STANDARD HIGH SCHOOL ZZANA

MODERN PHYSICS
CATHODE RAYS
Cathode rays are highly energetic electrons moving from the cathode to the
anode. They are produced in a cathode ray tube.
Production of cathode rays

Cathode Anode

Cathode rays

heater

-+
E.H.T

The electrons are produced at the cathode by thermionic emission and are
accelerated towards the screen by the anode which is connected to the
terminal of the extra high tension battery. The thermionic emission is the
process whereby metal surfaces emit electrons when heated.
The tube is evacuated to avoid electrons interacting with any particle before
they reach the screen. When the cathode rays hit the florescent screen, the
screen glows. This shows that electrons posses momentum and therefore
have mass.
Properties of cathode rays
i. They are negatively charged
ii. They travel in a straight line

1
iii. They are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields (this proves
that they carry a charge)
iv. They cause fluorescence in certain materials.
v. When cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals, x-rays are emitted.
vi. They are electrons moving with high speeds.
Verification that electrons travel in a straight line
Cathode
Anode

heater

-+
E.H.T Maltase cross

If an opaque object (Maltese cross) is placed in the path of the cathode

rays, a sharp shadow of the Maltese cross is cast on the screen.

Shadow of the Maltese cross cast on the florescent screen

Motion of cathode rays in electric field

uo

2
Consider an electron of speed uo entering mid way between metal plates P1
and P2 separated by a distance d and across which a pd V is applied. The
electric force has no component in the horizontal direction. Hence, the
horizontal component of the electron velocity stays constant at the values
uo. The vertical component of the electrons velocity at a time t, after the
electron has entered the region of electric field is Vy = ayt
But electric force in the vertical direction
F  Ee
ma y  Ee
Ee
ay 
m
Ee
Vy  t      (1)
m

The vertical displacement of the electron in the electric field

y  u y  1 ayt 2
2
Ee
uy  0 , ay 
m
1 Ee 2
y t        (2)
2 m

Horizontal displacement
X  uot
x
t      (3)
uo

Put equation(3) in equation (2)

2
1 Ee  x 
y  
2 m u
Eex 2
y
2mu o2

3
The motion of the electron in the field is parabolic

Y
1
Vy
θ
Vx1
θ

The time taken by the electron to move through the plates t1 

l
u0

The vertical component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the field
is
Eet Eel
V y1  
m mu 0

The horizontal component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the

field
Vx1  u o

The angle θ, the electron makes with the horizontal as it emerges out of the
field is given by
V y1 Eel 1
tan   1
 
V x Mu o u o
Eel
tan  
mu o2

But tan θ = Y
 D 1 l
2

Hence Eel

y
2
mu o 
D 1 l
2

The vertical displacement on the screen,

4
Y
D  12l Eel
muo 2



D  1 Eel
2l

2K

Where k is the kinetic energy

Note: When an electron is accelerated by a pd of Vs volts, then the kinetic

energy of the electrons is given by 1
mu o2  eV s
2

A beam of electrons of speed 1 x 106 ms-1 is directed midway between p

and Q at right angles to the electric field between p and Q. Show that the
electron emerges from the space between p and Q at an angle of 64.6 0 to
the initial direction of the beam.
vy
tan  
vx
Eel
tan  
mu o2
m  9.11  10 31 kg
e  1.6  101 19 C
v 12
E    300Vm 1
d 4  10  2
300  1.6  10 19  0.04
tan  
 
9.11  10 31  1  10 6
2

18
1.92  10
  2.017
9.11  10 19
tan   64.6 

Exercise
1. An electron operating at 3 x 103 V is used to project electron into the
space between two oppositely charged parallel plates of length 10cm and
reparation 5cm. calculate the deflection of the electron as they emerge from
the region between charged plated when the p.d is 1 x 103V.
2. An electron of energy 10KeV enter midway between two horizontal metal
plates each of length 5.0cm separated by a distance of 2cm. A p.d of 20V is

5
applied across the plates. A fluorescent screen is placed 20cm beyond the
plates.
Calculate the vertical deflection on the screen.

Motion of electron in magnetic field

Consider an electron projected with a speed V at right angle to a uniform
magnetic field of flux density B, out of the plane of the page.

    
   F v  
    

The magnetic force on the electron is F = Be and using Flemings left hand
rule it is at right angles to both u and B.
The rate of change of kinetic energy of the electron is equal to the force x
velocity
dk  
 F . Where k= kinetic energy
dt

But since F is perpendicular to 

dk  
Then  F .  0
dt

Hence the kinetic energy K = constant.

Therefore the speed v is constant
This implies that the electron moves in a circular orbit.
m 2
 Be
r
m
r
Be

6
 2 2m
The period T = 
 Be

The kinetic energy

2
1 1  Ber 
k m 2  m 
2 2  m 
1 B 2e2r 2 B 2e2r 2
 
2 m 2m

Motion of electron in crossed field (magnetic and electric)

+ + +
e

- - -

Consider an electron projected with a speed v at right angles to both

electric intensity E and magnetic flux density B.
The electric force on an electro Fe = Ee downwards. The magnetic force on
an electron
Fm = Bev upwards. If the electron passes through the crossed fields
undeflected
then Fe = Fm.
Ee = Bev
E  Bv
E
v  as long as electrons are not deflected
B

7
Thomson’s method used to measure the charge to mass ration ( e )
m

of an electron. Fluorescent screen

Cathode Anode

Y
P1
O
P2
D
l

Electron emitted by the heated cathode is accelerated to the anode. In the

absence of the electric and magnetic fields, the cathode rays strike the
florescent screen at O. The p.d is then applied between plate’s P 1 and P2.
The deflection Y of the cathode rays is measured. A magnetic field is then
applied to the plane of the figure by passing current through a pair of
circular coil one on each side of the glass tube.
The current in the circular coil is varied until the fluorescent spot is brought
back to O. When cathode rays are in the electric field alone,
e Yuo2


m El D  1 l
2

When the magnetic field is applied such that the electron beam is brought
at O, then
Beu o  Ee
E
uo 
B
e YE

m  1 
B 2l D  l 
 2 

8
But E
V
where d is the separation of plates P1 and P2
d

Example

P1
10cm

P2
24cm

In the figure, p1 and p2 are metal plates each of length 2cm and separated
by 0.5cm in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 4.7 x 10-3T.
An electron beam incident midway between the plates is deflected by the
magnetic field by a distance of 10cm on a screen placed a distance of 24cm
from the ends of the plates. When a p.d of 103V is applied between P1 and
P2, the electron spot on the screen is restored to the undeflected path O,
calculate the e m of the electron.
e YE
 2

m B l D 1 l
2

V 10 3
E 
d 0.5  10  2

e 10  10  2  2.0  10 5

 
m 4.7  10 3 2  2  10  2  0.24  0.01
2  10 4

1.1045  10 7
 1.81  1011 Ckg 1

9
 Measurement of electric charge using Milkan’s oil drop experiment
Constant temperature enclosure

Oil spray

A
X-ray tube
+
E.H.T
B -

Microscope

Two horizontal plates A and B are connected to an extra high tension

battery E.H.T such that a vertical field is created between the plates. The
apparatus is surrounded by a liquid bath to provide constant temperature,
an oil spray is introduced into the field through a vent in the upper plate.
The oil droplets acquire some charge by friction. Additional charge on the
drops can be provided by radiating the region between the plates with X
rays. X rays cause ionisation of atoms they interact with. The chamber is
illuminated with intense light and the oil drop observed through a short
focus travelling microscope. The drops are allowed to drop freely when the
electric field is put off. The terminal velocity Vo of the drop is measured by
measuring the distance it falls through in a measured time.
During free fall
F(Viscous drag)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

10
F  6av o
4a 3
W  g
3
4a 3
U g
3

where ρ and σ are the drop and air densities respectively and a is radius of
drop.
W  U  F ...................(1)
At terminal velocity, 4 3 4
a g  a 3g  6avo
3 3
9v0
Hence a2 
2 g    

Therefore determining terminal velocity of fee fall, the radius a can be got.
Case 1 When the p.d is applied such that the oil drop rises steadily,

Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

F’(viscous drag)
W(Weight)

At terminal velocity , v1
Fe  U  W  F ' .............(2)

Put equation (1) into (2)

'
Fe  U  U  F  F
Fe  F  F '
Eq  6av o  6av1
6a v 0  v1 
q
E

But E
V
where d is separation of plates
d

Case2 When the p.d V is applied such that the drop falls steadily with a
speed v2.
11
 F’e(electric force)
F’’(viscous drag) U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

W  Fe'  U  F ' .............(3)

'

At terminal velocity,

Fe'  F  F '
'

Sub Eqn (1) in eqn (3) Eq  6av0  6av 2

6ad
q v0  v2 
V

Case3 When the p.d is applied such that the drop remains stationary
Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

W  U  Fe ...................(4)

sub. Eqn (1) in (4)

F =Fe
6av0  Eq
6adv 0
q
V

After repeating the experiment for different oil drops, Milkan found out that
the charges on the drop were integer multiples of the value 1.6x10 -19C. This
value was taken to be the basic charge and is the charge on the drop.

12
Exercise
1. An oil drop carrying a charge of 3e falls under gravity in air with a
velocity 4.6x10-4 ms-1 between two parallel plates mm apart. When a p.d of
4.6x103V is applied between the plates, the drop rises steadily assuming the
effect of the air buoyancy on the drop is negligible. Calculate
(i) the radius of the drop (2.06x10-6m)
(ii) the velocity with which the oil drop rises
( density of oil =900kgm-3, viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nsm-2)
2. A charged oil drop of radius 7.26x10-7m and density 880kgm-3 is held
stationary in an electric field of intensity 1.72x104Vm-1. How many charges
on the drop (density of air = 1.29kgm-3)

13
 Positive rays
At low pressures, in a discharge tube, electrons from the perforated
cathode ionise gas atoms in the tube. The positive ions produced and
accelerated to high energies are called positive rays.
The positive rays are related to the gas atoms initially in the discharge tube
To vacuum pump
unlike cathode rays.

Anode Positive rays

Cathode rays
Perforated cathode

Properties of Positive rays

They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields to a lesser extend
than cathode rays. This is because they are more massive than cathode
rays.
They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields in a direction opposite
those in which cathode rays are deflected. This because they are positively
charged.
They exhibit a range of speeds because they are produced at various points
along the discharge tube between the cathode and the anode.
They cause fluorescent and affect photographic plates such as cathode
rays.

14
Measurement of specific charge of ions using Bain Bridge Mass
Spectrometer.

Momentum selector
(Evacuated chamber)
B2
S2 x
Photographic plate
- B1 +
Velocity selector

S1
Ions from
source
Ions from the source enter the velocity selector through collimating slit s 1.
The ions enter the velocity selector and only ions with velocity v
E
pass
B1

through undeflected. E is the electric field intensity of electric field in the

momentum selector, B1 is the magnetic flux density of the magnetic field in
the velocity selector.
When these ions reach the momentum chamber, they are deflected by the
magnetic field of magnetic flux density B2 and describe a circular arc and
strike the photographic plate.
mv 2
Hence in the momentum chamber,  B2 qv
r

Hence q

v
, But r
x
m B2 r 2

Where x is the distance between a point on the photographic plate where

the ion strike and slit s2.
Also, v
E
B1

Hence q

2E
m B1 B2 x

For two ions of masses m1 and m2;

q

2E
, q

2E
m1 B1 B2 x1 m 2 B1 B2 x2
15
Hence the separation of ions on the plate
x2  x1 
2E
m2  m1 
qB1 B2

Example
In a mass spectrum, two ions of mass 26,28 with charges +10e and +30e
respectively. Both enter magnetic fields B2 with the same velocity. The
radius of a circular path described by a heavier ion 0.28m, find the
separation of two images formed on a photographic plate by these ions.
From q

2E
m B1 B2 x

Hence q
x , since 2E
is constant
m B1 B2

q1 q2
But  kx1 ,  kx2
m1 m2

q1 m2 x1
Therefore 
q 2 m1 x 2

But m1  26, m2  28, q1  10e, q 2  30e, x1  2  0.28m  0.56m

10e  28 0.56

30e  26 x2
x 2  1.56 m
separation  x 2  x1  1.56  0.56  1.00 m

Exercise
1. Ionised gas atoms produce in a discharge tube. They enter slits S1 of
the Bain Bridge spectrometer. The charges pass through B1 of 0.5T applied
at 90 to the electric fields (3V, 5cm). The ions then pass through
undeviated. The beam next passes through B2 of 0.8T and moves along the
two circular path. The radius of the small path is 18cm. The separation on
the plates is 6cm. If the charge on the ions is 10C, identify the ions (
m1=12g, m2 = 14g, hence ion is carbon).

16
2. A stream of singly ionised magnesium atoms is accelerated through a
p.d of 50V, and then enters a region of uniform magnetic field of flux
density 2.08x10-2T. calculate the atomic mass of the ions. (24U or
3.987x10-26kg)
3. The mass of the singly charged neon isotope 20
10 Ne  is 3.3x10-26kg. A
beam of these ions enters a uniform transverse magnetic field of mass
0.3T, and describes a circular orbit of radius 0.22m. What is (i) the velocity
of the ions
(ii) the p.d which has been used to accelerate them to this velocity?

17
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When some metals held at a negative potential are illuminated by
electromagnetic radiations, electrons are emitted. This process is called
photoelectric emission.
Demonstration of photoelectric effect
Light

Cathode(alkali metal)
Anode
Evacuated tube

When light falls on a metal cathode, a galvanometer shows a deflection,

indicating flow of current. However when the plates are covered, more
current flows. Energy of the incident light is absorbed by the electrons and
instantly an electron jumps out. Such ejected electrons are called
photoelectrons.
Experimental observations on photoelectric effect.
1. There is negligible time delay between irradiation of metal surface and
emission of electrons by the surface.
2. The photocurrent( number of photoelectrons per second) is proportional
to the intensity of the incident radiation.

Photocurrent, I

Intensity

18
3. The maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons increases linearly with
the frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of the intensity of
the radiation.
4. For each metal surface, there is a minimum frequency, f0 of the incident
radiation below which no electrons are emitted however high is the
intensity. This frequency is called Threshold frequency of the metal surface.

Max. Kinetic energy

f0 Frequency

Classical theory and photoelectric effect

According to the classical theory of radiation, radiant energy is evenly
distributed in a wave front. If the radiation is incident on a metal surface,
the surface electrons should share equally the energy delivered to the
surface by the radiation. Photoelectric emission should occur when electrons
have gained sufficient energy from the radiation. The order of magnitude of
the delay time predicted by the classical theory is approximately 10 3
seconds which contradicts with the observed 10 -9 second. Hence the
classical theory is not correct.
However classical theory explains that photo current is proportional to
intensity because the more energy carried by the wave front, the more
energy will be absorbed by the surface electrons; and therefore more
electrons will escape from the metal surface. Classical theory fails to explain
experimental observations 3 and 4.

19
The quantum theory of photoelectric effect
Einstein postulated that light is emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts of
packets called quanta or photons. The energy of each photon is hf, where f
is frequency of light and h is Planck’s constant.
When light on a metal surface, each photon of light interacts with one and
only one electron in the surface of the metal giving it all its energy or none
at all.
If the photon energy, hf, is greater than the work function of the metal, 0,
electrons are dislodged from the attraction of the nucleus of the metal.
Work function is the minimum energy required to overcome the attraction
of electrons by the nuclei of the metal surface. Different metals have
different work functions. Work functions can be expressed in electron volt
(eV).
Note: Electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is
accelerated by a p.d of 1V.
Hence kinetic energy = ½mv2= eV = 1.6x10-19x1 = 1.6x10-19J
1eV = 1.6x10-19J
Electron emission occurs only if hf > 0
The difference hf - 0 is available to the emitted electrons as kinetic energy
. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by
1 2
mv max  hf   0
2
1 2
 hf  mv max   0 .....(1)
2

Equation (1) is called Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect.

0 =hf0, where f0 is the threshold frequency of the metal surface.

20
 1 1 
mv max  h f  f 0   hc  
1 2
2   0 

where λ is the wavelength of the incident photon and λ0 is the threshold

wavelength
Experimental investigation of photoelectric effect

Monochromatic light Anode

mA a
b
d
c V

Cathode

Evacuated tube

With a connected to b and c to d, the photocurrent I is measured for

increasing values of V. A graph of I against V is plotted and has the form
shown below;
I Increasing intensity
Is

-Vs 0 V

The curves saturate early meaning that a small voltages is sufficient to

collect all the electrons emitted. The photocurrent is not zero when the
voltage is zero. The photocurrent persists even when the anode is negative
relative to the cathode. This is because electrons are emitted with sufficient
kinetic energy which overcomes the opposing electric field and reach the
anode.
If the anode is negative with respect to the cathode ( i.e. when a is
connected to d and b to c), and the applied p.d across the anode is varied,
21
a stage is reached when electrons stop reaching the anode, hence no
current flows. This negative potential at the anode at which the photo
current is zero is called Stopping potential (Vs).
Hence at stopping potential, 1 2
mv max  eV s where Vs is the stopping potential.
2

Hence eVs  hf  0

Experiment to determine Planck’s constant

Monochromatic light Anode

mA

Cathode

Evacuated tube

The anode is at a negative potential with respect to the cathode. The pd

between the cathode and anode is varied until the photocurrent recorded
by the ammeter is zero. The value of Vs of the voltmeter when this occurs
is noted. The experiment is repeated for monochromatic light of different
frequency, f but same intensity. A graph of Vs against f is plotted
Vs

Slope, s = h/e

f0 f

The slope of the graph, s = h/e, where e is the electronic charge

Hence Planck’s constant, h = se.

22
For different metal surfaces we obtain,
Metal 1
Vs Metal 2

f01 f02 f

Examples
1. the minimum frequency of light that would cause photoelectric
emission from Potassium surface is 5.37x1014Hz. When the surface is
illuminated by another radiation, photoelectrons are emitted with a
speed of 7.9x105ms-1. calculate the:
(i) work function of Potassium metal
(ii) maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons.
(iii) Frequency of the second source
(h = 6.625x10-34Js, mass of the electrons = 9.11x10-31kg)
solution
(i) 0  hf0  6.625 10 34  5.37 1014  3.558 10 19 J

(ii) Kinetic energy = 1 mv 2  1  9.11  10 31  7.9  10 5 2  2.84  10 19 J

2 2

1 2
hf  mv   0  2.84  10 19  3.56  10 19  6.4  10 19 J
(iii) 2
6.4  10 19
f   9.66  1014 Hz
6.625  10 34

2. A 100mW beam of light of wavelength 400nm falls on a caesium

surface of a photocell.
(i) how many photons strike caesium surface pr second.
(iii) If 80% of the photons emit photoelectrons, find the resulting
current.

23
 (iv) Calculate the kinetic energy of each photoelectron if the work
function of caesium is 2.15eV.

Solution
(i) power = nx( energy of a photon) = n  hf  n 
hc
, where n is number of


electrons emitted per second

 6.625  10 34  3  10 8 
0.1  n   
 4  10 7 
n  2  10 17

(ii) number of photons which produce electron emission=

 2  1017  1.61  1017  n ' , number of electrons emitted per second.
80
100

But I  n ' e  1.61  1017  1.6  10 19  0.026 A

 3  10 8 
(iii) Kinetic energy = hf  0  6.625  10 34
  7
 
  2.15  1.6  10 19  3.46  10 20 J
 4  10 

Exercise
1. The work function of a cleaned metal surface is 4.5eV . calculate
(i) the minimum frequency of the radiation that will cause
emission of electrons from the metal surface. (1.09x1015Hz)
(ii) The maximum energy of the electrons emitted when the
surface is illuminated by radiation of frequency 1.2x1015Hz.
(7.5x10-20J)

24
Application of photo electricity
A photoemmisive cell consists of two electrodes enclosed in a glass tube
which may be evacuated or containing an inert gas at low pressure.

Cathode

Anode

Evacuated glass tube

The cathode is curved metal plate having an emissive surface facing the
anode. When electromagnetic radiation fall on the cathode, photoelectrons
are emitted and are attracted to the anode if it is a suitable positive
potential. A current of few microamperes flows and increases with the
intensity of the incident radiation.
This photocell can be used to detect intruders. The intruder intercepts the
infra red falling on the photocell. Hence current is cut off. The interruption
therefore sets off the alarm.

25
 Atomic Nucleus
Rutherford’s model of the atom
All the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a small region called
the nucleus of diameter less than 10-15m. The negative charge surrounds
the positive charge.
This was verified by Rutherfold and his team. The experiment involved the
scattering of thin Gold foil.
Alpha particles emitted by a radioactive source were directed towards a thin
gold foil. The scattered alpha particles were observed on a fluorescent
screen on the focal plane of the microscope. Scintillations were observed on
the screen whenever the alpha particles struck the Zinc Sulphide scintillation
detector. The microscope was moved to different positions in order to
detect the alpha particles.
Observations
1. The majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected.
2. A few of the alpha particles were scattered through small angles.
3. Very few alpha particles were deflected through angles greater than 90º.

Alpha particles

Gold atom

26
Conclusion
1. The alpha particles being positively charged, their scattering must be
due to the positive charge in the gold atom.
2. Since the majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected,
most of the space inside the atom is empty.
3. Large angle scattering occurred whenever an alpha particle was
incident almost head on to the nucleus.
4. Since very few alpha particles were scattered through large angles, it
follows that the probability of a head on collision with the nucleus is
small and it follows that the nucleus occupies only small proportion of
the available space inside an atom.

Closest distance of approach of alpha particles.

+2e
Alpha particle
+Ze

Where Z is the proton number or atomic number of the atom.

At closest distance of approach , all alpha particle’s kinetic energy is
converted into electrostatic potential energy of the alpha particle or nucleus
system.
Hence w.d=QxV ; But V=Qα/(4∏€0b) ; Qα=2e ;Qx=Ze ;
w.d=K.E=(1/2 )mu2 Therefore;

27
1 2 Ze 2
mu 2 
2 4 0 b
1 Ze 2
mu 
2

2 2 0 b
Ze 2
b
 0 mu 2

Example
A beam of alpha particles of energy 4.2MeV is incident normal to a gold foil.
What is the closest distance of approach by the particles to the nucleus of
the gold atom?
( Atomic number of gold = 79)
1 Ze 2
mu 2 
2 2 0 b

79  1.6  10 19 
2
13
4.2  1.6  10 
2    8.85  10 12  b

b  5.412  10 14 m

Summary, the atom consists of the following main particle: (i) the protons
which are positively charged, (ii) the neutrons which carry no charge and
the electrons which are found in orbits around the nucleus. The neutrons
and protons make up the nucleus of the atom.
Rutherford’s model successes
i) It accounts for the observations of Alpha particle scattering by a
metal foil.
ii) The radius of an atom can be estimated using the model.
FAILURES OF RUTHERFORDS MODEL
Rutherford’s model failed to explain the existence of a stable atom with
orbiting electron.
28
An orbiting electron is constantly changing its direction of motion and is
therefore accelerating. This means that it would constantly emit
electromagnetic radiation and its radius of the orbit would constantly reduce
until it would spiral (spin) into the nucleus. If this happens for all electrons,
the atom would cease to exist.
NB: Emission of e-m radiation by electrons implies the reduction in their
energy which makes them fall into an orbit of a smaller radius and this
would have continued until the electron enters the nucleus.

The Bohr model of the atom

Bohr postulated that:
(i) Electrons in atoms can exist only in certain discrete orbits and while
in these orbits, they don’t radiate (emit) energy.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from one orbit to another
of lower energy, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation is given
off.
The energy of the quantum of radiation emitted is given by E  hf  Ei  E f ,

where Ei is energy of the electron in the initial orbit, Ef is the energy of

the electron in the final orbit, h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency
of emitted electron.
(iii) The angular momentum of an electron in its orbit in an atom is an
integral multiple of h
2

i.e. mvr 
nh
, where n = 1, 2, 3 ……….
2

29
 The orbit with the lowest energy is called the ground state. All physical
systems are in physical equilibrium in the lowest energy state. Other high
energy levels are called excited state.
The minimum energy required to remove an electron completely from the
ground state (nucleus of an a tom or K-shell) is called ionisation
energy
Bohr’s atom simply means an atom with a small central positive nucleus
with electrons moving around it only in certain allowed orbits and while in
these orbits they don’t emit radiations.

Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom

Consider an electron in a hydrogen atom to be in a circular orbit of
radius, r, about the nucleus.
v

+ -
r

For circular motion, a centripetal force on an electron is

mv 2 e2

r 4 0 r 2

e2
mv 
2

4 0 r

e2
Hence kinetic energy, T
1 2
mv  ..................(i )
2 8 0 r

 e2
The electric potential energy of the electron, V r     e  
e
................(ii )
4 0 r 4 0 r

e2  e2  e2
Total energy, E = T + V(r) =   ................(iii )
8 0 r 4 0 r 8 0 r

From Bohr’s postulates, mvr 

nh
2

30
 n2h2
Hence v2  .................(iv)
4 2 m 2 r 2

Substitute equation (iv) in equation (i)

mn 2 h 2 e2

8 2 m 2 r 2 8 0 r

n 2 h 2 0
Hence r ..............(v)
me 2

Substitute equation (v) in equation (iii)

 e2  me 4
E 
 n 2 h 2 0  8 02 n 2 h 2
8 0  

 me
2


Hence the allowed electron energies can be obtained from the equation
 me 4
En  , where n is the principal quantum number,; n – 1, 2, 3, ……..
8 02 n 2 h 2

Note: (i) The energy of the electron is always negative. This means that
work has to be done to move the electron to infinity where it is considered
to have zero energy. The electron is therefore bound to the nucleus.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level, ni,
to a lower energy level, nf, the energy of the quantum of radiation emitted
is
 me 4  me 4 me 4  1 1 
hf  Ei  E f     
8 02 ni2 h 2 8 02 n 2f h 2 8 02 h 2  n2 n2 
 f i 

 me 4
Energy of the ground state:- E0  , since n = 1
8 02 h 2

But m  9.11 10 31 ,  0  8.85 10 12 , h  6.6 10 34

E0  2.18  10 18 J
E0  13.6eV

 13.6
Hence En  eV
n2

31
 me 4  1 1 
E  hf    2
8 02 h 2 n 2 
 f ni 
me 4  1 1 
f  2 3  
8 0 h  n2 n2 
 f i 

me 4  1 1 
The wave number of the radiation emitted is  
f
 2 2  2  2
c 8 0 h c  n f ni 

me 4
The term  RH  Rydberg constant
8 02 h 3 c

 1 1 
  RH  
 n2 n2 
 f i 

Spectral lines of hydrogen atoms

Energy levels are grouped into shells. Electrons in one shell have nearly the
same energy. The shells are denoted by letters K, L, M, N etc. where K
corresponds to n = 1, L to n = 2, M to n = 3 and so on.
Transitions of electron from a high energy level to lower energy level cause
electron to lose energy hence producing electromagnetic waves. Transitions
from other shells to K- shell emit spectra of wavelength grouped into what
is called Lymann series.
Lymann series lie in the Ultra violet region of the spectrometer.
1 1 
  RH  
 12 ni2 
 

Where ni = 2, 3, 4…….
Transitions from other high energy levels to the L- shell ( n = 2), emits
spectra of wavelengths referred to as Balmer series. Balmer series lie in the
visible spectrum.
 1 1 
  RH  
 2 2 ni2 
, ni = 3, 4, 5…
 

32
Transition from other high energy levels to the M – shell ( n = 3 ), emits
spectra referred to as Paschen series which lie in the infra red region.
 1 1 
  RH  
 3 2 ni2 
, ni = 4, 5, 6……..
 

n=∞
n = 6 (P shell)

n = 5(O shell)
n = 4 (N shell)
n = 3 (M shell)

Paschen series n = 2 (L shell)

Balmer series

Ground state n = 1 (K shell)

Lymann series

Failures of Bohr’s model

- His theory fails to explain the relative intensities of spectral lines
- Bohr’s theory fails to explain spectra of more complicated atoms ( A
toms having more than one electron)
- The method of selecting allowed orbits was arbitrary and lack
theoretical background.
However, the following remain valid (successes):
(i) electrons exist outside the atomic nucleus
(ii) Existence of energy levels.
(iii) Emission and absorption of radiation occur in discrete amounts
called quanta.
Line emission spectra
When atoms like H2, neon etc. are excited due to some form of heat from a
frame or electricity, electron transition may occur to higher energy levels.
This makes the atom unstable since energy has increased. Electron
33
transition may occur due to a vacancy left in the lower energy level and
radiation of a definite wavelength or frequency is emitted. A line appears
bright against a dark background. The lines are separated which give
evidence that energy levels of the atoms are separate.
Line absorption spectra.
An atom’s energy can change by only discrete amounts. If a photon of
energy, hf, is just enough to excite the atom, such that an electron can
jump to one of higher energy levels, the photon will be absorbed. The
intensity of the incident radiation is reduced since it has lost a photon. A
dark line on a white background is observed, whose wavelength is that of
the absorbed photon.
Example
1. The figure below represents the lowest energy levels of mercury.
n=6 -2.71eV
n=5 -3.74eV
n=4 -4.98eV

n=3 -5.55eV

n=2 -5.77eV

n=1 -10.44eV

(i) Calculate the ionisation energy in eV and in joules

(ii) Calculate the energy and wavelength of the photon emitted when
the mercury atom’s energy changes from E6 to E2.

34
 (iii) Determine which energy levels in the mercury atom are involved in
the emission of a line whose wavelength is 546nm.
2. The figure below shows some of the energy levels of a neon atom. In
what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does the radiation emit in the
transition E3 to E2 lie?

n=∞ 0
n=4 -0.81eV
eV
-2.77eV
n=3

n=2 -4.83eV

3 A hydrogen atom is in excited state of energy -10.6ev. It absorbs a

n=1 -21.47eV
-7
photon of wavelength 1.2 x 10 m and is exited to a higher energy level.
When it falls back to its ground state, a photon of wavelength 0.9 x
10-7m is emitted. Find the energy of the ground state.(4marks)
En’ -En=hc/1.2 x 10-7 where En = -10.6ev
But; En’ – E1 = hc/0.9x10-7
E1 =

35
 X – Rays
X- rays are short wavelength electromagnetic waves which are produced
when cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals.
Production of X – rays
Shield
Cathode Vacuum
Target ( tungsten or Molybdenum)

Filament Cooling fins

supply

X- rays

E.H.T Voltage
Cathode rays
Copper anode

Mode of operation
A low voltage is applied across the filament and heats the filament.
Electrons are emitted by the filament by thermionic emission. The concave
focussing cathode focuses the electrons from the filament onto the target. A
very high alternating voltage is applied between the filament and the
anode. During the half cycles when the anode is at a positive potential
relative to the cathode, electrons are accelerated across the tube. No
electrons flow to the anode when the anode is at a negative potential
relative to the cathode.
When the cathode rays (electrons) strike the target, 99% of the kinetic
energy of electrons is dissipated into heat while 1% is turned into X-rays.

36
The heat generated at the target is cooled by means of the copper cooling
fins mounted on the copper anode. Heat is conducted from the target away
from the tube by conduction and radiation.
The electron current, I in an X-ray tube in operation is given by I = ne,
where n is the number of electrons per second and e is the electronic
charge.
Intensity of X-rays (Quantity)
The intensity of X- rays in an X – ray tube is proportional to the number of
electrons colliding with the target. The number of electrons produced at the
cathode depend on the filament supply. The greater the heating current,
the greater the number of electrons produced and hence more x- rays are
produced. Therefore the intensity of X- rays is controlled by the filament
current.
Penetration of X – rays ( quality)
Penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of the electrons
striking the target. The higher the accelerating voltage, the faster the
electrons produced. Faster electrons posses higher kinetic energy and
shorter wavelength x-rays of greater penetration power are produced.
Hence penetrating power of X-rays is determined by the accelerating
Voltage across the tube.
Hard and soft X- rays
Hard x-rays have a high penetrating power. This because they have very
short wavelengths. They are produced when a high p.d is applied across the
tube.

37
Soft X-rays are produced by electrons moving at relatively lower velocities
than those produced by hard x –rays. They have less energy, longer
wavelengths, hence less penetration power compared to hard x-rays.
Hard x-rays can penetrate flesh but are absorbed by bones. Soft x-rays are
used to show malignant growths since they only penetrate soft flesh. They
are absorbed by such growths.

Properties of X –rays
o They travel in a straight line at a speed of light
o They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields. This
indicate that they carry no charge.
o They penetrate all matter to some extent. Penetration is least in
materials with high density and atomic number e.g. lead.
o They ionise gases through which they pass.
o They affect photographic plates just like light does.
o They cause fluorescence in some materials.
o They cause photoelectric effect when they are illuminated on certain
metal surfaces.
o They are diffracted by crystals leading to an interference pattern.

Examples
In an x-ray tube 99% of the electrical power supplied to the tube is
dissipated as heat. If the accelerating voltage is 75kV and power of
742.5W is dissipated as heat, find the number of electrons arriving at the
target per second.

38
 99
 power  742.5W
100
742.5  100
Hence power supplied =  750W
99

But power = VI
Hence 75000I = 750
I = 0.01A
But I = ne
1.01 = 1.6x10-19n
Therefore n = 6.25x1016 per second
Exercise
1. In an x-ray tube operated at 5x105V, the target is made of material of
specific heat capacity 2.5x102Jkg-1K-1 and has a mass of 0.25kg. 1% of the
electrical power is converted into x-rays and the rest is dissipated as heat in
the target. If the temperature of the target rises at 8Ks-1, find the number
of electrons which strike the target every second.
2. The current in a water- cooled x-ray tube operating at 60KV is 30mA.
99% of the energy supplied to the tube is converted into heat at the target
and is removed by water flowing at a rate of 0.060kgs-1. Calculate: (i) the
rate at which energy is being supplied to the tube. (1800Js-1)
(ii) the increase in temperature of the cooling water, assume specific heat
capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1. (7.1°C)

39
 Diffraction of X-rays by crystals
Consider a beam of X- rays incident on the crystal.
Photographic plate
X-rays

Crystal

Lead shield for collimating

the beam

After long exposure to x-rays, the photographic plate is developed and

printed. A regular pattern of dark spots called Laue spots are observed
around the central dark image. The pattern is due to scattering of x-rays by
interaction with electrons in the atom of the crystal. The regularity of the
spots implies that atoms in the crystal are arranged in a regular pattern.
Consider a beam of monochromatic x-rays incident on a crystal such as KCl
at a glancing angle θ.
Let d be the interatomic or interplanar spacing and λ the wave length of the
x-rays. A small fraction of the incident x-rays is scattered by each atom. The
scattered x-rays interfere constructively in those directions for which the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

A d
C

40
The path difference between x-rays scattered by atoms in two consecutive
planes = AB + BC.
But AB = BC = dsinθ
For constructive interference path difference AB + BC = nλ,
where n = 1, 2, 3, ….. is called the order of diffraction and θ is the glancing
angle.
Hence
2dsinθ = nλ ……. For n = 1, 2, 3... .This is Bragg’s law

Example
X-rays of wavelength 10-10m are diffracted from a set of planes of rubidium
Chloride. The first diffraction maxima occurs at 8.8°. calculate the
interplanar spacing.

2d sin   n ,
n  1,   10 10
2d sin 8.8  10 10
d  3.27  10 10 m

Atomic spacing in crystals

Consider a Na
unit of NaClCl

Let M be the molecular mass of NaCl, ρ density and Na Avogadro’s number.

Mass per molecule = M
Na

Volume associated with one molecule = M

Na

41
One molecule of NaCl has two atoms, hence volume associated with one
atom = M
2N a 

But volume associated with one atom = d3.

Hence d3 
M
2N a 

Example
A beam of x-rays of wavelength 1.0x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic
planes of NaCl crystal (Molecular mass = 58.8). First order diffraction is
obtained for a glancing angle of 10.2°. find
(i) the spacing between consecutive planes
(ii) the density of NaCl.
Solution
2d sin   n
(i) n  1,   10 10 ,  10.2
10 10
d  2.82  10 10 m
2  sin 10.2
M
d3 
2N a 
(ii)
58.8  10 3
  2.16  10 3 kgm 3
2  2.82  10 
10 3
 6.02  10 23

Question
A monochromatic beam of x-rays of wavelength 2x10-10m is incident on a
set of cubic planes in a KCl crystal. First order diffraction maxima are
observed at a glancing angle of 18.5°. Find the density of KCl if its
molecular weight is 74.55g. (1.97x103kgm-3)

42
X-ray spectra in an x-ray tube
There are two spectra; continuous and line/prominent/ characteristic
spectra.
The intensity of x-rays plotted as a function of wavelength has the features
shown below. The line spectrum is superimposed on the continuous
spectrum.

Continuous spectrum
This arises from multiple collisions of electrons with target atoms. Different
amounts of energy are lost during these collisions. The x-rays given off
when the electrons are decelerated will have wavelengths varying from a
certain minimum value λmin to infinity.

Line spectrum

Intensity Continuous spectrum

λmin Wavelength

When an electron loses all its energy in a single collision with an atom of
the target, a most energetic x-ray photon is given off. The kinetic energy of
the electrons equal to eV, where V is the accelerating voltage between a
filament and the anode. It is converted into electromagnetic radiation of
energy, hf max 
hc
 eV
min

Hence min 
hc
……..(1)
eV

43
Equation (1) is called the Hunt- Duane equation . λmin represents the
minimum wavelength of the X-ray produced for a given accelerating voltage
V. It is also called-cut off wavelength.

Line spectrum

Uses of X-rays
1. Structural analysis, stresses, fractures in solids, castings and welded
joints can be analysed by examining X-ray photograph.
2. Crystallography; Orientation and identification of minerals by analysis of
diffraction patterns using Bragg’s law.
3. Medical uses;
(i) Analytical uses. These include location of fractures, cancer and
tumour/defective tissue absorbs x-rays differently from normal tissue.
(ii) Therapeutics use for destroying cancerous cells and tumours.
5. detection of fire arms at international airports.

44
 Nuclear physics
The nuclei of atoms contain protons and neutrons. The collection of protons
and neutrons together is called the nucleon.
A species of atoms with a specified number of protons and neutrons is
called a nuclide. There are forces which bind the nucleons together. In
some nuclides, the forces make the nucleons stay together permanently;
however in some, the energy forces binding the nucleus affect some to the
nucleons, this happens when the ration of neutrons to protons is big. When
ration is big, the nucleus release excess energy to become stable.
-The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number
-The number of protons and neutrons is the mass number (Atomic
mass).
An atom X, with atomic number Z and mass number A can be symbolised
by ZA X
A = Z+N, where N = number of neutrons

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei emitting alpha, α,
beta, β particles and gamma, γ radiation

Alpha particles
An α-particle is a Helium atom that has two protons and two neutrons.
When a nuclei decays by release of an α particles, it loses two protons and
two neutrons i.e. mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number by 2.
Alpha particle symbol is 4
2 He

45
 A 4
A
z Z  206
82 He  z  2Y

eg
210
84 Po 206
82 Pb  2 He
4

Properties of α particles
-They cause fluorescent in some materials
-They blacken photographic plates
-They readily ionise gases
-They are easily absorbed by matter.
-The penetration of matter by α particles is unique in that the α particles
can not be detected beyond their range.
-They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields to a less extent than
 particles. This means that they are heavier than  particles. In both
magnetic and electric fields they are deflected in a direction opposite to
that of the  particles. This indicates that they are positively charged.
-They are emitted with speeds of the order 10 7 ms 1

-They are helium nuclei with mass 4U and charge +2e

Beta particles
These are electrons, the mass of the electron is much smaller than that
of the proton
When an element decays by emitting a  particle it loses an electron.
Hence the mass number remains the same but the atomic number
increase by one.
A neutrons is thought to consist of a proton and an electron. When a
nucleus undergo a disintegration, a neutron breaks down into an electron

46
(  particle) which is emitted and a proton which increases the atomic
number.
Properties of  particles
They have a much smaller fluorescent effect than  particles

They blacken photographic plates

They ionise gases readily than  particles
They penetrate matter more easily than α particles but are absorbed
completely by about 1mm of Aluminium, or a few metres path of air.
They don’t have a definite range like α particles owing to successive
deflection caused by collision with the atom of the absorber.
-They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields much more than 

particles because they are lighter.

They are fast moving electrons. They move faster than alpha particles.
Gamma rays
They are electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelengths. These
are found to occupy a band before the X-ray which are thought to have
the shortest ware length known.
The main difference between δ- rays and X-rays is that δ -rays originate
from energy changes in the nucleus in the atom while X- rays originate
from energy changes associated with electron structure of the atom.
Emission of δ rays has no effect on the mass of the nucleus. Emission of
δ- rays is usually accompanied by α or  emission e.g.
91 Pa  1   
Th 234
234 0
90

60
27 Co  2860 Ni  01   

47
 Properties
-Affect photographic plates
-They are not deflected by magnetic and electric fields. This implies that
they carry no charge
-They travel in a vacuum with the speed of light
-They have the highest penetrating power because of their light mass
and due to this they can be stopped or absorbed by a lead metal or
shield which has the highest density.
-They cause photoelectric effect i.e. they eject electrons when they fall
on certain metals.
-They can also cause ionisation of a gas by knocking off electrons from
the neutral atoms but this is by small amounts.
-They have the highest possible range in air.

Note:
(i) Range of radiation is the maximum distance covered by a radiation
in air before it is totally absorbed.
(ii) Ionisation is the process of changing the neutral atoms of a gas into
positive and negative ions.

The Decay law

It states that the rate of disintegration of a given sample at any time is
directly proportional to the number of nuclide N, present at that time, t.
Mathematically
  N 
dN
dt

The negative sign indicates that N decreases as t increases

dN
 N Where  is the decay constant
dt

48
Decay constant,  , is defined as the fraction of the radioactive nuclei which
decays per second.
dN
   dt
 N
InN  t  c

When t = 0, N = N0, which is the original number of nuclei.

Hence lnN0 = c
Hence lnN = -λt + lnN0
 N 
ln     t
 No 
or
N  N 0 e  t

A graph of N against t is called the decay curve

N
N0

A graph of lnN against t is a straight line with a negative slope.

lnN
lnN0

Half life T 
1
2

The half life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half the number of
radioactive nuclei present in the source to disintegrate.
Consider the decay curve of a radioactive source
49
 N

N0

N0/2

N0/4

2T½ t
T½
Relationship between  and T 1 2 
N0
When t = T½ , N =
2
From
N  Noe  t
No  T 1
 N 0e 2
2
1  T 1
e 2
2
 T 1
In 1 2  Ine 2

In 1 2  T 1
2

 0.693  T 1
2

0.693 ln 2
 
T1 T1
2 2

Activity of a radioactive source

This is number of disintegration of a radioactive source per second.
dN
Activity A    N
dt

The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq)

IBq = 1disintegration per second
A large unit of activity is curie (Ci)

50
3.70  1010 Bq  1Ci
dN
Activity, A   N
dt
N  Noe t
A  Noe t
but A 0  - N 0  initial activity
when t  0
hence

A  A0 e t

Hence Half-life can also be defined as the time taken for the activity of the
source to decrease to half the original value.

Example
1. The half life of a radio isotope is 5.27 years, calculate
i. Its decay constant
ii. The number of years it will take 75% of a given mass of isotope to
decay

0.693 ln 2 ln 2
    4  10 9 s 1
T1 T1 5.27  365  24  3600
2 2

(ii)
N  Noe  t
N  0.25 No
0.25 No  Noe t
In0.25  t  4  10 9 t
t  3.31  10 8 s
t  10.5 years

51
 60
2. The radio isotope Co decays by emission of a  particle and a  ray. Its
half life is 5.3 years. Find the activity of the source containing 0.10 gm of
60
Co
A  N
In 12
but ,    4.15  10 9
5.3  365  24  3600
NA 6.02  10  0.10
0.10 gm contain  0.10  atoms
60 60
N  1.003  10 21 atoms
A  N
A  115  10 9  1.003  10 21  4.16  1012 disntegrat ion s 1

Exercise:
A silver isotope 108
47 Ag has a half life of 2.4mins. Initially, a sample contain
2.0 x 106 nuclei of silver. Find the number of radioactive nuclei left after 1.2
minutes. (ans:1.412x106)
2.Aradioactive source contains 1.0µg of plutonium of mass number 239. If
the source emits 2300 α-particles per second, calculate the half-life of
plutonium. (assume the decay law N = N0e-λt ) Ans; 24073.99years
3. The mass of 1.0µg of 25
11𝑁𝑎 decays by emission of beta particles. If its
half life is 60s, find the;
(a) initial activity of the sample
(b) number of atoms present after 10minutes.
Ao =2.782E14; N = 2.285E13
4. 44
19 K has a half life of 20minutes. Find;
(a) the activity of the sample whose mass is 10mg. Ans;7.903E16
(b) the activity of the sample after 1hour
Ans;A = 9.6288E17

52
 CARBON DATING
14
The unstable isotope C produced during nuclear reactions in the
atmosphere as a result of cosmic ray bombardment give a small portion of
14
C in CO2 in the atmosphere.
Plants take in CO2 for photosynthesis. When a plant dies it stops taking in
14 14
CO2 and its Cdecays to N by  particle emission.
14
By measuring the activity A of C in the remains, and the activity of the
living or fresh sample Ao ,the time when the plant died can be estimated
from;
Example
The activity of a sample of dead wood is 10 counts per minute, while for a
14
living plant is 19 counts per minute. If the half life of C is 5500 years, find
the age of the wood sample.
A  A0 e  t
10  19e t
 10 
 t  ln  
 19 

but
ln 2 ln 2
  yr 1
T1 5500
2

Hence
ln 2  10 
 t  ln  
5500  19 
t  5093 years

Exercise
Wood from a buried ship has a specific activity of 1.2x102Bqkg-1 due to 14C,
whereas comparable living wood has an activity of 2x102Bqkg-1. What is the
age of the ship? ( half life of 14C = 5,7x103years).
53
Radio isotopes
Radioisotopes are nuclides which are unstable and undergo radioactive
decay emitting  or  particles or γ- rays during return to a stable form.
238 226 230
U, Ra and Th are examples of natural radioactive.
A greater number of radio isotopes are produced artificially by bombarding
stable nucleus with high energetic particles such as protons, α-particles,
deuterons and neutrons.
Artificial radioisotopes behave the same way as the natural radioactive
materials in that each will emit its characteristic particle or radiation and
each has a characteristic half-life.
Examples
1. By bombarding 27
 
Al with  particles, one gets 30P which decaysby emission of a positron 10 e
27
13 Al  24He1530 P 01n
30
15 P1430 Si 10 e

2. Bombarding of boron 11
5 B with  particles to get 14
6 C which decays by
emission of  particles.
11
5 B 24He146 C 11H

then 14
6 C 147 N  10 e with half life 5730 years.
-Neutrons are ideal for bombardment of stable nuclei to produce
radioisotope because they carry no charge and are therefore not
deflected by either atomic electrons or nuclear charge.
They will penetrate the nucleus even when their energies are
comparatively low.

54
Some uses of radioisotope
1. Biological uses
i. Radiotherapy
-Radio cobalt 60
27 Co decays with emission of  particles together with very
high energy γ-rays. The γ -rays have greater energy than is available
with standard X- rays machines when properly shielded, the γ -rays are
employed in the treatment of cancer.
-The iodine isotope 131
I (half life 8 days) decays by γ -ray emission. This

is injected into the blood stream of a patient having cancer of the thyroid
and the γ -rays given off are concentrated right where they are needed.
The speed with which the iodine isotope becomes concentrated in the
thyroid provides a measure of the thyroid function.
ii. Tracers
Small qualities of low activity radioisotope are administered by injection
into patients and their passage through the body and absorption by
diseased tissue studied.
59
The radioisotope Fe is administered into a patient’s blood stream.
Measurement of the activity of blood sample from the patient and
comparing it with initial activity of the radioisotope. The volume of blood
in the patient can be determined. (In blood assessment, total volume in
VAe
the sample, VT  where VT –total volume of blood the patient has, V-
Av

volume of radioactive blood taken from the patient, Ae-expected activity

after a time t, Av-activity of radioactive blood. Example;
- A small volume of solution which contains radioactive isotope of Na had
an activity of 12000dis/min when it was first injected into the blood
55
 stream of a patient. After 30hours, the activity of 1.0cm3 of the blood
was found to be o.5dis/min. If the half life of the isotope is 15hours,
(a) Estimate the volume of blood the patient has.
(b) Does the patient need any blood transfusion? (Explain your answer)
Solution;
At t = 0; Ao =1200dis/min
At t=half-life= 15hrs; A=6000dis/min
At t = 30hrs; Ae =3000dis/min
Therefore the expected activity after 30hrs is 3000dis/min
If 0.5dis/min (Av) contains 1.0cm3
Then3000dis/min contains V 
1.0 x3000
=6000cm3=6litres
0.5

-There’s no need for a blood transfusion since for a normal person

has 5-6litres of blood.

In agriculture, tracers have` been used to study how fertilizers,

hormones, weed killers and pesticides perform their functions. E.g. the
radioisotope 30
15 P has been used to provide information about the best
type of phosphate fertilizer to supply to particular crops and soil.
iii. Mutants
Radioisotopes have been used to induce plant mutations. This has led to
improved seed varieties of crops like wheat, peas, and beans with high
yields and high resistance to crop disease.
iv. Sterilization
Medical instruments and equipments are sterilized by exposure to γ –
rays. Gamma ray as are also being used to sterilize and preserve some

56
 food products. The method is safe as no radioactivity is induced in the
material irradiated by γ- rays.
Radiation has also been used to eliminate agricultural pests by sterilizing
them and therefore breaking the reproduction chains.

v. Carbon dating
By measuring the activity of carbon-14 in the dead sample and
comparing it with the activity of carbon-14 in a living sample, we can
determine how long ago the organism died.
2. Industrial uses
(i) Tracers
a) For investigation of flow of liquids in chemical plants or in underground
water and sewerage pipelines. In the latter cases, a little radioactive
solution is added to the liquid being pumped. Temporary high activity
around a leak is detected from the ground above. The rate of flow of
liquids can also be measured.
b) For study of wear in machinery such as of piston rings in motor
engine. Before the piston is put in place, it is irradiated with neutrons
to form the radioisotope
59
Fe. As the piston rings wear out, it accumulates in the oil and by
59
measuring the activity of Fe in the oil and comparing it with the initial
activity, the rate of wear of the piston is determined.(example; Steel
54
piston rings contains 15g of a radioactive iron 26 Fe of activity

3.7x105dis/s. After 40 days of continuous use, the tank case oil was
found to have a total activity of 1.2x103dis/s.

57
 54
(i) Find the half-life of 26 Fe (3.122x1017sec)
(ii) The average mass of iron worn off the ring per day assuming
that all the metal removed accumulates in the oil.(1.25x10-3
g/day)

c) Automatic control of thickness paper, plastic or metal sheeting as it

goes through the production plant. The thickness is controlled by
measuring the transmission of radiation through the sheet.

3. Diagnostic uses
Cobalt 60 and other γ- rays’ emitters are used as alternatives to X rays set
ups which are more elaborate to produce radiographs for examination of
welded beams and metal castings.

Detections of Nuclear radiation

The requirement for the detection of any nuclear radiation is that it must
dissipate energy in the detector.
The causes of dissipation of energy by nuclear radiation are
i. Ionisation of atoms in the detector e.g in ionisation chamber and G.M.
Tube
ii. Excitation of atoms without removal of orbital electrons e.g. in
scintillation counter.

58
 Ionisation chamber
Metal case (Cathode)
Thin metal rod (anode)

Ionising radiation
To amplifier

Thin mica plate H.V

High Voltage unit
Neutral gas atoms
Mode of action
When ionising radiation enters the chamber through the mica window, it
ionises the neutral gas atoms. Ion pairs are produced as a result of collision.
The positive ions produced drift to the cathode and the negative ions to the
anode resulting in an ionisation current which is amplified and measured
with the micrometer. A high voltage is set to a value that a constant current
Is flows. In this setting, the energy (intensity) of the incoming radiation is
proportional to Is.
A graph of ionisation current against voltage V has the following features.
Ionisation
Current C

Is A B

O
Voltage

Features of the graph

Region OA: The applied voltage is low. The positive ions and electrons
produced by collisions of in coming radiation with the neutral gas atoms

59
have a high chance of recombining since their velocities are low. The
current produced is proportional to the voltage.
Region AB (Saturation region): All ions pairs produced per second travel
and reach the respective electrodes. This results in constant current or
saturation current Is = ne.
n=Eα/EI where Eα –Energy of 1-alpha particle ,EI -Energy required to
produce an iron pair, n-number of electrons produced.
In this region, the energy lost by the incoming particles is proportional to I s.
This is the region in which the ionisation chamber is normally operated.
Region BC (Gas amplification): because of the high voltage, the electrons
produced by ionisation of the neutral gas atoms, acquire sufficient energy
to cause ionisation themselves (secondary ionisation). This results in rapid
multiplication of ions in the chamber, and hence the rise in ionisation
current.
The Geiger Muller tube or counter
Thin metal rod (Anode)

Ionising To amplifier and counter

radiation R

Mica window
Cylindrical cathode
Partially evacuated tube containing
argon and bromine vapours

When the radiation enters the tube, it causes ionisation of the gas atoms.
The electrons produced are accelerated to such a high energy that they
also cause more ion pairs by repeated collisions. When the electrons reach
the anode, the pulse is produced which is amplified and detected by a rate

60
 meter? The positive ions in the chamber are accelerated towards the
cathode and if these ions reach the cathode, they will cause secondary
discharge, which will give a false impression of an arrival in the chamber
of another ionising particle. This is prevented by using a quenching agent
like bromine.
During the quenching process, molecules of a quenching agent absorb the
energy of the positive ions on collision.
In a G.M tube the time taken by the positive ions to travel to the cathode is
known as the dead time. The number of pulses per unit time (counter rate)
corresponds to the activity of the source of radiation
A graph of counter rate against applied voltage

Counter rate D

B C

A Threshold voltage Applied Voltage

Below a certain value of p.d known as threshold voltage, no counts are

recorded at all since the number of ions produced per second is not enough
to produce sufficient current which can result in a pd of sufficient
magnitude to be detected.
Between A and B, magnitude of pulse developed in the tube depends on
the initial ionisation of the tube and energy of the incident particles.

61
Between B and C, the plateau region, the counter rate is almost constant.
This is the region when the tube is said to be normally operated
Beyond C, the counter rate increases rapidly with voltage due to incomplete
quenching one incident particle may start a whole chain of pulses.
Background Radiation
-In using the G.M tube the background count rate is first recorded. The
background count rate is due to the cosmic rays in the atmosphere, stray x-
rays from hospitals and gamma rays from industries. The activity in the
presence of the source is then determined and the difference is the actual
activity due to the source at that point.
As = Ar - Ab
-If a G.M tube is placed at a distance R from a radioactive sample and the
count rate As due to the sample is obtained, then

4R 2 As
A Where S - is the surface area of the mica window (A- is the
S
activity free from errors due to distance R).
Example;
222
A G.M tube is placed 10cm away from 1g of Rn and gives a count rate of
85counts per second, the entry window of the G.M tube has the area of
5cm2 and the background count rate is 10counts/second, calculate;
The activity of the sample and the half life of Ra (ans; A=1.885x104counts/s
T1/2 = 10years)

62
Cloud Chamber
There two types:
(1) Diffusion type chamber
Felt pad soaked in alcohol
and water

Intense light
S
Saturated vapour

Cold metal base

Solid CO2(at -78°C)
Sponge

Mode of operation
Alcohol vaporised in the warm upper part of the chamber. It diffuses
towards the cold part of the chamber. Above the cold metal base, there will
be a layer of air super saturated with alcohol and water vapour.
The shield surrounding the radioactive source is removed. The radiation
from S ionises the air molecules. The ions provide nuclei for condensation
and their paths are seen by means of the intense light directed in the
chamber. The tracks of the ions can be photographed. the chamber is
cleared of ions by supplying a p.d between the top and bottom of the
chamber.
The type of radiation emitted by the radioactive source can be deducted
from the tracks formed. α particles proceed without deviation except at the
end of their range. They ionise copiously and have well defined range.
S

α-particles
Β-particles proceed along tortuous tracks because they are light and are
easily deflected by collision with atoms.

63
 S

β-particles

γ-rays give rise to diffuse ionisation.

γ-rays

(2) Expansion cloud chamber

Camera

Intense
illumination S
S- source of radiation
Dark pad Saturated vapour
(alcohol vapour)

Piston

Mode of operation
The air inside the chamber undergoes adiabatic expansion by pumping on
it. The air cools down as a result. After a few adiabatic expansion,
condensation takes on the residual ions (or dust nuclei). The chamber is
cleared of these ions by application of a p.d between the top and bottom of
the chamber.
The gas in the chamber is then subjected to a precise adiabatic expansion
so that the gas becomes super saturated. The shield S is removed,

64
condensation takes place on the ions formed radiation emitted by S. The
tracks of emissions of S are photographed and emissions identified.

Example
A source of  particles has an initial activity of 2 x 105 disintegrations per
second. When the  particles enter an ionisation chamber, a saturation
current of 2 x 10-7 A is obtained. If the energy required to produce an ion
pair is 32ev. Find the energy of one  -particle

I  ne
I 2  10 7
n  19
 1.25  1012
e 1.6  10

Energy lost per second = 1.25  1012  32  4  1013 eV

4  1013
Energy of one α- particle =  2  10 7 eV
2  10 5

65
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Einstein’s mass- energy relation
If the mass of the closed system changes by an amount of m, the energy of
the system changes by an amount, E = mc2, where c is the speed of light in
a vacuum. The above relation is Einstein’s mass- energy relation.
For a given mass, there is energy released.
Recall that 1U = 1.66x10-27kg.
If the mass changes by 1U, then the energy changes is
E  mc 2  1.66  10 27  3  10 8   1.494  10 10 J  934 MeV
2

Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons of an atom are called nucleons. The energy
needed to take all the nucleus a part so that they are completely separated
is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
Hence from Einstein’s mass- energy relation, it follows that the mass of the
individual nucleons is greater than that of the nucleus in which they are
together. The difference in mass is a measure of binding energy.
Example
Find the binding energy of a helium nucleus 4
2 He

Mass of 4
2 He = 4.0015U
Mass of 1
0 n = 1.0087U
Mass of 1
1 p= 1.0073U
4
2 He 2 01n 211p

mass on the right hand side = 2  1.0087   2  1.0073  4.032U

Change in mass, m = 4.032  4.0015  0.0305U

66
But 1U = 931MeV
Hence binding energy = 931x0.0305 = 28.4MeV
Binding energy per nucleons is the ratio of the binding energy to the
atomic mass of the nucleus.

The binding energy per nucleons of elements of the periodic table varies
with mass as shown below.

Binding energy per

nucleons (MeV) 56
8 Fe

12
6 C
238
U

1
2 1 H

Mass number
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.
12
Excluding the nuclei lighter than C, the graph indicates that the average
binding energy per nucleon is fairly constant for a great majority of nuclei.
The average value is about 8MeV per nucleon. The pitch occur at
56
approximately the Fe nucleus which is therefore one of the most stable
nuclei.

Nuclear fusion and fission

Nuclear fission
A nuclear fission reaction involves bombarding of the heavy nucleus with a
highly energetic particles such as neutrons, protons, deuterons and alpha
particles. The heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei of higher binding
67
energy per nucleon. The mass deficiency which results is accounted for by
the energy released in accordance to Einstein’s mass-energy relation. In
most nuclear fission reactions, neutrons are used to induce a reaction
because of being neutral, they can penetrate the nucleus.
235
When U splits, it produces nuclei that are lighter and hence have higher
binding energy.
Examples of nuclear fission
U  01n236
235
92 92 U 38 Sr 54 Xe  10 0 n
90 136 1

Find the energy released by 1kg.

235 90
Mass of U = 235.0439U, Mass of Sr = 89.9073U,
Mass of 1n = 1.0087U, Mass of 136
Xe = 135.907U
Mass on left hand side = 235.0439+1.0087 = 236.0526U
Mass on right hand side = 89.9073 + 135.907 + 10x1.0087 = 235.9013U
Change of mass, m = 236.0526 - 235.9013 = 0.1513U
Energy released by a nucleon of U235 = 0.1513x931Mev = 140.8603MeV
235
Energy released by 1kgof U = 1000  6.025  10 23  140.8603  3.61  10 26 MeV
235

In the above example, when the emitted neutrons encounter with other
Uranium nuclides, they bombard the uranium and more splitting occurs with
the release of more energy. The produced neutrons are called fission
neutrons, and when this occurs, the reaction is called a chain reaction. In a
chain reaction, a lot of energy is produced and unless this energy is
controlled, the reactions may cause an explosion. Chain reaction is applied
in making nuclear bombs.
Exercise
238U disintegrates by emission of an α- particle according to the equation

68
238
92 U 234
90 Th 2 He
4

calculate (i) the total energy released in the disintegration (4.2315MeV)

(ii) the kinetic energy of the alpha particles, with the nucleus being at rest
before disintegration.(4.16MeV)
238
Mass of U = 238.1249U, Mass of 4He = 4.00387U,
234
Mass of Th = 234.11650U, 1U = 930MeV
Nuclear fusion
A lot of energy is released when the nuclei of lighter elements fuse together
to form a heavy nucleus. The fusing together of nuclei to form a heavy
nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
Example
Formation of alpha particles when lithium fuses with hydrogen.
7
3 Li 11H 48 Be 2 24 He

Mass of 7Li = 7.0160U, mass of 1H = 1.0078U,

Mass of 4He = 4.0026U, 1U = 931MeV
solution
Mass on left hand side = 7.0160 + 1.0078 = 8.0238U
Mass on right hand side = 2x4.0026 = 8.0052U
Change of mass = 8.0238 – 8.0052 = 0.0186U
Energy released = 0.0186x931MeV = 17.317MeV
Energy released by 1kg of the reactants = 1000
 6.025  10 23  17.317  1.304  10 27 MeV
8

Exercise:
Calculate the energy released by the reactant of two deuterium fusing to
form helium according to the equation. 212 H 23He 01n

Mass of 2
1 H  2.01421U ,

69
Mass of 3
1 He  3.0160U ,

Mass of 1
0 n  1.0087U ,

1U = 931MeV

The sun contains a considerable amount of hydrogen. It is believed that the

energy of the sun is due to nuclear fusion of the hydrogen atoms. Fusion is
capable if the nuclei concerned are able to approach each other close
enough and if the temperatures are very high. These conditions are
achieved in the sun.

70
 Electronic Devices
1. Cathode ray Oscilliscope
Fluorescent screen

C G A1 A2
X2 Y2

X1
Y1

Evacuated glass tube

_- + Graphite coating
R1 R2 E.H.T
E.H.T
Uses of the parts
Evacuated Glass tube:- the glass tube evacuated to prevent scattering of
the electron beam when electrons collide with air molecules.
Indirectly heated Cathode, C :-Emits electrons by thermionic emission.
The grid, G:- it consists of a hollow metal cylinder with a small hole at the
end. It is held at variable negative potential relative to the cathode by
means of the potential divider R1, The grid serves two purposes namely: (i)
as a brightness control
(ii) it refocuses the electron beam so that the beam emerges from the hole
as a narrow beam.
Anodes A1 and A2:- These are held at a positive potential relative to the
cathode. The anode accelerates the electron beam along the tube and also
focuses the electron beam by means of the potential divider R2.
X-plates, X1 and X2:-these are vertical plates but they deflect the beam
horizontally when a p.d is applied across them.

71
Y-Plates, Y1 and Y2:- These are horizontal pates but deflect the beam
vertically when a p.d is applied across them.
Fluorescent Screen:- This is coated with fluorescent material such as Zns. It
enters light when struck by electron beam.
Graphite Coating:- Enables light to be seen only on the screen as the
graphite coating absorbs the electron’s kinetic energy.
Power supply:-This is a smoothened rectified a.c, fed through a chain of
resistors.
Operation of the CRO
Suppose the X- plates were shunted and a d.c voltage was applied to the Y-
plates. The electron spot would be deflected vertically.

If the X- plates are shunted and an a.c is applied to Y-plates, the electron
beam is drawn into a vertical line.
Screen

To observe the waveform of the a.c signal applied to the Y-plates, a special
voltage called time base connected to the X- plates. The time base has a
saw-tooth waveform and is generated by a special in the CRO. The saw
tooth voltage which sweeps the electron beam from left to right at a
constant speed. Fly back
P.d Sweep A

B
O
Time

72
The time taken for p.d to fall from A to B known as the fly back time, is
extremely small compared to the time taken to rise from O to A. Hence the
time taken by return of the electron beam to the original position at the
other end of the screen is small.
When no signal is applied to the Y- plates, the voltage V, causes the
electron beam to sweep horizontally to and fro on the screen as shown.
Screen

To observe the wave form of the applied voltage to Y-plates, the frequency
of the time base is synchronised with the frequency of the signal applied to
Y-plates. For an a.c signal applied across the Y- plates and time base on the
X-plates, one observes the waveform shown below;

Uses of a CRO
a) Displaying of waveforms: the amplitude and frequency of the wave
can be obtained.
b) Measurement of Voltage: An unknown voltage is applied across the Y-
plates. If the time base is switched off, a vertical line is obtained on
the screen. This can be centred and its length measured. This is
proportional to twice to the amplitude or peak voltage, V0.

73
 c) Comparison of frequencies of two waveforms: suppose two waveforms
of frequency f1 and frequency f2 appear on the screen of the CRO
having two Y-inputs or are displayed at a time on the CRO with a
single Y-input. If x1 and x2 are distances occupied by one cycle for two
f1 T2 x 2
waveform, then the ratio   , where T1 and T2 are the periodic
f 2 T1 x1

times of the two waves respectively.

d) Measurement of phase difference using a double beam CRO: the two
waveforms to be compared have the same frequency. Suppose they
are displayed simultaneously by applying them to the two Y-input.
Comparison o CRO with a moving coil Voltmeter.
a) The CRO has very high impedence. It gives accurate voltages than a
moving coil voltmeter.
b) A CRO can measure both d.c and a.c voltage. A moving coil voltmeter
measures only D.C voltages unless a rectifier is used. The CRO gives a
peak to peak values of a.c.
c) A CRO has negligible inertia as compared to a moving coil voltmeter.
The CRO respond almost instantaneously.
d) CRO doesn’t give direct voltage readings.

Question
A CRO has its Y- sensitivity set to 10Vcm-1. A sinusoidal input is suitably
applied to give a steady trace with the time base set so that the electron
beam takes 0.01s so traverse the screen. If the trace seen has a total peak
to peak height of 4cm and contains two complete cycles, what is the r.m.s
voltage and frequency of the input? (14.1V, 200Hz)
74
2. Thermionic Diode
Structure
It consists of an anode usually in form of a nickel cylinder which surrounds
the cathode in an evacuated glass bulb. In the indirectly heated cathode
type, the cathode is a nickel tube with a tungsten filament (or heater) inside
it. The heater is insulated electrically from the cathode by packing alumina
inside the nickel tube. The outside of the tube is coated with a mixture of
Barium and Strontium oxides. The mixture has a low work function(about
1.8eV) and emits electrons at relatively low temperatures (about 1100K)
Symbol of a diode
Anode

Cathode
heater

Ia
mA

Thermionic Characteristics

H.T 200V
Va

mA
If

6V

75
Keeping the filament current If constant, the p.d Va between the cathode
and the anode is varied. The corresponding anode current Ia is measured. A
graph of Ia against Va constitutes the anode – current anode voltage
characteristics. By setting the filament current to other constant values, the
corresponding Ia-Va characteristics can be obtained. These features can be
shown below

Ia

Va
For Va = 0, electrons are emitted by the cathode with a range of speeds. A
few of the electrons are emitted with sufficient kinetic energy to be able to
reach the anode. This leads to a small current. If the anode is made
negative relative to the cathode, a reverse current exists for negative
potentials up to about 0.5V and then decreases to zero.
Region AB: Here Va is small. Only those electrons emitted with high speeds
will be able to reach the anode. The majority of the electrons are emitted
with low kinetic energies and are repelled back towards the cathode. The
electron distribution around the cathode constitutes a negative space
charge. The current Ia is small.
Region BC: as Va increases the attraction of the space charge by the anode
increases. This results in a larger anode current. This region is called space
charge limited region.

76
Region CD: the anode voltage Va is so large that all the electrons emitted
per second by the cathode reach the anode. The space charge is overcome.
A constant current, called saturation current flows. Region CD is also called
the temperature limited region because when the temperature of the
cathode increases, more electrons are emitted per second by the cathode. A
higher saturation current therefore flows.

Applications of the thermionic diode

(a) Half- wave rectification
Suppose a thermionic diode is connected in series with a source of
alternating voltageVi and a load RL

c A

Vi RL VR

During the half cycles when A is positive relative to C the diode conducts
and a p.d VR appears across the load RL. During the half cycles when A is
at a negative potential relative to C, the diode does not conduct and no p.d
appears across RL. The a.c is half-wave rectified.
The input and output voltage wave forms are compared in the diagram
below.

Vi

t
VR

77
(b) Full wave rectification
(i) Using two diodes D1
P
RL
Vi VR

Q
D2
When P is at negative potential relative to Q, diode D1 conducts whereas D2
doesn’t.
When P is at a positive potential relative to Q, diode D2 conducts whereas
D1 does not. Current flows in the same direction through the load RL during
both positive and negative cycles of the input voltage Vi.

Vi

t
VD1

t
VD2

t
VR

t
VD1 and VD2 is output pd due to conduction of diode D1 and D2 respectively.
VR is the output voltage across load RL.
(ii) Using four diodes
The following rectifier symbols will be used.
Flow of current Flow of current

Forward bias (diode conducts) Reverse bias (diode does not conducts)

78
 A

D1
D2

D3 C P
Vi

D4 R VR
B

During the half cycles when A is at positive potential relative to B, diodes D2

and D3 are forward biased hence they conduct and current flows through
the resistor R in the direction P to Q. Diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased
and they do not conduct.
During the half cycles when B is at positive potential relative to A, diodes D1
and D4 are forward biased and they conduct. Currents flows through
resistor R in the direction P to Q. Diodes D2 and D3 are reverse biased and
don’t conduct.
The voltage cross R will have the form:
VR

The output voltage can be smoothened by using filter circuits of the form
shown below:

L
V0 R
C VR

79
The back emf induced in the inductor by the fluctuating voltage opposes the
voltage fluctuations. The capacitor acts as a reservoir to steady the
remaining voltage fluctuations.
The voltage across the resistor R has the form shown:
Smoothened p.d
Ripple A
VR

At points such as A, the p.d across the load has just reached its maximum
value. If the capacitor was not present, the p.d would start to fall to zero
along the broken curve. However, as soon as the p.d across the load starts
to fall, it becomes less than that across the capacitor and the capacitor
starts to discharge through the load.

80