CE0029

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1

LESSON 4
PLASTICITY
• Describe the procedures to determine the Atterberg limits
• Describe the procedures to determine the liquid limit, plastic limit, and
shrinkage limit from laboratory
• Discuss the geotechnical parameters, such as activity, liquidity index,
which are related to Atterberg limits
Plasticity of the soil is defined as its property by virtue of which it undergoes
deformation without cracking, fracturing or rupturing.
In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to
describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents.

At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture
content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid.

Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on moisture content, the behavior of soil

can be divided into four basic states – solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.
Shrinkage limit – moisture content, in
percent at which the transition from
solid to semisolid state takes place.

Plastic limit – moisture content at the

point of transition from semisolid to
plastic state.

Liquid limit – moisture content at the

point of transition from plastic to liquid
Atterberg limits
state.
A schematic diagram of a liquid
limit device is shown in the figure. brass cup

This device consists of a brass

cam
cup and a hard rubber base.
The brass cup can be dropped
onto the base by a cam
operated by a crank.

hard rubber base

To perform the liquid limit test, one
must place a soil paste in the cup. A
groove is then cut at the center of the
soil pat with the standard grooving
tool. By the use of the crank-operated
cam, the cup is lifted and dropped grooving device
from a height of 10 mm.
The moisture content, in percent,
required to close a distance of 12.7
mm along the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is defined as the liquid
limit.

soil pat before test soil pat after test

It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7 mm
closure of the groove in the soil pat at 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests for the
same soil are conducted at varying moisture contents, with the number of blows, N,
required to achieve closure varying between 15 and 35.

The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding number of
blows are plotted in semilogarithmic paper.
The relationship between moisture
content and log N is approximated as a
straight line. This line is referred to as
the flow curve.

The moisture content corresponding to

N=25, determined from the flow curve,
gives the liquid limit of the soil.
Sample flow curve for liquid limit determination of a clayey silt
 The slope of the flow line is defined as
the flow index and may be written as

𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑁2
log
𝑁1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑤1 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑁1 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
Sample flow curve for liquid limit determination of a clayey silt
𝑤2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑁2 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
Another method of determining liquid
limit is the fall cone method.

In this test, the liquid limit is defined as

the moisture content at which a
standard cone of apex angle 30° and
weight of 0.78 N will penetrate a
distance 𝑑 = 20 𝑚𝑚 in 5 seconds when
allowed to drop from a position of point Fall cone test

contact with the soil surface.

Due to the difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four or more tests
can be conducted at various moisture contents to determine the fall cone
penetration, d.

A semi-logarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content (w) versus cone
penetration d.
The plot results in a straight line. The
moisture content corresponding to 𝑑 = 20 𝑚𝑚
is the liquid limit.

The flow index can be defined as

𝑤2 − 𝑤1
𝐼𝐹𝐶 =
log 𝑑2 − log 𝑑1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: Plot of moisture content vs. cone penetration for

determination of liquid limit
𝑤1 , 𝑤2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑2 , 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture
content in percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into threads of 4.2
mm in diameter.

The plastic limit test is performed by

repeated rollings of an ellipsoidal-sized
soil mass by hand on a ground glass
plate.
Similar with liquid limit determination, the fall cone method can be used to
obtain the plastic limit. This can be achieved by using a cone of similar
geometry but with a mass of 2.35 N. The moisture content corresponding to a
cone penetration of 𝑑 = 20 𝑚𝑚 is the plastic limit.
The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit of a soil, or

𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿

It is important in classifying fine-grained soils. It is fundamental to the

Casagrande plasticity chart, which is currently the basis for the Unified Soil
Classification System.
Following are the results from the liquid and plastic limit tests for a soil.
Liquid limit test:
Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)
15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1

Plastic limit test: PL = 18.7%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit
b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
c. Determine the flow index
 Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)
15 42
20 40.8
Solution: 28 39.1
a.)
5. The x-axis needs to be adjusted to
1. Using Microsoft Excel, type the
logarithmic scale. Click on the portion
number of blows in the x-column of the x-axis values. The Format Axis
and the moisture content in the y- Panel will appear on the right side of
column. your window. Click on the encircled
icon.
2. Highlight the data and click
“Insert” on the Tab List. 6. Tick “Logarithmic scale” under “Axis
Options”.
3. In the Charts Panel, click
Insert Scatter icon.

4. The graph will appear.

 Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)
15 42
20 40.8
Solution: 28 39.1

7. Right-click any of the three data 10. The equation of the trendline will appear. This will be used
points and click “Add Trendline…” to determine the water content corresponding to N = 25 which
is the liquid limit.

8. The Format Trendline panel will

appear.

9. Select Logarithmic and tick “Display 𝐿𝐿 = −4.658 ln 25 + 54.662

equation on chart”. = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔𝟕%
 Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)
15 42
20 40.8
Solution: 28 39.1
b.)

𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 39.67 − 18.7 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟕%

c.)
To determine the flow index or the slope of the flow curve, we need to use the equation displayed on the chart.

𝑦 = −4.658 ln 𝑥 + 54.662

Assume two values of x, and determine their corresponding y values.

@𝑥 = 22, 𝑦 = −4.658 ln 22 + 54.662 = 40.26

@𝑥 = 28, 𝑦 = −4.658 ln 28 + 54.662 = 39.14

𝑦1 − 𝑦2 40.26 − 39.14
𝑚 = 𝐼𝐹 = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟐
log 𝑥2 − log 𝑥1 log 28 − log 22
Flow curve
Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost
from it. With continuing loss of moisture, a
point will be reached where more loss of
moisture will result in no further volume
change.

The moisture content, in percent, at which

the volume of the soil mass ceases to
change is defined as the shrinkage limit.
 𝑀1 − 𝑀2 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
𝑆𝐿 = (100) − 𝜌𝑤 (100)
𝑀2 𝑀2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑀1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝑔)
𝑀2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡 (𝑔)
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡 (𝑐𝑚3 )
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡(𝑐𝑚3 )

𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 )

Another parameter that can be determined from a shrinkage limit test is the
shrinkage ratio, which is the ratio of the volume change of soil as a percentage of
the dry volume to the corresponding change in moisture content, or

∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑀2
𝑆𝑅 = = =
∆𝑀 ∆𝑉𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑤
𝑀2 𝑀2
By derivation, the following can also be obtained:

1
𝐺𝑠 =
1 𝑆𝐿
−
𝑆𝑅 100
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

• Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 cm3

• Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
• Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g
• Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g

a) Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

b) Determine the shrinkage ratio.

Solution:
a.)
𝑀1 − 𝑀2 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 44.0 − 30.1 24.6 − 15.9
𝑆𝐿 = 100 − 𝜌𝑤 100 = 100 − 1 100 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟖%
𝑀2 𝑀2 30.1 30.1
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

• Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 cm3

• Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
• Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g
• Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g

a) Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

b) Determine the shrinkage ratio.

Solution:
b.)

𝑀2 30.1
𝑆𝑅 = = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗
𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑤 15.9(1)
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in Another index that is commonly used for
the natural state can be defined by a ratio engineering purposes is the consistency
called the liquidity index, which is given by index, which may be defined as

𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤
𝐿𝐼 = 𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑤 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑤 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
Refer to Sample Problem 1 and determine the liquidity index when the in situ moisture content is
26%.

Solution:

𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 26 − 18.7
𝐿𝐼 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 39.67 − 18.7
Casagrande studied the relationship of the
plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide
variety of natural soils. On the basis of the
test results, he proposed a plasticity chart
as shown in the figure.
An empirical A-line with an equation 𝑃𝐼 =
0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20) separates the inorganic
clays from the inorganic silts.

• Inorganic clay values lie above the

A-line
• Inorganic silts lie below the A-line
• Organic silts plot below the A-line
and with LL ranging from 30 to 50
• Organic clays plot below the A-line
and LL greater than 50
Note that a U-line with an equation
𝑃𝐼 = 0.9(𝐿𝐿 − 8) lies above the A-line.
The U-line is approximately the upper
limit of the relationship of the plasticity
index to the liquid limit for any currently
known soil.
Skempton (1953) observed that the
plasticity index of a soil increases linearly
with the percentage of clay-size fraction
(% finer than 2 𝜇𝑚 by weight) present.

He defined a quantity called activity,

which is the slope of the line correlating
PI and % finer than 2 𝜇𝑚. This may be
expressed as

𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Das, Braja M., and Khaled Sobhan. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Cengage Learning.

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