cargo the slings should each contain the same number of bags in order that each
sling can be checked as it crosses the rail. The same system should apply with a bale cargo.

Unitized Cargo. Unitization of cargoes has increased the importance of stringent supervision
with the reception and delivery of cargo.
Pre-slinging, palletizing, mixed unit loads and mechanical transportation-fork lift trucks- in
fast working and moving conditions increases the difficulties of tallying and checking. By the
very nature of things it also accentuates the problems of theft and pilferage. There is thus need
for greater attention in these circumstances and with well trained and reliable people required
for these duties.

Containers. Checking container reception and delivery has its own problems, many of which,
by reason of loading/discharging systems, are beyond the control of ship’s officers. Where,
however small consignments are stowed in a hold space, or on deck, care should be exercised
to ensure that the box seals are secure or have not been tampered with. It is not beyond the wit
of determined people to gain unobserved entry to an ineffectively sealed container during
loading and/or discharging procedures which can distract attention elsewhere. In this context,
periodic unobtrusive visual examination during working can have restraining results.
Containers slung aboard in ineffective condition should be rejected and any found tampered
with before discharge, reported upon.

MATE’S RECEIPTS; BOAT NOTES; BILLS OF LADING; MANIFESTS

When a consignment of cargo is delivered to a ship receipt for that cargo must be given when
the goods are on board. If it is a small consignment, one receipt will probably cover it but with
large consignments many ‘parcels’ will be delivered to the ship before the total consignment
is finally on board. Each parcel is accompanied by the appropriate ‘advise’, known as the ‘Boat
Note’, whether or not the cargo is delivered by lighter or lorry. In some trades it is to retain a
duplicate when he is satisfied, by reference to the tally,that the cargo is on board. The boat note
then automatically becomes the ‘Mate’s Receipt’.

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With many shipping companies it is the practice for the chiefs/ Cargo Officers to give the
official mate’s receipt irrespective of the fact that a boat note may be provided by the shipper.
A Mate’s Receipt may be issued in triplicate… one copy being apportioned to each interested
party… shipper, agent, and ship. A copy of a Mate’s Receipt is reproduced at the back of this
book.
An important matter, viz., short delivery should be commented upon;
100 packages are consigned for shipment but only 92 packages. 8 in dispute. If on board to be
delivered.’ It is not correct to receipt for the 100 packages and dispute the 8.

Bill of Lading. This is the ‘contact of carriage’ between the ship and the shipper. It is an
agreement which sets out in many clauses the conditions under which the ship agrees to carry
the cargo and the shipper agrees to ship the cargo. It is an official, stamped negotiable document
providing the only proper receipt for cargo proved to be on board. Although it is possible for a
Bill of Lading to change hands a number of times during transit of cargo, and hence the change
of ownership to which it refers, it will eventually find its way to the person who, in the ultimate,
is authorized to collect the goods.
Upon the tendering of the stamped officially signed Bill of Lading the ship is bound to deliver
the goods. It follows therefore that the mate’s receipt plays no little part in compiling a Bill of
Lading. Detail of the consignment is written on the bill and it is not signed by the Master or his
agent until the correct number of mate’s receipts is at hand. It is delivered to the shipper when
he tenders his own copies of the mate’s receipts. The shipper then forwards the Bill of Lading
to the consignee. A copy of a Bill of Lading is enclosed in the jacket of this book.

5.1.2 CARGO STORAGE

A particular advantage of the container is that it needs no protection from the elements, but
this does not apply to all break-bulk cargo. Much of this cargo may be packed in cardboard
cartons, which would suffer greatly from damp or wet conditions. Equally, goods not
substantially packaged can be damaged by frequent handling, and are subject to pilferage.

The terminal operator, therefore, has to provide suitable space for all kinds of storage, including
lockable space for high value goods and those subject to customs duty or other taxes.

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Dangerous goods require special segregated stowage, not only from ordinary goods but also by
Class as has been described.

5.1.3 CARGO STOWAGE

One of the most important considerations of a ship is the matter of port rotation.

This ideally means that cargo for the last port on the outward voyage must be loaded first, no
matter whether the cargo is in individual packages or in containers. This has to be balanced
against the need to load heavy items at the bottom of the holds with the lighter ones at the top
and to load evenly along the length and across the beam of ship. The ship also has to remain
stable during the loading operation.

Few liners load or discharge at only a few ports, consider the following typical container service
route

Tokyo-Busan-Kao0shiung-HongKong-SINGAPORE-Colomco-Malta-Rotterdam-
Felixtowe-Hamburg-Antwerp-Le Havre and return to far east.

The vessel will not only be carrying cargo between the North European and Far East ports but
also between the various ports called at en route. The container will vary substantially in weight
including some empties; there will be some stowage limitations because of dangerous cargo or
containers outside standard dimensions (out of gauge)

In the case of deep sea container ships this the art handled by the lines ship planning
department aided by sophisticated computer programmes are also replicated on board so that
the ship’s command can satisfy themselves of the vessel continuing stability during the voyage.

Ro-Ro ships and ferries tend to operate on which simpler route pattern but are even more
susceptible because of the danger of water entering the vehicle decks and free surface water
causing stability problems.

In the case of small container or conventional cargo ships the stowage may be calculated
manually or with the aid of simpler computer system. This needs much planning and
collaboration by the ship’s officers the agents the Stevedores and the terminals in order to
obviate or at least minimize any re-stowing of cargo at intermediate ports.

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 (a) Stowage Factors

The stowage factor is a measure of the rati between the bulk of cargo and its weight. The
stowage factor of pure water is 1 because 1 tonne of water occupies 1 cupic metre of space .
Metal bars or ingots have very low stowage factor (for example lead 0,25 cbm/tone,iron 0,3 ,
Aluminium 0,6) while most consumer goods have high stowage factors. (Textile fibres such as
Cotton 3.0 cbm/tonne, Eletronics up to 20 and cars about 10to 15.)

Stowage factor are essential in stowing break-bulk ships because they permit the best use to be
made of the available space and allow stability to be calculated. They can be used in container
traffic to determine the maximum loads available and whether 20; 40 or high cubes are needed.

(b) Stability

The term ‘seaworthy means amongst others things that a ship must be capable of remaining
upright or stable at all stages of the voyage and in all weathers. It might be taken for granted
that the ships having weight of the engines at the bottom, will always remain stable but this is
not the case.

To remain upright, the centre of gravity of a ship must be below a point which is found when
a line drawn upwards from the centre of buoyancy, B1.

This may be more easily understood by referring to the diagram opposite

The crucial measurements is the distance GZ, and this depends on the length, GM

When a ship commence a voyage, with bottom tanks full of oil and water, the centre of gravity
G is low. The importance of GZ is that it is a measure of a ships ability to return to the upright
as the voyage continues, oil and water are consumed and the position of G rises. Should bad
weather be experienced, heavy seas can land on deck, causing g to rise G to rise even further.
Therefore, to remain at least 1 metre GM (an average figure) the Chief Officer must ensure
some heavy cargo remains low in the ship and / or ballast being taken on into the tanks at the
bottom of the ship

The question of stability is equally important in containership and in particular this constraints
their ability to lift the maximum theoretical TEU capacity because much will depend on the
mix of heavy and lightweight containers as well as their destination. A large proportion of

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heavy containers cannot be carried in the higher tiers on deck. A large proportion of heavy
containers cannot be carried in the higher tiers on deck. Containership capacities will often be
shown as follows:

Maximum 1500 TEU =700TEU+100TEU @11 Tonnes

Or 1050 TEU =500 FEU+50FEU @14tonnes

In this example a decrease in the average weight of the units of 21% (3 Tonnes) increase the
TEU carrying capacity by 42% (450TEU). IN CONTAINERSHIP CHARTER
NEGOTIATIONS A RANGE OF TEU/Tonnages may be given.

SHIP STABILITY

The safe carriage of goods by sea is a most important part of international trade.
Ship stability and the effects of various methods of cargo stowage on ship stability is a broad
and complex subject. These stability notes are designed to give the student an introductory
understanding of the carriage of goods by sea, and the effect of cargo stowage on ship
stability

International trade probably began with a farmer having produced more goods than he could
use locally, sought a way to profit from his excess production. Most likely the first
“international trade “ was when this simple farmer put his excess produce on a raft, floated
across a river to trade with another tribe or group on the other side of the river.
The core principles of getting goods to markets are common sense and are as valid in today’s
high tech environment as when that first raft floated across the river.
6. Protect the goods from damage or loss during transit; from producer to market
7. Protect the people responsible for getting the goods to the market
8. Make sure the craft carrying the goods can be used for another trip across the river

However as trade expanded beyond that first river crossing, to crossing seas with the
prospect of rough seas and storms, rafts became ships, and ships were developed to carry
particular cargoes or for specific functions.

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A. Tankers to move oil and gas and other liquids;
B. General Cargo ships to move a mix of manufactured goods
C. Bulk Carriers to move large volumes of raw materials such as, grain, ores, minerals.
D. Passenger Ships to move tourists,
E. Car Carriers move new cars to markets across the world.
F. A variety of specific ship types are designed for; refrigerated cargo, military, fishing,
scientific survey, pleasure/leisure activities
G. Container ships to carry anything that can fit into a container

Over the centuries complex control and rules to ensure safe trade have evolved. Today all
maritime countries are signatories to international conventions for safe ship design, protection
of seafarers, and the safe carriage of goods by sea, all of which are based on those first
principles of common sense.

9. Protect the goods from damage or loss during transit from producer to market
10. Protect the people responsible for getting the goods to the market
11. Make sure the craft carrying the goods can be used for another trip across the
river

Before discussing the stowage of cargo on ships, it is important for the student to have some
understanding of ship stability.
Ships come in many shapes and sizes, each designed for a specific purpose, but essentially all
ships are hollow boxes that float on water. The position of where weights are placed in the
floating “box” determines how the “box” floats in water. And the principle that determines
how the ship floats is governed by:

The Law of Achimedes:

A body immersed in a liquid appear to suffer a loss in weight equal to the weight of the
liquid it displaces.
The other two stability fundamentals the student must understand.
The Centre of gravity of a Ship (G) is the point through all the weight of the ship is
considered to act vertically downwards
The Centre of buoyancy (B) is the geometrical centre of the underwater part of a ship and is a
force said to act vertically upwards equal to the weight of the water displaced.

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When force G equals force B, the ship will float, if force G exceeds force B, the ship will
sink.

DIAGRAM 1

Ship in stable equilibrium

Where G the centre of gravity is acting vertically downwards

Where B the centre of buoyancy (the geometric centre of the underwater part of the ship) is
acting vertically upwards

Water Line

Where forces G and B are equal, the ship will float upright, any external wave action will
create a new underwater shape of the ship, and B will move towards the geometric centre of
the new shape. But the position of G will not change.

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DIAGRAM 2
As the ship rolls in a seaway, force( G) remains in the same position acting vertically
downwards, but force (B) moves to a new position as geometric centre of the underwater
volume creating a righting lever exerting the same force upwards forcing the ship to return
to the upright position
The righting lever effect of (B) and (G) as the ship rolls in a seaway

Water Line

G
B B1

As the ship heels over the position of (G) the centre of gravity of the ship doesn’t move, but
continues to act vertically downwards, On the other hand because the underwater volume of
the ship has changed as the ship rolls, the position of (B) the geometric centre of the
underwater volume of the ship, moves to (B1) the new geometric position of the centre of the
underwater volume of the ship. (B1) acts vertically upwards creating a righting moment
forcing the ship to return to an upright position.

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DIAGRAM 3
Effect on Stability of ship when cargo placed on deck

When G and B are in equilibrium the ship will float upright. The addition of weight i.e.:
cargo (W) and where it is placed in /on the ship will influence the position of G and B, and
hence the stability and safety of the ship. NB the centre of gravity of the ship G moves
towards the centre of gravity of the added weight (cargo). The new centre of gravity of the
ship is G1 in this case will cause the ship to have a list( heels over)

G = Centre of Gravity of the ship: Force acting down

B= Centre of Buoyancy of the ship: Force acting up
W= weight of cargo placed on deck
G1= new position of G after weight placed on deck
B1= new position of B after weight placed on deck

G1

Water Line G

B B1

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The importance of (G) Centre of gravity of the ship and (B)the geometric centre of the
underwater volume of the ship have been briefly discussed but what about the longitudinal
stresses on a ship.
Remember the upward force of (B) counters the downward force of (G) to keep the ship
afloat,

Diagram 4
Cargo Cargo
500 Tonnes 200 Tonnes

SHIP

Water

Consider the ship as a 300metre long bar resting in water where (G) (the ship) downward
force is countered by an equally upward force of( B)(the water. The ship will rest upright
Now place two heavy weights, 500mt & 200mt at each end of the ship, The (G) force is
now increased by 700mt, the ship sinks lower in the water , the underwater volume is
increased, and B moves to the new geometric centre of the underwater volume and the ship
floats up right. However by placing the cargo at each end of the ship the ship will tend to be
deeper at one end and bending stresses will be created in the middle part of the ship.

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Refer to Diagram 4, now consider the ship as a plank pivoting at X. By placing weight at
each end you can imagine the imbalance and a stress point at X

DIAGRAM 5

200mt
400mt
X

Pivot

DIAGRAM 6
So how can this condition be corrected?

400mt 200mt

Pivot

By moving the weights towards the pivot point at X balance is restored and stress at X
reduced. This is exactly how cargo stowage is handled in all types of ships. All Ships pivot
around a centre point (the X in the plank diagram)

Ship stability described in this section is very basic, designed to give the student an
understanding of what happens to a ship when the positions of (G) the centre of gravity of
the ship, and (B) the geometric centre of the underwater volume of the ship are changed,
and how the changes brought about by the addition or removal of cargo impact on the
stability of the ship.

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CARGO WORK:
LOADING, DISCHARGING & STOWING CARGO

Basic terms for learners to know

 damage to cargo  stable and seaworthy ship
 deterioration  compartments
 liability to damage  shifting
 decay  tainting
 measurement  sweating
 methods of packing  broaching of cargo
 stowage  trim
 dunnaging  draught marks
 handling  heel-list
 stevedores  load lines
 safety of the ship

Introduction

The aim of ship’s officers and crewmembers on board should be to prevent damage or
deterioration whilst the cargo is under their care and to deliver it, as far as possible, in as
good condition and order as it was when received aboard. If unacquainted with a certain
type of cargo you should ascertain as to its nature and any necessary precautions.
Therefore, the Master and officers of all vessels require a good working knowledge of the
various kinds of cargo they are likely to carry: their peculiar characteristics, liability to
damage, decay, or deterioration, their measurement, and the usual methods of packing,
loading and discharging, stowage, dunnaging, etc., as the Master is responsible for the safe
loading of his vessel and the proper stowage of the cargo.
The actual handling of the cargo in loading and discharging is done by stevedores, who
are experienced men appointed for this purpose when a vessel arrives at a port. This does

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not release the Master from the responsibility for the safety of the ship and cargo, and he
must supervise the work of the stevedores for general safety.
Therefore, during stowage the first consideration must be given to safety, i.e. the cargo
must be stowed so that the ship will be stable and seaworthy, and it must be secured in
such a manner that it cannot shift if the vessel encounters bad weather. The type of vessel,
the cubic capacity of her compartments destined for the cargo and the appliances on board
or on shore for loading or discharging, as well as the nature of the cargo, affect the question
of how to stow the cargo in the best possible manner. The ship must be made neither stiff
nor too tender. The next consideration is for the safety of the cargo itself: it must not be
damaged by shifting; certain commodities become easily tainted by others, water might
find its way into the hold and condensation or sweating must be prevented. Valuable cargo
may be stolen or broached.
Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods the ship
carries, and arrange things, as far as he can, to see that the cargo for a certain place can be
lifted out without disturbing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must watch closely the
ship's stability (i.e. what the ship's trim is or how she is sitting).
Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any direction according to
the position of the weights placed on her.
The trim, therefore, is the angle that a ship is making, fore and aft, with the water. The
levels are read by numbers painted on the ship's stem and stem. These are called draught
marks. Another word is heel. This means a list or inclination from one side to another,
caused by loading. The Chief Officer must watch the load lines. They are welded or
punched on and then painted.
Loading, discharging, stowage, lashing, securing, etc. are the operations and activities
specific for each type of ship and cargo and these will be discussed in the following text
(adapted from www.solentwaters.co.uk ).

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GENERAL CARGO

Before containerisation, apart from bulk, most cargoes were handled as general cargoes.
Even vehicles were handled as general cargo before the advent of vehicle carriers and ro-
ro vessels. Most ships had their own handling facilities in the form of derricks. Now the
majority of cargo is shipped in containers. Thus there in no need for ships to have their
own cargo handling gear and they rely entirely on shore facilities. Much of the general
cargo carried now is of a type that cannot be readily packed into containers. General cargo
is loaded from the dock by traditional dockside cranes except where the weight precludes
this. To speed up loading, much of the cargo is unitised. The process of unitising consists
of strapping together individual items of cargo to form a single unit. Ships designed to
carry heavy cargoes usually have their own cargo handling gear in the form of heavy duty
derricks or cranes.
Most cargo vessels used to have ‘tween decks (in between decks) in the holds but not
many cargo ships are fitted with these now.

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5.2.2 REFRIGERATED CARGO

Apples, pears, kiwis, grapes and stone fruit (peaches, cherries etc.) are traditionally the
main products that dominate this segment of reefer transportation. As many of us know
from our own gardens, deciduous fruits are highly seasonal. This makes the deciduous
trade very different from the banana trade, which is a 12-month business. Optimum transit
temperatures for deciduous fruit vary greatly per type and variety, but mostly range
between –1 and +4°C. The ability of the fruit to resist pressure is indicative of its ripeness
and can be measured with a penetrometer.

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 Stowing bananas in the hold

The appropriate carriage temperature for bananas is limited by the susceptibility to

chilling injury. Generally a carriage temperature of +13,3°C is to be maintained during the
sea voyage. Bananas are a sort of perishable cargo and should arrive in a fresh, green
unripe condition. If premature ripening takes place during the voyage, progressive ripening
by emission of high amounts of ethylene can hardly be avoided. Bananas may overripe to
failure of the vessel's refrigeration system during the voyage.

In comparison with the previously mentioned groups of cargo, citrus fruit, i.e. oranges,
lemons, grapefruit and mandarins, are a relatively simple cargo to carry. A minor
fluctuation in the hold temperature will not have disastrous effects. Successful shipments
have even been carried out using ventilation alone, without refrigeration. Amongst the
most familiar fungi affecting citrus fruit are green and blue penicillium mould growth
(shown to the right) which is accelerated by high storage temperatures.

Cargo vessels often carry timber, usually sawn construction material such as deals,
battens, planks and boards. Vertical timber side members, or stanchions are used to secure
the cargo either side. The cargo is often piled high because timber is a relatively light cargo.

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 Timber carrier

Inflatable dunnage

Inflatable dunnage bags for use in securing sensitive cargo where traditional timber
dunnage is inappropriate, for example with pulp cargoes where contamination by wood
splinters is unacceptable.

Vacuum clamps were primarily designed to lift newsprint, but are now also used with
other types of reeled paper. A frame carrying suction pads is lowered onto the reels, and
vacuum is applied. This allows the reels to be lifted without damage being inflicted.

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Some cargoes are unitised. The process of unitising consists of strapping together
individual bales or bundles into a unit. Unitised commodities include paper, pulp, plywood,
hardboard, lumber, aluminium, lead, steel pipes and many more.

Pipe lifting frames are used to handle an increasing diversity of pipes. Various types of pipe
hooks are utilised to match the shippers requirements for the varied types of pipe, some
coated, some flanged, others strapped in bundles

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Semi-Automatic Lifting Frames (beams) carry an air pressure system, operating on
pneumatic release hooks. This means that once hooked up to the load, no further
intervention is required to release the hooks as the crane driver has a control system in the
crane cab. Used to lift a wide range of commodities including unitised pulp, timber,
plywood, aluminium, copper, and lead, as well as non-unitised commodities such a slung
timber, tissue reels and big bags of bulk commodities.

Lifting frame (beam)

Head clamps are used to lift reels of paper where the quality of paper does not warrant
the considerable investment in vacuum clamps, where local technology does not support
the maintenance of these complex machines, or where reels are not suitable for core probe
lifting.

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Cargo Stowage Plan

CONVENTIONAL CARGO VESSELS. Conventional cargo vessels are

constructed with several hatch openings on the weather deck into the holds
below. In the deck arrangement of a conventional cargo ship, cargo is lowered
through the main deck hatch opening into one of the between deck levels in the
hold. It is landed in the hatch square and moved forward, aft, or into the wings
by machine or by hand, where it is stowed. The hatches are numbered in order
from bow to stern and the various deck levels are normally designated as upper
tween deck, lower tween deck, and hold.

BREAK-BULK VESSEL STOWAGE PLANS. The break-bulk vessel cargo

stowage plan is a complete diagram of a vessel's cargo space showing the
location (both on and below deck) of all cargo aboard ship.

a. General. The stowage plan looks like a vessel when viewed from the side. It
contains information about cargo stowed in the vessel's hold, tween decks, and
forecastle deck. The cargo shown in the tween decks is shown from the birds
eye view. Only the lower hold is shown from the side or profile view. The cargo
stowage plan is prepared by the loading terminal after the ship has been loaded
and is used to facilitate the subsequent loading and discharge of cargo at all ports
along the voyage. The cargo stowage plan contains—

A summary of cargo to be discharged at each port. A summary and location of

heavy lifts. Information on the capacity and location of heavy lifts. Information on
the capacity and location of the ship's boom. General information such as the
location of special items of cargo (protected, controlled, sensitive, mail, high-
value, and so forth), quantities of cement are usually carried in bags.

Source: http://www.globalsecurity.org/index.html

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5.2.3 LIQUID BULK CARGO – Oil Tankers

Many tankers now load from oilfields at sea. To do this they moor up (usually by the bow)
to a gantry, buoy or turret Tankers on the North Sea run (often called shuttle tankers)
have been specially designed to load at the bow from a single point mooring at sea.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted when loading and have to be removed,
this being done with equipment on deck. It is estimated that 4 to 7 million of tons of cargo
is lost due to VOC emission yearly versus 25,000 tons due to spillage. Economically as
well environmentally it is unacceptable. Emissions produced by venting during loading
and transit are in the range of 0.1 to 0.3 percent, depending on tanker design and cargo
characteristics. Losses can reach two percent or more when the cargo has not been stripped
of its most volatile components before loading aboard the tanker. Double hull tankers
may produce higher VOC emission than single hull tankers, because of the insulation of
the hot oil from the surrounding cooler temperatures. VOCs are condensed in a process
plant and stored in separate tanks on the ship's deck.

Crude oil can be loaded into a tanker from a variety of offshore facilities or from a
conventional oil terminal through the midship manifold. M/T Navion Britannia shown

113
above is equipped with the most advanced loading systems, combining a Bow Loading
(BL) system and the ship's part of the Submerged Turret Loading (STL) system.

Submerged Turret Loading system

The basis of the Submerged Turret Loading system is the buoy moored to the seabed. The
buoy is pulled into and secured in a mating cone in the bottom of the vessel and thus
connecting the mooring system. Internal in the buoy is the turret connection to the
mooring and riser systems. The outer buoy hull can rotate freely with the vessel around the
turret by means of internal turret bearings. Oil is transferred through an in-line swivel via
the loading manifold to the piping system of the vessel. Disconnected, the buoy will float
in an equilibrium position ready for new connection.
The Floating turret system enables the vessel to be easily moored at the bow and oil
transferred conventionally to the midship manifold.

single point mooring

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 Single anchor loading system

Floating production, storage and offloading systems (FPSO) can offer significant
advantages over fixed production platforms particularly in remote offshore locations
where deep water, strong ocean currents and harsh weather conditions may occur, or
where export pipelines are difficult to install or uneconomic to run..

Single point mooring and loading

Turret & buoy loading arm

Liquid cargo is nowadays usually transferred using an articulated arm loading/discharge

systems, and groups of arms are often found on a shore refineries or on offshore loading
facilities. It connects to the tanker’s manifold usually located near the centre of the ship.
As well as used for loading petroleum products, these loading arms are also used to load

115
a wide range of chemicals. Some arms are designed to handle chemicals and gases at
cryogenic temperatures such as liquefied natural gas, ethylene, refrigerated anhydrous
ammonia and refrigerated LPG and LNG. The first marine loading arm came into operation
in 1956, and before that hoses were manually connected using derricks and cranes.

Cargo is offloaded at the manifold, usually located amidships. All the tanks are connected
to this point via valves. Modern vessels have the capability of simultaneously off loading
several grades or types of cargo.

LNG loading arms.

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 LNG loading arms.

Modern marine arm loading systems are computer controlled enabling the operator to have
total control and indication of the arm parameters.

5.2.4 DRY BULK CARGO

Loading with Grabs

Grab for coal and loose cargo Loading into hopper/bunker

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Bulkcarrier - Sliding hatchcover Grab ship unloader with integrated
hopper and conveyer belt.
Types of Grabs

Grab for iron ore Belt conveyor

To maximise the unloading process loose cargoes are often loaded from a stockpile or
stockyard into a hopper.This is useful when loading into rail cars and lorries because the
ship can continue unloading even though there may not always be a lorry immediately
available. Some hoppers have an elevator for depositing the cargo into heaps on the quay
side for later onward transportation. Likewise the same machinery can be used in reverse
to load cargo into the ships hold.
Besides loading the cargo, grabs can be used to even out the load. The ship was loaded
using a conveyer which leaves heaps in the cargo. The tops of the heaps are removed and
distributed around the hold to give an even top to the load.

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 Removing powdered coal from the
bottom of the hold.

Bulk carriers: Loading Considerations

Sagging

Shearing

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 Hogging (pregib/anje)

As with any cargo ship it is important to load the cargo so that stresses in the ship remain
at a minimum or at least evenly distributed. This is especially so with large bulk carriers.
All ships are designed with limitations imposed upon their operability to ensure that the
structural integrity is maintained. Therefore, exceeding these limitations may result in
over-stressing of the ship's structure which may lead to catastrophic failure. The ship's
approved loading manual provides a description of the operational loading conditions
upon which the design of the hull structure has been based. The loading instrument
provides a means to readily calculate the still water shear forces and bending moments
in any load or ballast condition, and assess these values against the design limits. A ship's
structure is designed to withstand the static and dynamic loads likely to be experienced
by the ship throughout its service life. The loads acting on the hull structure when a ship is
floating in still (calm) water are static loads, one of the major ones being created by the
cargo. The main hull stresses set up by the cargo are hogging sagging and shearing. These
can be minimised by evenly distributing the cargo - homogenous loading. Dynamic loads
are those additional loads exerted on the ship's hull structure through the action of the
waves and the effects of the resultant ship motions (i.e. acceleration forces, slamming and
sloshing loads). Hogging and sagging forces are at a maximum when the wave length is
equal to the length of the ship. Sloshing loads may be induced on the ship's internal
structure through the movement of the fluids in tanks/holds whilst slamming of the bottom
shell structure forward may occur due to emergence of the fore end of the ship from the
sea in heavy weather. Cargo over-loading in individual hold spaces will increase the static
stress levels in the ship's structure and reduce the strength capability of the structure to
sustain the dynamic loads exerted in adverse sea conditions. In harbour, where the ship is
in sheltered water and is subjected to reduced dynamic loads, the hull is permitted to carry
a higher level of stress imposed by the static loads, so a certain amount of difference in the
loading of each hold is allowable.

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 Homogenous loading.

Most modern bulkers have strain monitoring equipment so that hull stresses that cause
hull fractures as above are minimised.

5.3 LOADING & UNLOADING CONTAINERS

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 Gantry crane / Portainer / Conatiner gantry

The preferred method of loading container vessels is with a rail mounted gantry crane.The
main arm or derrick boom can be raised when the vessel departs so as to clear the mast and
superstructure.

Cell guides on the sides of the hold ensure that the containers stack properly.
Containers are secured by cross bracing, with turnbuckles and lashing bars, and
anchored to slots or fitting and eye-pads on the deck:

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Improper stowage (containers stowed six-high) or improper use of cargo handling
equipment can cause heavy damage or collapse of container stack due deformation of
bottom container.

The majority of reefer cargo is now transported by containers. Containers with their own
integral cooling system can be plugged into the ships electricity supply (connection
power points).

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One of the most persistent problems experienced onboard containerships is bad stowage.
This can take many different forms, but the most potentially damaging example occurs
when heavyweight containers find their way into the upper tiers of container stacks on
deck.
Loading with mobile crane is used at ports that don’t have the cargo throughput to
justify a rail mounted gantry crane installation. It also has the advantage that it is not
restricted to container cargoes.

Careful monitoring of the ships stability during loading operations is required or else the
ship might capsize:

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Out of gauge cargo, that is cargo which is slightly higher or wider than will fit standard
containers, can still be carried in open top, openside or flatrack containers. The latter type
has higher payload ratings which is often important.

5.3.1 Container Lashing

Containers are locked together using twistlocks. They come in many variations but their
purpose is to lock the container stack together at the corner posts.
With further development in the industry during the 1970s and 80s, the size of
containerships continued to grow, with 9-high stowage in holds and 4-high stowage on
deck becoming commonplace and the industry began to wake up to the fact that standards
in lashing were required. Ships were, at this stage, still supplied with loading computers
that continued to calculate a ship's stability, shear forces, bending and, occasionally,
torsion moment. Very few had the capability to calculate dynamic loads on container
frames and lashing systems caused by ship motions and wind forces. And so the lashings
were still applied throughout the stow in accordance with the manufacturer's manual.

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Cargo used to be lost overboard even though a properly designed securing system was in
place and the cargo was correctly stowed. It became apparent that there was a great deal
of ignorance concerning the combined static and dynamic loads acting on a securing
system when adverse weather was causing severe ship motions, particularly rolling. Today,
large container ships are being built - known as the 'post-panamax' class (too large to transit
the Panama Canal) - capable of carrying up to 8,500 TEUs (the most recent ones even up
to 12,000), and small container ships down to coaster/feeder vessels of a few hundred
TEUs. But in general terms, by a process of evolution, the lashing systems in use on both
types of vessels are very similar. Both have adopted the twistlock and lashing
bar/turnbuckle system..

Turnbuckles and lashing rods.

Lashing Bridge

5.3.2 Container position numbering

To enable the position of a container on a ship to be specified, a standard numbering

system is used. Container slot positions aboard ship are expressed by three co-ordinates
indicating :

Bay ----- Row ----- Tier

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Bays are numbered lengthwise from bow to stern with odd numbers for 20' containers
and even numbers for 40' containers. The even number between two 20' containers is
used to define 40' bays.

Rows are numbered from centreline to portside with even numbers and from centreline
to starboard with odd numbers. The container row stowed on the centreline is marked 00.

Tiers. In underdeck stows, containers are numbered vertically downwards with even
numbers from top to bottom. The bottom row will be 02, except where as a result of the
hull contour, the bottom of an adjacent row is at a higher level. In case of two half
heights the bottom ones are to be numbered by an odd number. On deck stowage is
indicated by code key 8 followed by an even number sequence.

Container loading and stowage

The securing and lashing of containers on ship's decks is a difficult operation in terms of the
work environment. There are great problems during loading and discharge of containers. The
stevedores who carry out this work, known as riggers, have to work on container stacks
which often are 13 metres high or more above the ship's deck. Safety arrangements are in
some ports poor and the work frequently has to be performed in the dark, under windy and

127
rainy or sometimes icy conditions. The difficulties are to a large extent due to the lashing
equipment. The immense diversity of the devices used gives rise to great problems. Securing
of containers is the responsibility of the ship's master, which can mean that there are large
differences in the manner in which the operation is effected between individual vessels and
shipping companies.

In the early years of containerisation, existing general cargo vessels were converted with
the removal of tween decks and the addition of cell guides into the cargo holds. On deck,
the hatch covers were strengthened and fittings added for lashings. However, the containers
on deck were seldom stowed above one high and so were secured to the vessel by
'traditional' cargo ship methods. Often seen still trading today, are a few of the 'first
generation' vessels built during the late sixties and early seventies. These ships were the
first to be designed and built as pure container carriers. The holds and hatch covers were
as wide as possible, and container posts were fitted on deck to facilitate loading of deck-
stowed containers out to the ship's side.
For this generation of vessel, two systems of securing the cargo were common. One relied
on the use of twistlocks in conjunction with lashing bars or chains, and the second relied
on the use of stacking cones and bridge pieces in conjunction with lashing bars or chains.
Gradually, due to the increased utilisation of differing height containers, the second method
became redundant and it became common practice to use twistlocks throughout the stow.
This method normally allowed containers to be stacked three high and, in some cases,
four high if the fourth tier was light in weight or empty. For first generation vessels,
computer technology was not available onboard to speedily calculate dynamic loads acting
on container lashings and frames.

The shipboard computer (if any) was only used to calculate stresses and stability for the
ship itself. Therefore, the shipboard staff would ensure the vessel was lashed according to
a lashing plan taken from the lashing equipment manufacturer's manual, which appeared
to assume an ideal stow with respect to the distribution of weight in each stack (the
homogenous stack).
On post-panamax vessels - where among other features the vessel's large beam results in
an unavoidable, relatively large GM (metacentric height), and 6-high stowage on deck is
common - the modern practice is for the vessel to be fitted with a lashing bridge; a

128
substantial steel structure running athwartships between each forty foot container bay. This
allows the second and third tiers of containers to be secured to the bridge using lashing
rods and turnbuckles, whilst the whole stow is secured throughout with twistlocks.

The lashing bridge allows the anchoring points for each stack to be moved higher up the
stack, which allows the lashings to be more effective in reducing the tipping moments
acting on a stack when a vessel is rolling heavily. However, the practice of fitting the
bridges between forty foot bays means that the twenty foot containers can only take
advantage of the lashing bridges at one end. So, in effect, the twenty foot stacks have to
revert to the limits of a conventional lashing system. This is the case, because the practice
of estimating the forces acting on a stack divides the container weight equally between
each end of the container. So the weight in each twenty foot container is limited by the
capacity of the lashing system at the container end, which does not have the advantage of
being secured by a lashing bridge. On smaller vessels, the whole stow is also secured
throughout with twistlocks, and the lowest three tiers are secured to the hatch cover or
support post using the lashing bar/turnbuckle combination. However, since the mid
1980s, naval architects have produced computer programs to calculate the dynamic
loads acting on container stacks. Such programs have been designed for use by ships'
officers and container planners. On modern vessels, 5-high and 6-high stowage on deck is
common; the use of onboard computers to check the dynamics of the stow in all weather
conditions is vitally important for the safe carriage of the cargo.

5.3.3 Some useful terms concerning conventional cargo stowage

Dunnage - is the material to protect cargo, and ensure good stowage. Ceiling is a
surfaceof three-inch boards put on top of the tanks, below the lower hold, which is
called permanent dunnage. Dunnage is used according to circumstances and consists
of baulks, planks, and quarterings of timber, it also includes matting clothes and rope.
One use of wood dunnage is to make sure that water from sweating/condensation will
trickle into the bilges and to ensure that ventilation is efficient, and that fresh air reaches
the cargo. Cargo battens are wood battens used in the hold to keep the cargo away
from the ship's side and to allow the necessary through ventilation.

129
 Load Line and Draught

DBB – deals, boards and battens.

Lockups – are parts of the holds for cargoes of special value. They can be locked against
pilfering.
Broken stowage - means stowage space which cannot be used on account of it being too
small.
Battening down - is closing the hatch watertight.
Hatch coaming - an upright steel wall, in the shape of a shallow box without top or bottom,
is put around the entry to the hold, which helps to keep out water.
Hatchway beams - are made of steel and are laid thwartships.
Tarpaulins - are large sheets of canvas, spread over the whole hatch. Their edges are
turned inwards and forced hard against coaming with a long bar of steel called a batten
(hence: battening down).
Shore gang - consists of a gang foreman, a hatchwayman, winchman, stevedores.
Tally clerk - checks each part of the cargo.
Shifting boards -are used to stop grain from shifting.
Homogeneous cargo - any roll cargo of equal stowage factor.
Cargo plan – shows longitudinal sections of the ship and the spaces reserved for the
various items.
Leakage – entrance or escaping of a fluid through a hole.
Drainage – process of draining, to make gradually dry or empty.
130
Moisture – slight wetness, penetrating dampness.
Contamination – state of being stained or corrupted by contact.
Taint – to impregnate with a tinge, assume the characteristics of another cargo stowed in
the same hold.
Chafe – wear away, rub, cause friction.
Vermin – noxious animals of sma1l size as flies, lice, fleas, bedbugs, cockroaches, mice,
rats, etc.
Wastage – loss by use, decay, evaporation or leakage.
Pilferage – petty theft.
Package – cargo packaged as a single unit.
Parcel – departed part of cargo, especially oil, which is all of one nature or is for one
consignee or port.
Consignment - goods sent for shipment.
Shipment – goods sent for shipment by sea.
Shipload – a full load for a ship.

131
IMO STANDARD MARINE COMMUNICATION PHRASES

IV-C - CARGO AND CARGO HANDUNG

1.1.2 - Port/shipboard cargo handling gear and equipment
Are dockside/floating cranes available?
What is maximum reach of crane?
 Maximum reach of the crane: ... metres.
What is handling capacity of container crane/bridge? - Handling
capacity of container crane/bridge: ... containers per hour.
What is handling capacity of grain elevator/ore loader/… ?
What is pumping capacity of cargo pumps?
 Pumping capacity of cargo pumps: ... tonnes per hour.
Can you work with union purchase/in tandem?
 Yes, we can work with union purchase/in tandem.
Who will provide slings?
 Vessel/stevedores will provide slings.
Are can hooks/net slings/car slings/board slings/ ... available?
 Yes, can books/net slings/car slings/board slings/ ...
available.
Are bob cats available for trimming?
 Yes, bob cats available for trimming.
Are stiffeners available?
 No, stiffeners not available.

1.1.3 - Preparing to load/unload

Pre pare vessel for loading/unloading.
Unlock hatch covers.
Rig hatch rails in no. … hold(s).
Give notice of readiness to load/unload by... UTC/local time.
Is cargo list available and complete?
 Yes, cargo list available and complete.
 No, cargo list not available and complete (yet).
 Cargo list available and complete in ... minutes.
Complete stowage plan.
Agree stowage plan with stevedores. Make
stability calculation.
Are goods ready to load?
 Yes, goods ready to load.
 No, goods not ready to load (yet).
 Goods ready to load in ... minutes/hours.

132
 Are holds clean/dry/free of smell?
C. Yes, holds clean/dry/free of smell.
D. No, holds not clean/dry/free of smell (yet).
E. Holds clean/dry/free of smell in ... minutes/hours.
Are safety arrangements in hold(s) operational?
F. No, safety arrangements in hold(s) not operational (yet).
G. Safety arrangements in hold(s) operational in ... minutes.
Cover bilge(s) with tarpaulins/wrapper/ ... before loading.
Are sufficient dunnage and mats available?
H. Yes, sufficient dunnage and mats available.
Fill double bottom tank(s)/ballast tank(s) before loading heavy lifts.
Pump out ballast water.
What is maximum loading rate/unloading rate?
I.Maximum loading rate/unloading rate ... tonnes per hour.
Do not exceed loading rate/unloading rate of ... tonnes per hour.

133
CLASS EXERCISE AND HOMEWORKS

H. Supply the correct term from the brackets

(hold, guides, bay, design, tier, stacking, stacked, cell, castings, terminal )

(1) Containers are vertically constructed with vertical _________ (similar to an

elevator shaft) within which the containers are ____________ one above the
other. The number of containers in a single ___________ depends on the ship's
depth. The bottom container takes the weight and force from those containers
resting above it. The entire weight of the load is transmitted through corner
___________ or posts on the containers to reinforced doubling plate on the tank
top at the bottom of the ____________. When ___________ the containers more
than the limit of six high in a cell, the loading terminal must provide movable
supports off the vertical structure for the upper containers. Also, the
____________ must always arrange container cells so that the long dimensions
of the containers are fore and aft. The length of the cells varies from 20 feet to
40 feet, depending on the ship's ____________ .

(2) A _________ is a single transverse (crosswise) row of cells. For smaller

holds, there may be only one bay. In larger holds, there may be two bays—the
forward bay and the aft bay.

(3) Each horizontal layer of containers is a ___________ . The loading

terminal numbers the tiers from the bottom of the hold upward including the
containers on deck.

B. Multiple-choice test. Underline the correct word:

Discharge

DISCHARGE PLANNING. During discharge, cargo handlers must

___________ (load, stow, unload, carry) cargo from the vessel, segregate it, and
place it aboard the mode of transportation that will move it to its destination. Cargo
handlers should make maximum use of berthing (load, space, place, discharge).
They should plan for the discharge and movement of cargo on ________ (supply,
receipt, transport, carriage) of the ship's papers (stowage plan and ocean
manifest) and cargo disposition (oders, instructions, notes, requests).
Planning includes determining the following:

• Point of discharge—wharf or anchorage.

• Operating unit or units to be used—terminal service company, boat
company, and so forth.
• Special equipment required for special or heavy ___________ (boxes,
lifts, bundles, cartnos).
• Priority of discharge, if any.

134
 • Arrangements for terminal __________ (cleaning, passage, clearance,
arrival) including transportation required, depot capability to receive, and need
for further segregation.
• Cargo documentation and personnel required to accomplish it.

J. Match the parts of the sentences on the right with those on the left.
The first one has been done for you in the center column.

DISCHARGE OVER WHARVES:

1 When wharf discharge is 1A A cargo handlers should consider
being planned, unloading the cargo onto the wharf
or into lighters or a combination of
both.
2 Plans include using ship's B 100 feet of wharf length is available
crew and ship's gear, but for each ship's hatch.
3 Cargo handlers should C to ensure a minimum of 2 metres
consider possible delays of water between the ship's keel and
caused the bottom at low tide.
4 For planning purposes, D by weather, port strikes, and so
cargo handlers should ensure forth.
that

5 The water depth alongside E on the size and draft of the vessel
the wharf should be sufficient to be berthed.

6 The water depth F. may also include using other

requirement will vary equipment and port labor.
depending
7 Ship-to-lighter discharge G may be used for
may be required lighter discharge.
8 Practically any wharf H to lighten heavily laden vessels in
deep water anchorages so that they
may be accommodated at shallow
depths alongside berths for further
discharge.

D.Find the relevant parts of the text and answer the following questions:

1. What is the aim of the ship's personnel as regards the receiving, stowage, carriage and
delivery of cargo?
2. What should you ascertain before receiving the cargo on board?

135
3. What must the Master and officers know about the cargo they are likely to carry?
4. Who is responsible for the safe loading and proper stowage of cargo?
5. What is the job of stevedores?
6, What is the Master responsible for?
7, What must be taken into consideration when stowing cargo?
8, What is the stowage of cargo affected by?
9, When is a ship stiff/tender?
10,What kind of damage or risk must be taken into consideration as far as the safety of
cargo is concerned?
11, What is the ship's trim?
12, What are the draught marks and load lines?

E. Stowage of cargo on board: Discuss the picture below with your classmate

136
REVISION QUESTIONS AND TEST QUESTIONS

Identify Durban’s Maydon Wharf Terminal.

A
B

C
D

23. Identify Durban’s Container Terminal

A
B

137
 D
C

24. Which of the following is not an English Port?

C D

25. Which of the following is not a Mediterranean port city?

138
 A
B

C D

26. World’s second longest river?

B
A

139
27. Which car is manufactured in East London?

A
B

C
D

28. Which car is manufactured in Durban?

A
B

C
D

140
29. The administrative seat of the South African government and also houses the
offices of the President of South Africa.

C D
30. Which of the following is not a DUT campus?

B
A

C
D

141
Tutorial 3A: Types of Ships
 Answer as many questions as possible without referring to notes.
 Re-read notes and answer any questions that may have been omitted.
 Compare your answer with the notes.

Section A: Definitions
Define the following:
1. Anchor handling tug
2. Barge
3. Break-bulk vessel
4. Bulk carrier
5. Cape-size bulk carrier
6. Feeder ship
7. Gas tanker
8. Multi-purpose ship
9. Ore carrier
10. Panamax

Section B: Short answers

1. What factors must be borne in mind when designing a ship?
2. What are the advantages / disadvantages of the following vessels?
.1 Multi-deck (general cargo) ship
.2 Bulk carrier
.3 Container vessel
.4 Ro-Ro vessel
.5 Refrigerated ship

3. Briefly describe the construction of the following vessel types:

1. Oil tanker
2. Gas carrier
3. Container vessel

4. Use an organogram to identify the various vessels found at sea .

Section C: Multiple Choice – underline the correct answer

1. Which type of framing does a tanker use?
A. Combined
B. Longitudinal
C. Transverse

2. Which type of framing does a general cargo vessel use?

A. Combined
B. Longitudinal
C. Transverse

142
3. Which type of framing does a bulk carrier use?
A. Combined
B. Longitudinal
C. Transverse

4. A break-bulk vessel (general cargo) is fitted with some sort of cargo handling
gear?
A. True
B. False

5. A Panamax bulk carrier has the following tonnage

A. 20000 to 45000 tons
B. 60000 tons
C. 1000000 tons and over.

5. A Type 1 chemical carrier carries:

A. Highly dangerous cargoes and an accident would create major
environmental hazards.
B. These vessels carry cargoes that are less hazardous.
C. These vessels carry cargoes that are classified to be the least
hazardous.

6. The width of a container ship cargo hold is in multiples of:

A. 2.44 metres apart
B. 2.50 metres apart
C. 2.60 metres apart

7. A cape-size bulk carrier is fitted with cargo-handling equipment.

A. True
B. False

8. Which of the following is an example of a general carrier:

A. Container
B. Ro-Ro
C. Multi-deck break-bulk vessel
D. All of the above

9. A refrigerated vessel has:

A. A single deck cargo hold
B. Multiple-deck cargo hold

10. The overall length of a deep-sea Ro-Ro is approximately:

A. 150 metres
B. 160 metres
C. 170 metres
D. 180 metres

143
Section D: Identify the following Ship Types

A B C

D E F

G H I

J K L

144
 General Passenger LNG Tanker Frigate
Cargo
Aircraft Cape-size Bulk Container Vessel Chemical
Carrier Carrier Tanker
Car Carrier Research Vessel Offshore Supply Harbour Tug
Vessel

Tutorial 2H
The purpose of the word search is to: learn about maritime countries, increase your
knowledge of maritime nations and improve your spelling.
B U S A N A F R I C A

R U S S I A M A Z O N

E A O A G R E E C E P

M E U O E G E L B E O

E B T P R E G L H U L

R I H A I N D I A N A

H T K U A T A B O N N

A A O L R I O Y J R D

V L R O R N M A F O O

E Y E S P A I N K M R

N S A N O C U B A E T

Use the clues to find maritime related terms in the block above. Words may be found vertically,
horizontally or diagonally.
1. Large port in Korea (5). 14. Winners of the 2010 FIFA World Cup (5).
2. Port situated on the River Weser (11). 15. Former capital of West Germany (4).
3. Country that is part of “BRIC” (6). 16. Continent between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (6).
4. United Arab Emirates (3). 17. Longest river in South America (6).
5. United States of America (3). 18. Its capital is Warsaw (6).
6. Large maritime and ship-owning nation (6). 19. _____ de Janeiro, synonymous with an annual carnival (3).
7. Country to the west of England (7). 20. Capital of Italy (4).
8. Its capital is Seoul (5-5) 21. River that flows through northern Italy (2).
9. Its capital is Abuja (7). 22. Country synonymous for cigars (4).
10. South American country, south of the Rio Plata (9). 23. Largest and busiest airport on the Atlantic seaboard of the USA (JFK).
11. Ocean between Africa and Australia (6). 24. ___ Francisco, a city in California (3).
12. North African country whose flag is completely green (5). 25. Johannesburg’s international airport (3).
13. City in Brazil (3-5). 26. Major river in Germany (4)

On completion there will be 7 letters remaining.

Unscramble the letters to find the name of a major German port.

145
Tutorial 4: Types of cargo Gear
 Answer as many questions as possible without referring to notes.
 Re-read notes and answer any questions that may have been omitted.
 Compare your answer with the notes.
Section A: Definitions
Define the following:
1. Safe working load
2. Proof load
3. Breaking strain
4. Derrick
5. Union purchase

Section B: Short answers

1. List five requirements for efficient cargo handling equipment.
2. What are the advantages of deck cranes?
3. A bulk carrier is fitted with four deck cranes each capable of averaging 500
tonnes per hour. How long will it take the vessel to load 60000 tonnes of
cargo (weight distributed evenly between cranes)?
4. A bulk carrier is fitted with four deck cranes each capable of averaging 500
tonnes per hour. How long will it take the vessel to complete cargo
operations? Cargo distributed as follows:
Crane 1 : 7500 tonnes of cargo
Crane 2 : 15000 tonnes of cargo
Crane 3 : 25000 tonnes of cargo
Crane 4 : 7500 tonnes of cargo

Tutorial 5A: Types of Cargoes

 Answer as many questions as possible without referring to notes.
 Re-read notes and answer any questions that may have been omitted.
 Compare your answer with the notes.

Section A: Definitions
Define the following:
1. General cargo
2. Bagged cargo
3. Bulk cargo
4. Stowage factor
5. Flow state
6. Coal slurry
7. Trimming
8. Hazardous cargo
9. Pallet

146
 Section B: Multiple Choice – underline the correct answer
1. Bale capacity is defied as:
A. Is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is taken from the
inside of the cargo battens, the depth form the wood ceiling to the
underside of the deck beams and the length from the inside of the
bulkhead stiffeners.
B. Is the cubic capacity of a space when the lengths, breadths and depths
are taken right to the plating.
C. This the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. Usually expressed
as cubic metres per tones.

2. Measurement cargo is:

A. Is cargo on which freight is usually charged on its weight (normally
cargoes stowing at less than 1.2m3/tonnes).
B. Is cargo on which freight is usually charged on the volume occupied by
the cargo. This cargo is usually light and bulky stowing at more than
1.2m3/tonnes.
C. This the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. Usually expressed
as cubic metres per tones.

3. Which of the following is not an example of bagged cargo?

A. Asbestos
B. Flour
C. Waste paper
D. Fishmeal

4. Which of the following statement is incorrect concerning the stowage of flour:

A. Easily tainted.
B. Stow away from smelly goods
C. Keep dry.
D. Liable to spontaneous combustion

5. Flow state is defined as:

A. Is that percentage of moisture content, when a flow state will develop.
B. Is a state which occurs when a mass of granular material is saturated
with liquid to such an extent that it loses its internal shear strength and
behaves as if the whole mass was in a liquid form.
C. Is that percentage proportion of the total mass which is water, ice or
other liquid.
D. Is the movement of moisture contained in the bulk stow when, as a
result of settling and consolidation, in conjunction with vibration and the
ship’s movement, water is progressively displaced

6. When handling asbestos, personnel must wear appropriate protective gear?

A. True
B. False

147
7. The carrying temperature of frozen beef is:
A. -08º C
B. -09º C
C. -10º C
C. -12º C

8. Pork can be stowed on top of lamb?

A. True
B. False

9. Which of the following is not a “clean” petroleum product?

A. Kerosene
B. Spirits
C. Gas oil
D. Fuel oil (marine)

10. Which of the following is an example of a dedicated carrier?

A. Chemical tanker
B. LPG carrier
C. Bitumen carrier
D. LNG carrier

Section C: Short answers

1. State are the responsibilities of the Officer of the Watch while on cargo
watch?

2. Explain the use of dunnage onboard a general cargo vessel?

3. List the dangers associated with dry bulk cargoes

4. Describe the precautions must be taken before loading a refrigerated vessel?

5. State the purpose of the cargo control room onboard a tanker?

6. List the factors are taken into consideration when determining the hazard of
chemical cargoes?

7. Describe the features of modern shipping?

8. How can one minimise loss to cargo at the loading port?

148
 Section D: Match column B with A

1. Nitrates A. Stowed in a cool place.

2. Phosphates B. Could cause high structural stresses.
3. Sulphur C. Stow in a cool, well ventilated space.
4. Tiles D. Include manifold, cross-over, drop and master.
5. Lard E. Include main, stripping, drain and inert gas
6. Pipelines F. Before stowing the IMDG Code must be consulted.
7. Valves G. Has specially insulated compartments.
8. Bulk cargo H. Absorb water readily and should be kept dry.
9. Refrigerated cargo I. Very fragile and must not be overstowed.
10. Potatoes J. A highly flammable, dusty cargo.

149
Tutorial 5B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9

10 11 12

13

14 15

16 17

18 19

20 21

22 23

24 25

26 27 28 29

30 31

32 33

34 35 36

37

38 39

150
 Across Down
1. This form of accretion reduces the vessel’s stability. (3) 2. The --------success of the vessel depends on the
3. New, mandatory code to be consulted if loading dry bulk professionalism of the OOW. (10).
cargo. (5) 4. Chief Officer. (4)
6. Space where cargo is loaded. (5) 5. Should be avoided in wires. (5)
10. Causes grain cargo to ferment. (8) 6. One of the international rules regarding carriage of goods
11. Access between ship and shore. (7) by sea. (5-5).
13. Which annex of the CSS Code would you consult if 7. Example of timber dunnage. (7)
loading containers on deck? (3) 8. Annex of the CSS Code consulted if vessel carries steel
14. Income earned from voyage charters by the shipowner. coiled rolls. (3).
(7) 9.Guidelines are contained in this publication.(4)
15. Another word for inspection. (6) 12. Cargoes of annex 4 of the CSS Code. (5-5)
16. A vessel that is fully loaded. (5) 15. These measures must be maintained in order to prevent
17. An example of a budgeted expense. (9) criminal activities onboard. (8)
20. Code Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of 17. By being------------accidents could occur. (9)
Bulk Carriers. (3) 21. Damage caused to the vessel as a result of poor loading
21. A vessel may---------as a result of improper loading. (3) / unloading.
22. The carrier’s legal obligation before and at the 22.Examples include thermometers and probes.(7)
beginning of the voyage. (9) 23. Fee paid by the time charterer. (4)
24. One of the items checked prior to arrival in port. (11) 24. A journey at sea. (6)
27. The department responsible for cargo operations. (4) 25.These switches should never be overridden. (5)
29. A thousand kilograms. (3) 26. Persons employed to make arrangements on behalf of
30. May be emitted by some bulk cargoes. (3) the vessel. (6).
31. Shore labour employed to load or unload the vessel. 27. Cargo handling gear. (7)
(10) 28. Code consulted to determine the amount of lashing.(3)
32. A signalman is appointed if the crane driver’s -------of 33. Collective name for ship’s personnel. (4)
visibility is obstructed. (3) 34. This must be tested before entering any enclosed
34. The vessel must ensure that a safe working -------is space. (3)
provided. (4) 37. This code will be replaced in 2011. (2)
35. An example of dunnage. (4)
36. Publication consulted when loading harmful cargo in a
packaged form. (4)
38. Indicates the position of goods loaded onboard the
vessel. (9)
39. Should avoided in wires (5)

151
Tutorial 5C

Across Down
1. Caters for heavy, awkward and oversized loads. 2. Example of lashing used onboard a container vessel.
(4,4) (10)
3. Standard setting body (abbreviation) (3) 3.Specialised agency within the United Nations responsible
7. Inhibits mould growth. (8) for maritime issues.(abbreviation) (3)
8. At the start of the operations, it is important that the 4.This annex of MARPOL deals with oil pollution.
cargo is loaded in the-----------tank. (9) 5..If oil is detected in the water one must-----cargo
11. 010282 is an example of the numbering system used operations immediately. (4)
onboard a container vessel. What does 02 represent? (3) 6. One of the benefits of using crude oil washing is that it
13. Tested prior to entering the pumproom. (10) reduces--------(9)
16. A pumproom is an example of this space. (8) 8. An example of an inert gas. (8)
17. Keeps containers loaded underdeck from moving. (10) 9. Containers are identified by a unique-code consisting of -
19. Tank washing system used onboard crude carriers. ----------- (3, 6).
(abbreviation) (3) 10. Container used to carry perishable cargo. (6)
21. One of the temperatures logged onboard a reefer ship. 12. A standard container is 8 feet -------- (4)
(6,3) 14.Checked at all stages of the transport chain of a
22. Cargoes with a flashpoint greater than 60°C is container (5)
considered to be---volatile. (3) 15. A container stuffed by one shipper (abbreviation) (3)
24. Temperature in the immediate surrounding area. (7). 18. Incompatible cargoes must be properly -------to avoid
27. Industry standard guide used onboard oil tankers and contamination / tainting. (10)
ashore at terminals. (abbreviation) (6) 19. Petroleum that has not been refined. (5)
30. An example of a specialised tanker. (3) 20. Bottom sampling onboard a tanker is used to detect------
31. Same as relative density (abbreviation) (2) in the cargo. (5)
32. Refer to question 11 across. What does 82 represent? 23. Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit (abbreviation) (3).
(4) 25. Type of valve. (9)
34. Void space where pumproom is housed. (9) 26. Popular container size on the US Trade Route (4,4).
35. Remaining onboard (abbreviation) (3) 27. Used to lower oxygen content onboard a tanker (5,3).
37. Awkward, heavy, oversized cargo. (abbreviation) (3). 28. Tested for prior to entry into an enclosed space.(6)
38. System that uses oil. (9) 29. Example of a “clean petroleum product”.(3.4)
39. Tank used for oily water residue. (4) 33. Prevents all tanks from being “topped off”
40. IMO pollution convention (abbreviation) (6). simultaneously. (7)
36. Refer to question 11 across. What does 01 represent?

152
1 2 3 4 5 6

9 10 11 12

13 14 15

16

17 18 19 20

21

22 23

24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31

32 33

34

35

36 37

38

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Tutorial 6A: Shipboard personnel and shore-based service
 Answer as many questions as possible without referring to notes.
 Re-read notes and answer any questions that may have been omitted.
 Compare your answer with the notes.
Section A: Definitions
Define the following:
1. Consignor
2. Chandler
3. Chief Mate
4. Freight forwarder
5. Stevedore
6. Pilot
7. Ship’s agent
8. Marine surveyor
9. Classification society
10. Carrier

Section B: Short answers

1. Use an organogram to illustrate the rank structure onboard a typical merchant
navy vessel.
2. Briefly describe the responsibilities of the following shipboard personnel:
.1 Master
.2 Chief Mate
.3 Second Officer
.4 Chief Engineer
.5 Second Engineer
3. What are the responsibilities of the following officials?
.1 Port Health
.2 Immigration
.3 Customs
4. What happens to a vessel if an infectious disease is discovered onboard?
5. What role do ship’s agents play while a vessel is alongside in port?
6. List the type of shipbrokers that one may find within the maritime industry.
7. What are the general duties of a marine surveyor?
8. What are the objectives of SAMSA?
9. Howe does SAMSA ensure that their objectives are maintained?
10. Which government departments (agencies) do the following fall under?
SAMSA
Transnet National Port’s Authority
Customs
Immigration
Port Health
Section C: Multiple Choice – underline the correct answer
1. Which officer is responsible for the maintenance of lifesaving and fire-fighting
equipment?
A. Chief Officer
B. Second Officer
C. Third Officer

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2. He is also known as the “ship’s navigator”.
A. Chief Officer
B. Second Officer
C. Third Officer

3. The fourth engineer is responsible for fuelling (bunkering) and daily monitoring
of fuel supplies.
A. True
B. False

4. Which engineer is responsible for the ship’s electrical plant?

A. Second Engineer
B. Third Engineer
C. Fourth Engineer
5. Which disease/s require/s vaccination?
A. Cholera
B. Yellow fever
C. Malaria
D. A and B

6. A stowaway is........
A. A labourer employed is ship cargo handling.
B. A person who boards the vessel illegally.
C. A person who assists the master of a ship to navigate when entering or
leaving a port.

7. Which parastatal is the custodian of South Africa’s commercial ports?

A. Transnet Port Terminals
B. Transnet National Ports Authority
C. South African Maritime Safety Authority

8. Where is the MRCC situated?

A. Tygervalley (Cape Town)
B. Simons Town (Cape Town)
C. Salisbury Island (Durban)

9. Which surveyor performs ship registration, surveys of foreign going ships and
local craft and generally enforces ship safety standards?
A. Classification Society surveyors
B. Government surveyors
C. Private surveyors

10. Classification Society surveyors can carry out inspections on behalf of a Flag
State?
A. True
B. False

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Glossary
Ballast water – Seawater pumped in and out of a ship to keep the ship balanced and at the
correct level in the water. The ballast water is stored in ballast tanks.

Bilge – Collection basin at the bottom of a ship that collects waste oil and dirty water.

Bollard – A very solid structure, often like a short post, built into wharfs and piers for
ships’ mooring lines to be placed on to.

Bulk carrier – A type of ship that carries a large volume of loose dry cargo. The cargo can
include grain, minerals e.g. coal, iron ore etc or wood chips.

Bunker barge – A barge that supplies ships with fuel while the ships are either tied up
alongside in port or at anchor in a port.

Cargo hold – The space inside a ship where cargo is stowed (or you could say loaded)

Container Ship Cargo Plan – A plan that shows where each container is to be loaded on a
ship so the ship remains balanced and the containers can be removed when they get to the
right port.

Cargo Ship Cargo Plan – A plan that shows where different types of cargo is loaded in a
ship and the port where it must be offloaded or discharged.

Channel – A deep area of water that ships can safely travel in to enter and move within a
port.

Containers – A large steel box used to carry items of cargo. Shipping containers and are
designed to be stacked on top of each other and will fit on ships, trucks and railway
wagons.

Conveyor belt – A machine that transports goods such as grain or minerals along a belt
from one location to another.

Forklift – A drivable machine designed to lift, stack and move goods in containers or on
pallets around.

Grabber – a pair of metal jaws that can grab large volumes of loose materials such as
minerals or grain.

Harbour Master – The person who is responsible for making sure ships safely move
around in a port and that everyone obeys the law..

Hopper – Collects the grain, minerals etc. The special train wagons or truck trailers can
open from the bottom, pouring their goods into the hopper.

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Pier – A raised structure over water standing on pillars. The water can move freely under
the structure.

Pilot – A person who boards a ship to help them get safely into and out of a port.

Pollution – Materials including liquids, garbage and exhaust gases that may escape into
the environment and can harm the environment.

Port – A port connects the land to the sea. It is a safe place with equipment to load and
unload cargo on to and off ships. Ports have roads and often railways to move the cargo in
and out of the port across land.

Quarantine – A way of preventing plant, animal and human diseases and pests from ships
that have come from a foreign country from spreading in Australia.

Skimmer – A boat that can mop up oil which has been spilled onto the surface of the
water.

Stevedore – The name given to the people who load and unload ships.

Straddle carrier – A drivable machine used on wharfs to pick up and transport containers
around the port.

Wharf – It is a large platform where ships can dock and the cargo can be moved.

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REFERENCES

Govender, L.E. (2010). Sea Transport 1 Handbook. Durban University of Technology.

Govender, L.E. (2011). Shipping Administration I Hand book. Durban University of

Technology.

Kok, J. (2010). Cargo Handling Part II. World Maritime University, Malmo.

Mukherjee, P. (2011). Carriage of goods by sea. World Maritime University, Malmo.

NCS, (2006). National Curicullum Statement. Grade 10- 12. www.ieb.com.

Shuo, M. (2010). Maritime Economics. World Maritime University, Malmo.

Stopford, M. (2009). Maritime Economics 3rd Ed. Routledge. London & New York.

UNCTAD. (1995). “Mulitimodal Transport Handbook”. Geneva.

www.marineinsight.com

www.ausmespa.com

www.fonasba.com

www.globalsecurity.org/index.html

www.clarksonresearch.com

www.iacs.uk.ca

www.unctad.com

www.oecd.org

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