SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4
Polynomial Functions
of Higher Degree
Polynomial functions of degree
greater than 2 can be used to
model data such as the annual
temperature fluctuations in
Daytona Beach, Florida. In this
chapter we investigate graphs of
these functions.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

4.1 Graphs of Polynomial

Functions

4.2 Topics in the Theory of

Polynomial Functions (I)

4.3 Topics in the Theory of

Polynomial Functions (II)

4.4 Polynomial Equations,

Inequalities,
Applications, and
Models

235

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

236 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Basic T
  erminology • Cubic and Quartic Functions • Extrema • End Behavior • x-Intercepts (Real Zeros) • Comprehensive Graphs  
•  Curve Fitting and Polynomial Models

Basic Terminology
Looking Ahead to Calculus Linear and quadratic functions (introduced earlier) are examples of polynomial
In calculus, polynomial functions functions.
are used to approximate more
complicated functions, such as
trigonometric, exponential, and
logarithmic functions.
Polynomial Function
A polynomial function of degree n in the variable x is a function of the form
P(x) = an xn + an − 1 xn − 1 + ~ ~ ~ + a1 x + a0,
where each ai is a real number, an ≠ 0, and n is a whole number.*

The behavior of the graph of a polynomial function is due largely to the value
of the coefficient an and the parity (that is, “evenness” or “oddness”) of the exponent
n on the term of greatest degree. For this reason, we will refer to an as the leading
coefficient and to an xn as the dominating term. The term a0 is the constant term of
the polynomial function, and because P(0) = a0, it is the y-value of the y-intercept
of the graph.
As we study the graphs of polynomial functions, we use the following properties.
1. A polynomial function (unless otherwise specified) has domain (- ∞, ∞).
2. The graph of a polynomial function is a smooth, continuous curve with no sharp
corners.

Cubic Function Shapes Cubic and Quartic Functions

A polynomial function of the form
P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a 3 0,
is a third-degree function, or cubic function. The simplest cubic function is
(a) (b)
P(x) = x3. (A function capsule for ƒ(x) = x3 is shown in Chapter 2.) The graph of
a cubic function generally resembles one of the shapes shown in FIGURE 1.
A polynomial function of the form
P(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, a 3 0,
(c) (d) is a fourth-degree function, or quartic function. The simplest quartic function is
FIGURE 1 P(x) = x4. See FIGURE 2. Notice that it resembles the graph of the squaring function.
However, it is not actually a parabola.

*While our definition requires real coefficients, the definition of a polynomial function can be extended to
include nonreal complex numbers as coefficients.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 237

FU NC T I O N CAPSU LE

Q UA R T I C FU N C T I O N   ƒ(x) = x4
Domain: (- ∞, ∞)  Range: 3 0, ∞)

10
2
f (x) = x4
x 10
0 210
–2 2

Quartic Function Shapes –2

210

FIGURE 2

●● ƒ(x) = x4 decreases on the interval (- ∞, 0) and increases on the interval (0, ∞).
(a) (b) ●● It is continuous on its entire domain, (- ∞, ∞).

●● It is an even function, and its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

(c) (d) If we graph a quartic function in an appropriate window, the graph will generally
FIGURE 3 resemble one of the shapes shown in FIGURE 3. The dashed portions in (c) and (d) indi-
cate that there may be irregular, but smooth, behavior in those intervals.

TECHNOLOGY NOTE Extrema

The feature described in In FIGURES 1–3, several graphs have turning points where the function changes from
the Technology Note in the
previous chapter that refers increasing to decreasing or vice versa. In general, the highest point at a “peak” is
to maxima and minima also known as a local maximum point, and the lowest point at a “valley” is known as a
applies to polynomial functions local minimum point. Function values at such points are called local maxima (plural
of higher degree, provided of maximum) and local minima (plural of minimum). Collectively, these values are
that an appropriate interval is
designated. called extrema (plural of extremum), as mentioned in the previous chapter.
FIGURE 4 and the accompanying chart illustrate these ideas for typical graphs.

Looking Ahead to Calculus

Suppose we need to find the
Extreme Point Extreme Point
x-coordinates of the two turning
points of the graph of P1 is a local maximum point. The function has P1 is a local maximum point. The function has
f (x) = 2x 3 - 8x 2 + 9. a local maximum value of y1 at x = x1. a local maximum value of y1 at x = x1.
We could use the “maximum” P2 is a local maximum point. The function has P2 is a local minimum point. The function has
and “minimum” capabilities a local maximum value of y2 at x = x2. a local minimum value of y2 at x = x2.
of a graphing calculator and P3 is a local minimum point. The function has
determine that, to the nearest a local minimum value of y3 at x = x3.
thousandth, they are 0 and 2.667,
respectively. In calculus, their P 2(x 2, y 2)
exact values can be found by P 1(x 1, y 1 ) P 1(x 1, y 1 )
determining the zeros of the
derivative function of f (x),
f ′(x ) = 6x 2 - 16x.
P 3(x 3, y 3)
Solving f ′(x) = 0 would show P 2(x 2, y 2)
8
that the two zeros are 0 and 3 ,
which are exact and agree with (a) (b)
the approximations found with a FIGURE 4
graphing calculator.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

238 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

NOTE A local maximum point or a local minimum point is an ordered pair

(x, y), whereas a local maximum or a local minimum is a y-value.

Notice in FIGURE 4(a) on the preceding page that point P2 is the absolute highest
point on the graph, and the range of the function is (- ∞, y2 4 . We call P2 the absolute
maximum point on the graph and y2 the absolute maximum value of the function.
Because the y-values decrease without bound, this function has no absolute minimum
value. On the other hand, because the graph in FIGURE 4(b) is that of a function with
range (- ∞, ∞), it has neither an absolute maximum nor an absolute minimum.

Absolute and Local Extrema

Let c be in the domain of P. Then the following hold.
(a) P(c) is an absolute maximum if P(c) Ú P(x) for all x in the domain
of P.
(b) P(c) is an absolute minimum if P(c) … P(x) for all x in the domain
of P.
(c) P(c) is a local maximum if P(c) Ú P(x) when x is near c.
(d) P(c) is a local minimum if P(c) … P(x) when x is near c.
The expression “near c” means that there is an open interval in the domain
of P containing c, where P(c) satisfies the inequality.

y = P(x) EXAMPLE 1 Identifying Local and Absolute Extreme Points

(c, d )
Consider the graphs in FIGURE 5.
(a) Identify and classify the local extreme points of P.
(a, b)
(e, h)
(b) Identify and classify the local extreme points of Q.
(a) (c) Describe the absolute extreme points for P and Q.
y = Q(x) Solution 
(m, n)
(a) The points (a, b) and (e, h) are local minimum points. The point (c, d ) is a local
maximum point.
(b) The point ( j, k) is a local minimum point and the point (m, n) is a local maximum
( j, k)
point.
(b)
FIGURE 5
(c) The absolute minimum point of function P is (e, h), and the absolute minimum
value is h because the range of P is 3 h, ∞). Function P has no absolute maximum
value. Function Q has no absolute extreme points because its range is (- ∞, ∞).

NOTE A function may have more than one absolute maximum or minimum
point, but only one absolute maximum or minimum value. (To see this, graph
P (x) = x 4 - 2x 2. See also FIGURE 19.)

The graph of a polynomial function can have a maximum or a minimum point

that is not apparent in a particular window. This is an example of hidden behavior.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 239

10
EXAMPLE 2 Examining Hidden Behavior
shows the graph of P(x) = x3 - 2x2 + x - 2 as Y1 in the standard viewing
FIGURE 6

210 10
window. Make a conjecture concerning possible hidden behavior, and verify it.

Solution In FIGURE 6, because the graph levels off in the domain interval 3 0, 24 ,
210
there may be behavior that is not apparent in the given window. By changing the
window to 3 - 2.5, 2.54 by 3 - 4.5, 0.54 , we see that there are two extrema there. The
FIGURE 6 local maximum point, as seen in FIGURE 7, has approximate coordinates (0.33, -1.85).
There is also a local minimum point at (1, - 2).
0.5
22.5 2.5
A quadratic function has degree 2 and has only one turning point (its vertex).
Extending this idea, a third-degree polynomial function has at most two turning points,
a fourth-degree polynomial function has at most three turning points, and so on.

24.5

Number of Turning Points

FIGURE 7
The number of turning points of the graph of a polynomial function of degree
n Ú 1 is at most n - 1.

NOTE The above property implies that the number of local extrema is at
most n - 1 for a polynomial function of degree n Ú 1. The graph may have fewer
than n - 1 local extrema.

End Behavior
If the value of a is positive for the quadratic function P(x) = ax2 + bx + c, the graph
opens upward. If a is negative, the graph opens downward. The sign of a determines
the end behavior of the graph. In general, the end behavior of the graph of a poly-
nomial function is determined by the sign of the leading coefficient and the parity
(odd or even) of the degree.

End Behavior of Graphs of Polynomial Functions

n Odd
Suppose that axn is the dominating term of a polynomial function P of odd
degree. (The dominating term is the term of greatest degree.)
a>0 a<0
1. If a 7 0, then as x S ∞, P(x) S ∞, and as x S - ∞, P(x) S - ∞.
Therefore, the end behavior of the graph is of the type shown in
FIGURE 8(a). We symbolize it as .
 
(a) (b) 2. If a 6 0, then as x S ∞, P(x) S - ∞, and as x S - ∞, P(x) S ∞.
FIGURE 8 Therefore, the end behavior of the graph is of the type shown in
FIGURE 8(b). We symbolize it as .
n Even Suppose that axn is the dominating term of a polynomial function P of even
a>0 a<0 degree.
1. If a 7 0, then as  x  S ∞, P(x) S ∞. Therefore, the end behavior of
the graph is of the type shown in FIGURE 9(a). We symbolize it as .
    2. If a 6 0, then as  x  S ∞, P(x) S - ∞. Therefore, the end behavior of
(a) (b) the graph is of the type shown in FIGURE 9(b). We symbolize it as .
FIGURE 9

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240 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 3 Determining End Behavior Given the Polynomial

The graphs of the following functions are shown in FIGURE 10.
ƒ(x) = x4 - x2 + 5x - 4, g(x) = - x6 + x2 - 3x - 4,
h(x) = 3x3 - x2 + 2x - 4,  and  k(x) = - x7 + x - 4.
Based on the discussion in the preceding box, match each function with its graph.
A.  y   B.  y

40 40

20 20

x x
0 0
–6 –4 2 4 6 –4 –2 2 4
–20 –20

–40

C.  y   D.  y

40 40

20 20

x x
0 0
–4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4
–20 –20

–40 –40

FIGURE 10

Solution  Because function ƒ is even degree with a positive leading coefficient on

its dominating term, its end behavior is and its graph is in C.
Because function g is even degree with a negative leading coefficient on its domi-
nating term, its end behavior is and its graph is in A.
Because function h is odd degree with a positive leading coefficient on its dominating
term, its end behavior is and its graph is in B.
Because function k is odd degree with a negative leading coefficient on its dominating
term, its end behavior is and its graph is in D.

DISCUSSING
x-Intercepts (Real Zeros)
CONCEPTS A nonzero linear function can have no more than one x-intercept, and a quadratic
Explain why a polynomial function can have no more than two x-intercepts. FIGURE 11 shows how a cubic func-
function of odd degree must tion may have one, two, or three x-intercepts. These observations suggest an important
have at least one real zero. property of polynomial functions.

x x x

One x-intercept Two x-intercepts Three x-intercepts

FIGURE 11

Number of x-Intercepts (Real Zeros) of a Polynomial Function

The graph of a polynomial function of degree n will have at most n
x-intercepts (real zeros).

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 241

10
EXAMPLE 4 Determining x-Intercepts Graphically
Graphically find the x-intercepts of the polynomial function
210 10 P(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 5x - 2.

Solution  The graph of Y1 = P(x) is shown in FIGURE 12. It has three X-intercepts,
210
namely (- 2, 0), approximately (- 3.30, 0) (shown in the display), and approximately
FIGURE 12
(0.30, 0).

EXAMPLE 5 Analyzing a Polynomial Function

50

Perform the following for the fifth-degree polynomial function

P(x) = x5 + 2x4 - x3 + x2 - x - 4.
25 5

(a) Determine its domain.

230
(b) Determine its range.
FIGURE 13 (c) Use its graph to find approximations of the local extreme points.
(d) Use its graph to find the approximate and/or exact x-intercepts.
50
Solution 
(a) This is a polynomial function, so its domain is (- ∞, ∞).
25 5 (b) This function is of odd degree. The range is (- ∞, ∞).

230
(c) It appears that there are only two extreme points. We find that the local maximum
point in FIGURE 13 has approximate coordinates (- 2.02, 10.01) and that the local
FIGURE 14 minimum point in FIGURE 14 has approximate coordinates (0.41, -4.24).
The preceding graphical results can also be found by using a built-in utility, as
shown in the two screens in FIGURE 15. Here Y1 is defined by Y1 = P(x) so the
X-coordinate of the local maximum point is in the interval 3 - 3, - 14 while the
X-coordinate of the local minimum point is in the interval 3 0, 14 .

X-value X-value
Y-value Y-value

  
FIGURE 15

(d) We use calculator methods to find that the X-intercepts are (- 1, 0) (exact),
(1.14, 0) (approximate), and (- 2.52, 0) (approximate). See FIGURE 16. The first of
20 these can be verified analytically by evaluating P(- 1).
24 4 P(- 1) = (- 1)5 + 2(- 1)4 - (- 1)3 + (- 1)2 - (- 1) - 4 = 0
220
This result shows again that an x-intercept of the graph of a function corresponds
to a real zero of the function. This function has only three X-intercepts and thus
three real zeros, which supports the fact that a polynomial function of degree n
will have at most n x-intercepts. It may have fewer, as in this case.
FIGURE 16

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

242 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Looking Ahead to Calculus In the next example, we use our knowledge of polynomials and their graphs to
In calculus, the derivative of a analyze a fourth-degree polynomial.
function f is a function f ′ that
gives the slope of the tangent
line at any value in the domain.
At turning points of polynomials,
the slope—and thus the EXAMPLE 6 Analyzing a Polynomial Function
derivative—is 0. By solving the
equation f ′(x) = 0, the number Perform the following for the fourth-degree polynomial function
and location of the extrema of f
can be identified. P(x) = x4 + 2x3 - 15x2 - 12x + 36.
(a) State the domain.
(b) Use the graph of P(x) to find approximations of its local extreme points. Does it
have an absolute minimum? What is the range of the function?
(c) Use its graph to find the x-intercepts.

Solution 
(a) Because P(x) is a polynomial function, its domain is (- ∞, ∞).
(b) A window of 3 - 6, 64 by 3 - 60, 704 gives the extreme points, as well as all
70 intercepts. See FIGURE 17. Using a calculator, we find that the two local minimum
points have approximate coordinates (- 3.43, - 41.61) and (2.31, -18.63), and
the local maximum point has approximate coordinates (- 0.38, 38.31).
26 6
Because the end behavior is and the point (- 3.43, - 41.61) is the lowest
point on the graph, the absolute minimum value of the function is approximately
260 - 41.61. The range is approximately 3 - 41.61, ∞).

The other two extreme points are (c) This function has the maximum number of X-intercepts possible, four. Using a
approximately (- 0.38, 38.31) and calculator, we find that two x-intercepts with exact values are (- 2, 0) and (3, 0),
(2.31, - 18.63). while, to the nearest hundredth, the other two are (- 4.37, 0) and (1.37, 0).
FIGURE 17 

WHAT WENT WRONG?

A student graphed Y1 = 0.045X4 - 2X2 + 2 in the window 3 - 5, 54 by 3 - 4, 44

of the TI-84 Plus C calculator. Because the polynomial has even degree and
positive leading coefficient, she expected to find end behavior . However, this
window indicates as end behavior.

25 5

24

What Went Wrong?  Is there a way to graph this function so that the correct
end behavior is apparent?

Answer to What Went Wrong?

The window must be enlarged. Scrolling through a table should indicate a suitable window. One example is
3 - 10, 10 4 by 3 - 25, 10 4 .

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 243

Comprehensive Graphs
The most important features of the graph of a polynomial function are its intercepts,
extrema, and end behavior. For this reason, a comprehensive graph of a polynomial
function will exhibit the following features.
1. All x-intercepts (if any)
2. The y-intercept
3. All extreme points (if any)
4. Enough of the graph to reveal the correct end behavior

EXAMPLE 7 Determining an Appropriate Window

50
21.25 1.25
Is the graph of Y1 = X6 - 36X4 + 288X2 - 256 in FIGURE 18 a comprehensive
graph? If not, provide one.

Solution  The function is of even degree and the dominating term has positive coef-
2400
ficient, so the end behavior seems to be correct. The Y-intercept, (0, - 256), is shown,
as are two X-intercepts and one local minimum. This function may, however, have up
FIGURE 18 to six X-intercepts, because it is of degree 6.
By experimenting with other viewing windows, we see that a window of 3 - 8, 84
by 3 - 1000, 6004 shows a total of five local extrema, and four more X-intercepts that
600 were not apparent in the earlier figure. See FIGURE 19. Because there can be no more
than five local extrema, this second view (not the first view in FIGURE 18) gives a com-
8
28
prehensive graph.

21000 Curve Fitting and Polynomial Models

FIGURE 19 In the following example we model temperatures at Daytona Beach with a polynomial
function.

EXAMPLE 8 Modeling Daytona Beach Temperatures

Monthly average high temperatures at Daytona Beach are shown in the table, where
January = 1, February = 2, and so on. Plot the data and determine a polynomial
function to model the data. Use the function to determine the average high temperature
in June, and compare with the value given in the table.

Month Temperature (°F)

 1 68
 2 71
 3 75
 4 79
 5 85
 6 88
 7 90
 8 90
 9 87
10 82
11 76
12 70
Source: NOAA.
(continued)

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244 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Solution  These data are plotted in FIGURE 20(a) and are clearly not linear. One pos-
sibility to model these data is to use a quadratic function, as shown in FIGURE 20(b). A
better model is obtained by using a fourth-degree polynomial function, as shown in
FIGURE 20(c). This fourth-degree polynomial can be found by using quartic regression
on a calculator, and its formula is given by
Y2 ≈ 0.012X4 - 0.365X3 + 3.034X2 - 4.673X + 70.318.
Because Y2 ≈ 88 when X = 6, indicates that this model predicts the monthly aver-
age high temperature in Daytona to be about 88°F in June, which agrees with the given
table of values.

100 100

0 14 0 14
60 60

Temperature data Quadratic Model

Y1 ≈ - 0.676X2 + 9.387X + 55.659
(a) (b)

100

060 14

Quartic Model
Y2 ≈ 0.012X4 - 0.365X3 + 3.034X2 - 4.673X + 70.318
(c)
FIGURE 20

4.1   Exercises
CONCEPT CHECK  Use the polynomial function graphs, which include all extrema, for Exercises 1– 8.

1. Use the extrema to determine the minimum possible degree of P. (a, b)

(c, d)
2. Use the extrema to determine the minimum possible degree of Q.
3. Give all local extreme points of P. Tell whether each is a maximum or minimum. y = P(x)
4. Give all local extreme points of Q. Tell whether each is a maximum or minimum. (e, t)
5. Describe all absolute extreme points of P. (n, p)
6. Describe all absolute extreme points of Q.
y = Q(x)
7. Give the local and absolute extreme values of P. ( j, k)
8. Give the local and absolute extreme values of Q.
(l, m)
(r, h)

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 245

CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Use an end behavior diagram ,  ,  , or to describe the

end behavior of the graph of each function. Do not use a calculator.
9. P(x) = 25x3 + 2x2 - 3x + 4   10. P(x) = - 27x3 - 4x2 + 2x - 1   11. P(x) = - px5 + 3x2 - 1  

1 2. P(x) = px7 - x5 + x - 1   13. P(x) = 2.74x4 - 3x2 + x - 2   14. P(x) = 26x6 - x5 + 2x - 2  

1 5. P(x) = x5 - x4 - px6 - x + 3   16. P(x) = - x - 3.2x3 + x2 - 2.84x4   17. P(x) = x10,000  

1 8. P(x) = - x104,266   1 9. P(x) = - 3x15,297   20. P(x) = 12x107,499  

Give a short written answer in Exercises 21–24.

21. The graphs of ƒ(x) = xn for n = 3, 5, 7, . . . resemble 22. Repeat Exercise 21 for ƒ(x) = xn, where n = 2, 4, 6, . . . .
each other. As n gets larger, what happens to the graph?

23. Using a window of 3- 1, 14 by 3- 1, 14, graph the odd- 24. Repeat Exercise 23 for the even-degree polynomial
degree polynomial functions functions
y = x,  y = x3, and y = x5. y = x2,  y = x4, and y = x6.
Describe the behavior of these functions relative to each Predict the behavior of the graph of y = x8 in the same win-
other. Predict the behavior of the graph of y = x7 in the dow, and then graph it to support your prediction.
same window, and then graph it to support your prediction.

Each function is graphed in a window that results in hidden behavior. Equations are displayed near the
tops of the screens. Experiment with various windows to locate the extreme points on the graph of the
function. Round values to the nearest hundredth.
25. 26. 27. 28.
10 20 10 10

210 10 210 10 210 10

210 10
210 0 210 210

It is not apparent from the standard viewing window whether the graph of the given quadratic function
intersects the x-axis once, twice, or not at all. Experiment with various windows to find the number of
x-intercepts. If there are x-intercepts, give their coordinates to the nearest hundredth.
29. 30. 31. 32.
10 10 10 10

210 10 210 10 210 10 210 10

210 210 210 210

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

246 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Without using a calculator, match each function in Exercises 33–36 with the correct graph in
choices A–D.
33. ƒ(x) = 2x3 + x2 - x + 3 34. g(x) = - 2x3 - x + 3
35. h(x) = - 2x4 + x3 - 2x2 + x + 3 36. k(x) = 2x4 - x3 - 2x2 + 3x + 3
A.  y     B.  y     C.  y     D.  y

6 6 6

2 2
x x x x
0 0 0 0
–6 –2–2 2 6 –6 –2 2 6 –6 –2–2 2 6 –6 6

–6 –6 –6

CONCEPT CHECK  Without graphing, answer true or false to each statement. Then support your
answer by graphing.
37. The function ƒ(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 4x + 3 has four real 38. The function ƒ(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 must have at
zeros. least one real zero.
39. If a polynomial function of even degree has a negative 40. The function ƒ(x) = 3x4 + 5 has no real zeros.
leading coefficient and a positive y-value for its ­y-intercept,
it must have at least two real zeros.
41. The function ƒ(x) = - 3x4 + 5 has two real zeros. 42. The graph of ƒ(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1 = (x - 1)3 has
exactly one x-intercept.
43. A fifth-degree polynomial function cannot have a single 44. An even-degree polynomial function must have at least
real zero. one real zero.

CONCEPT CHECK  The graphs below show

y = x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8, y = x4 + 7x3 - 5x2 - 75x,

y = - x3 + 9x2 - 27x + 17, and y = - x5 + 36x3 - 22x2 - 147x - 90,

but not necessarily in that order. Assuming that each is a comprehensive graph, answer each question
in Exercises 45–54.
A.  y B.  y C.  y D.  y

12 100 250
x
0
4 25 –4 6
x x x –500
0 0 0
–6 –4 6 –6 –2 2 6 –6 –25 6
–50
–1000
–12 –100 –75

45. Which graph is that of y = x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8? 46. Which graph is that of y = x4 + 7x3 - 5x2 - 75x?
47. How many real zeros does the graph in C have? 48. The graph of y = - x3 + 9x2 - 27x + 17 is either C or
D. Which is it?
49. Which of the graphs cannot be that of a cubic polynomial 50. How many positive real zeros does the function graphed
function? in D have?
51. How many negative real zeros does the function graphed 52. Is the absolute minimum value of the function graphed in
in A have? B a positive number or a negative number?
53. Which one of the graphs is that of a function whose range 54. One of the following is an approximation for the local
is not (- ∞, ∞)? maximum point of the graph in A. Which one is it?
A.  (0.73, 10.39) B.  (- 0.73, 10.39)
C.  (- 0.73, - 10.39) D.  (0.73, - 10.39)

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.1  Graphs of Polynomial Functions 247

RELATING CONCEPTS  For individual or group investigation (Exercises 55–58)

The concepts of stretching, shrinking, translating, and reflecting graphs presented earlier
can be applied to polynomial functions of the form P(x) = xn. For example, the graph of
y = - 2(x + 4)4 - 6 can be obtained from the graph of y = x4 by shifting 4 units to the left,
stretching vertically by applying a factor of 2, reflecting across the x-axis, and shifting downward
y
6 units, so the graph should resemble the graph to the right.
If we expand the expression - 2(x + 4)4 - 6 algebraically, we obtain
y = x4
- 2x4 - 32x3 - 192x2 - 512x - 518.
Thus, the graph of y = - 2(x + 4)4 - 6 is the same as that of x
0
y = - 2x4 - 32x3 - 192x2 - 512x - 518.
In Exercises 55–58, two forms of the same polynomial function are given. Sketch by hand the
general shape of the graph of the function and describe the transformations. Then support
your answer by graphing it on your calculator in a suitable window. y = –2(x + 4) 4 – 6

55. y = 2(x + 3)4 - 7 56. y = - 3(x + 1)4 + 12

y = 2x4 + 24x3 + 108x2 + 216x + 155 y = - 3x4 - 12x3 - 18x2 - 12x + 9

57. y = - 3(x - 1)3 + 12 58. y = 0.5(x - 1)5 + 13

y = - 3x3 + 9x2 - 9x + 15 y = 0.5x5 - 2.5x4 + 5x3 - 5x2 + 2.5x + 12.5

For the functions in Exercises 59–66, use a graphing calculator to find a comprehensive graph and
answer each of the following.
(a) Determine the domain.
(b) Determine all local minimum points, and tell if any is an absolute minimum point. (Approximate
coordinates to the nearest hundredth.)
(c) Determine all local maximum points, and tell if any is an absolute maximum point. (Approximate
coordinates to the nearest hundredth.)
(d) Determine the range. (If an approximation is necessary, give it to the nearest hundredth.)
(e) Determine all intercepts. For each function, there is at least one x-intercept that has an integer
x-value. For those that are not integers, give approximations to the nearest hundredth. Determine
the y-intercept analytically.
(f) Give the open interval(s) over which the function is increasing.
(g) Give the open interval(s) over which the function is decreasing.
59. P(x) = - 2x3 - 14x2 + 2x + 84 60. P(x) = - 3x3 + 6x2 + 39x - 60

61. P(x) = x5 + 4x4 - 3x3 - 17x2 + 6x + 9 62. P(x) = - 2x5 + 7x4 + x3 - 20x2 + 4x + 16

63. P(x) = 2x4 + 3x3 - 17x2 - 6x - 72 64. P(x) = 3x4 - 33x2 + 54

65. P(x) = - x6 + 24x4 - 144x2 + 256 66. P(x) = - 3x6 + 2x5 + 9x4 - 8x3 + 11x2 + 4

Determine a window that will provide a comprehensive graph of each polynomial function. (In each
case, there are many possible such windows.)
67. P(x) = 4x5 - x3 + x2 + 3x - 16 68. P(x) = 3x5 - x4 + 12x2 - 25 69. P(x) = 2.9x3 - 37x2 + 28x - 143

70. P(x) = - 5.9x3 + 16x2 - 120 71. P(x) = px4 - 13x2 + 84 72. P(x) = 2px4 - 12x2 + 100

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

248 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

MODELING  Solve each problem.

73. Average High Temperatures.  The monthly average high 74. Heating Costs  In colder climates the cost for natural gas
temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit in Detroit, Michigan, to heat homes can vary from one month to the next. The
can be modeled by polynomial function
P(x) = 0.0376x4 - 1.087x3 + 8.973x2 - 16.326x + 40.280, P(x) = - 0.1213x4 + 3.462x3 - 29.22x2 + 64.68x + 97.69
where x = 1 corresponds to January and x = 12 repre- models the monthly cost in dollars of heating a typical
sents December. (Source: www.currentresults.com) home. The input x represents the month, where x = 1
(a) Find the average high temperature during March and corresponds to January and x = 12 represents December.
July. Round to the nearest degree. (Source: Minnegasco.)
(b) Estimate graphically and numerically the months (a) Where might the absolute extrema occur for
when the average high temperature is about 80°F. 1 … x … 12?
(b) Approximate the absolute extrema and interpret the
results.

4.2  Topics in the Theory of Polynomial Functions (I)

Intermediate V   heorem • Division of Polynomials by x − k and Synthetic Division • Remainder and Factor T
  alue T   heorems 
• Division of Any Two Polynomials

The topics in this section and the next complement the graphical work done in the
previous section. They also pave the way for the work on equations, inequalities, and
applications of polynomial functions later in the chapter.

Intermediate Value Theorem

The intermediate value theorem applies to the zeros of every polynomial func-
tion with real coefficients. It uses the fact that graphs of polynomial functions are
continuous curves, with no gaps or sudden jumps. The proof requires advanced
methods.

Intermediate Value Theorem

If P(x) defines a polynomial function with only real coefficients, and if, for
y
real numbers a and b, the values P(a) and P(b) are opposite in sign, then
there exists at least one real zero between a and b.
P(a) > 0
P(a)

b
a c 0
x To see how the intermediate value theorem is applied, note that, in FIGURE 21, P(a)
P(b) < 0 and P(b) are opposite in sign, so 0 is between P(a) and P(b). Then, by this theorem,
P(b)
there must be a number c in 3 a, b4 such that P(c) = 0. That is, if the graph of a poly-
P(c) = 0 y = P(x)
nomial P(x) is above the x-axis at one point and below the x-axis at another point, then
FIGURE 21 the graph of P must cross the x-axis at least once between the two points.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 249

A simple example of the intermediate value theorem involves temperature.

Suppose that at 2 a.m. the outside temperature was - 5°F, and at 6 a.m. the outside
temperature was 4°F. Then the outside temperature must have been 0°F at least once
between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m.

EXAMPLE 1 Applying the Intermediate Value Theorem

Show that the polynomial function P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - x + 1 has a real zero between
2 and 3.

Analytic Solution Graphing Calculator Solution 

Using The graph of Y1 = X3 - 2X2 - X + 1 in FIGURE 22 shows that
there is an X-intercept between (2, 0) and (3, 0), confirming our
P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - x + 1,
analytic result that there is a zero between 2 and 3. Using the
we evaluate P(2) and P(3). table, we see that the zero lies between 2.246 and 2.247, since
there is a sign change in the function values there.
P(2) = 23 - 2(2)2 - 2 + 1 Substitute.

= -1 Simplify. 4.1

P(3) = 33 - 2(3)2 - 3 + 1 Substitute. 26.6 6.6

= 7 Simplify.
24.1
Because P(2) = - 1 and P(3) = 7 differ in sign,
the intermediate value theorem assures us that
there is a real zero between 2 and 3. Signs change
between 2.246
and 2.247.

FIGURE 22

NOTE In Example 1 the intermediate value theorem does not tell us what the
value of the real zero is. It only tells us that there is at least one real zero between
x = 2 and x = 3.

y
CAUTION Be careful how you interpret the intermediate value theorem. If
y = P(x)
P (a) and P (b) are not opposite in sign, it does not necessarily mean that there
is no zero between a and b. For example, in the figure at left, P (a) and P (b) are
P(a) both negative, but - 3 and - 1, which are between a and b, are zeros of P.
b 0 a
x
–3 –1
P(b) P(a) < 0
P(b) < 0
Division of Polynomials by x − k
and Synthetic Division
We can use long division to determine whether one whole number is a factor of
another. Likewise, we can use it to determine whether one polynomial is a factor of
another.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

250 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 2 Dividing a Polynomial by a Binomial

Divide 3x3 - 2x + 5 by x - 3. Determine the quotient and the remainder.

Solution  The powers of the variable in the dividend (3x3 - 2x + 5) must be

descending, which they are. Insert the term 0x2 to act as a placeholder.
Missing term

x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5
3x 3
Divide as with whole numbers. Start with x
= 3x2.
3x 3
3x2 x
= 3x 2
Algebra Review
To subtract, think x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5
To review multiplying
polynomials, see the 3x 3 − 3x 3 and 3x3 - 9x2 3x 2(x - 3)
Review chapter. Ox − ( − 9x ).
2 2
9x2 Subtract.

Bring down the next term.

3x2
x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5
3x3 - 9x2
9x2 - 2x Bring down -2x.
9x 2
In the next step, divide:  x
= 9x.
9x 2
3x2 + 9x x
= 9x
x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5
3x3 - 9x2
9x2 - 2x
9x2 - 27x 9x (x - 3)
25x + 5 Subtract and bring down 5.

25x
Divide:  x
= 25.
25x
3x2 + 9x + 25 x
= 25
x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5
3x3 - 9x2
9x2 - 2x
9x2 - 27x
25x + 5
25x - 75 25(x - 3)
80 Subtract.

The quotient is 3x2 + 9x + 25 with a remainder of 80.

In the division process of Example 2, we divided a cubic polynomial (degree 3)

by a linear polynomial (degree 1) and obtained a quadratic polynomial quotient
(degree 2). Notice that 3 - 1 = 2, so the degree of the quotient polynomial is
found by subtracting the degree of the divisor from the degree of the dividend.

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4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 251

The remainder is the nonzero constant 80, so we can write it as the numerator of a
fraction with denominator x - 3 to express the fractional part of the quotient.
Dividend 3x3 - 2x + 5 80 Remainder
= 3x2 + 9x + 25 +
Divisor x - 3 (+++)+++* x - 3 Divisor
(1)1*
Quotient
polynomial Fractional part
of the quotient

The following rules apply when dividing a polynomial by a binomial of the form
x - k.

Division of a Polynomial P (x) by x − k

1. If the degree n polynomial P(x) (where n Ú 1) is divided by x - k,
then the quotient polynomial, Q(x), has degree n - 1.
2. The remainder R is a constant (and may be 0). The complete quotient
P(x)
for x - k may be written as
P(x) R
= Q(x) + .
x − k x − k

Long division of a polynomial by a binomial of the form x - k can be condensed

using a process called synthetic division. Using the division performed in Example 2,
observe the following.
3x2 + 9x + 25 3 9 25
x - 3) 3x3 + 0x2 - 2x + 5 1 - 3) 3 0 -2 5
3x3 - 9x2 3 -9
9x2 - 2x 9 -2
9x2 - 27x 9 - 27
25x + 5 25 5
25x - 75 25 - 75
80 80
On the right, exactly the same division is shown without the variables. All the num-
bers in color on the right are repetitions of the numbers directly above them, so they
can be omitted, as shown below on the left. Since the coefficient of x in the divisor is
always 1, it can be omitted, too.
3 9 25 3 9 25
- 3) 3 0 -2 5 - 3) 3 0 -2 5
- 9 -9
9 -2 9
- 27 - 27
25 5 25
- 75 - 75
80 80
The numbers in color on the left are again repetitions of the numbers directly above
them. They may be omitted, as shown on the right.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

252 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Now the problem can be condensed. If the 3 in the dividend is brought down to the
beginning of the bottom row, the top row can be omitted, since it duplicates the bottom row.
- 3) 3 0 -2 5
    -9 - 27 - 75
   3 9 25 80
To simplify the arithmetic, we replace subtraction in the second row by addition
and compensate by changing the - 3 at the upper left to its additive inverse, 3.
Additive 3) 3 0 -2 5
inverse
9 27 75  Signs changed
3 9 25 80
80  Remainder
Quotient 3x2 + 9x + 25 +
x - 3

EXAMPLE 3 Using Synthetic Division

Use synthetic division to divide 5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8 by x + 2.

Solution Express x + 2 in the form x - k by writing it as x - (- 2).

x + 2 leads to -2. - 2) 5 -6 - 28 8 Coefficients of the
polynomial
Bring down the 5, and multiply:  - 2(5) = - 10.
- 2) 5 - 6 - 28 8
- 10
5
Add - 6 and - 10 to obtain - 16. Multiply: - 2(- 16) = 32.
- 2) 5 -6 - 28 8
- 10 32
5 - 16
Add - 28 and 32, obtaining 4. Finally, - 2(4) = - 8.
- 2) 5 -6 - 28 8
- 10 32 -8
5 - 16 4
Add 8 and - 8 to obtain 0.
- 2) 5- 6 - 28 8
- 10 32 -8
5 - 16
(+++)+++* 4 0 Remainder
Quotient

Since the divisor x - k has degree 1, the degree of the quotient will be one less than
the degree of the dividend.
5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8
= 5x2 - 16x + 4
x + 2
Notice that the divisor x + 2 is a factor of 5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8 because the
remainder is 0, so
5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8 = (x + 2)(5x2 - 16x + 4).

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 253

Remainder and Factor Theorems

In Example 2, we divided 3x3 - 2x + 5 by x - 3 and obtained a remainder of 80.
If we evaluate P(x) = 3x3 - 2x + 5 at x = 3, we have the following.
P(3) = 3(3)3 - 2(3) + 5
= 81 - 6 + 5
= 80
Notice that the remainder is equal to P(3). In Example 3, we divided the polynomial
5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8 by x - (- 2) and obtained a remainder of 0. We now evaluate
P(x) = 5x3 - 6x2 - 28x + 8 at x = - 2.

Use parentheses P(- 2) = 5(- 2)3 - 6(- 2)2 - 28(- 2) + 8

around substituted = - 40 - 24 + 56 + 8
values to avoid errors.
= 0

The remainder is equal to P(- 2). These examples illustrate the remainder theorem.

Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - k, the remainder is equal to P(k).

The process of using synthetic division to evaluate a function value is sometimes

called synthetic substitution.

EXAMPLE 4 Using the Remainder Theorem

Use the remainder theorem and synthetic substitution, and support with a graph and
table, to find P(- 2) if
P(x) = - x4 + 3x2 - 4x - 5.

Analytic Solution  Graphing Calculator Solution 

Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x - (- 2). The graph of Y1 = - X4 + 3X2 - 4X - 5 in FIGURE  23
indicates that the point (- 2, - 1) lies on the graph, so
Remember to - 2) - 1 0 3 -4 -5 P(- 2) = - 1. The table in FIGURE 23 also shows that
insert 0 for the 2 -4 2 4 P(- 2) = - 1.
missing x 3-term.
-1 2 -1 -2 -1

Remainder 10

The remainder is - 1, so 210 10

P(- 2) = - 1 210

by the remainder theorem.

FIGURE 23

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

254 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 5 Deciding Whether a Number Is a Zero

of a Polynomial Function
Decide whether the given number is a zero of the function P(x).
(a) 2; P(x) = x3 - 4x2 + 9x - 10
3 3
(b) - 2; P(x) = x3 - x2 + x
2 2

Analytic Solution  Graphing Calculator Solution 

The first screen in FIGURE 24 shows the polynomials
(a)
Proposed 2) 1 - 4 9 - 10  Use synthetic division.
zero entered as Y1 and Y2. (We use decimal equivalents
2 -4 10 in Y2.) The second screen shows the results of
1 -2 5 0 Remainder ­finding Y1(2) and Y2(- 2) for parts (a) and (b).
Because the remainder is 0, P(2) = 0, and 2 is a zero of
the given polynomial function.
Use 0 for the miss-
Proposed
(b) - 2) 3 -1 3 0
zero 2 2 ing constant term.
- 3 8 - 19
3 19
2
-4 2
- 19 Remainder

The remainder is not 0, so - 2 is not a zero of P. In

fact, P(- 2) = - 19. From this, we know that the point
(- 2, - 19) lies on the graph of P.
FIGURE 24

In Example 5(a), we showed that 2 is a zero of the polynomial function

P(x) = x3 - 4x2 + 9x - 10. The first three numbers in the bottom row of the syn-
thetic division (1 - 2 5) give the coefficients of the quotient polynomial. Thus,
P(x)
= x2 - 2x + 5
x - 2
and P(x) = (x - 2)(x2 - 2x + 5),   Multiply by x - 2.
indicating that x - 2 is a factor of P(x).
By the remainder theorem, if P(k) = 0, then the remainder when P(x) is divided
by x - k is 0. This means that x - k is a factor of P(x). Conversely, if x - k is a
factor of P(x), then P(k) must equal 0. This is summarized in the factor theorem.

Factor Theorem
A polynomial P(x) has a factor x - k if and only if P(k) = 0.

EXAMPLE 6 Using the Factor Theorem

Determine whether the specified binomial is a factor of P(x).
(a) P(x) = 4x3 + 24x2 + 48x + 32;  x + 2
(b) P(x) = 2x4 + 3x2 - 5x + 7;  x - 1

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 255

Solution 
DISCUSSING
CONCEPTS (a) - 2) 4 24 48 32 Use synthetic substitution to evaluate
P (-2).
For a polynomial function - 8 - 32 - 32
P(x), a simple way to 4 16 16 0 Remainder
evaluate P(1) is to add the
Because P(- 2) is 0, x + 2 is a factor of P(x). A factored form (but not necessar-
numerical coefficients of
ily completely factored form) of the polynomial is (x + 2)(4x2 + 16x + 16).
P. Why does this method
work? (b) By the factor theorem, x - 1 will be a factor of P(x) = 2x4 + 3x2 - 5x + 7 if
P(1) = 0.
1) 2 0 3 - 5 7 Use synthetic substitution
2 2 5 0 to evaluate P (1).
2 2 5 0 7 P (1) = 7

Because P(1) = 7, not 0, x - 1 is not a factor of P(x).

EXAMPLE 7 Examining x-Intercepts, Zeros, and Solutions

Consider the polynomial function P(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6.
3
(a) Show that - 2, - 2 , and 1 are zeros of P, and write P(x) in factored form with all
factors linear.
(b) Graph Y1 = P(x) in a suitable viewing window and locate the X-intercepts.
(c) Solve the polynomial equation 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6 = 0.

Solution 
(a) - 2) 2 5 -1 -6 Use synthetic substitution
-4 -2 6 to evaluate P (-2).
2 1 -3 0 P (-2) = 0

Because P(- 2) = 0, x + 2 is a factor and thus P(x) = (x + 2)(2x2 + x - 3).

3
Rather than show that - 2 and 1 are zeros of P(x), we need only show that they
are zeros of 2x2 + x - 3 by factoring directly.
2x2 + x - 3 = (2x + 3)(x - 1) Factored form
3
The solutions of (2x + 3)(x - 1) = 0 are, by the zero-product property, - 2
10 and 1. The completely factored form of P(x) is
P(x) = (x + 2)(2x + 3)(x - 1).
210 10 (b) FIGURE 25 shows the graph of this function. The calculator can be used to deter-
3
mine the X-coordinates of the X-intercepts: - 2, - 2 , and 1.
3
210 (c) From part (a), the zeros of P are - 2, - 2 , and 1. Because the zeros of P are the
FIGURE 25 solutions of P(x) = 0, the solution set is

5 - 2, - 32 , 1 6 .

NOTE In Example 7(a), it was convenient to use the zero-product property to

find the zeros generated by the factor 2x 2 + x - 3. It is always possible to use
the quadratic formula at this stage of the procedure and, in fact, necessary when
the quadratic factor cannot be factored further using integer coefficients.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

256 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Division of Any Two Polynomials

Thus far we have divided only by a polynomial in the form x - k. However, we can
use long division to divide by any polynomial.

Division Algorithm for Polynomials

Let P(x) and D(x) be two polynomials, with the degree of D(x) greater than
zero and less than the degree of P(x). Then there exist unique polynomials
Q(x) and R(x) such that
P(x) R(x)
= Q(x) + ,
D(x) D(x)

where either R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of D(x).

In this algorithm P(x) is the dividend, D(x) is the divisor, Q(x) is the quotient, and
R(x) is the remainder. Using this terminology, this algorithm can be written as follows.
Dividend Remainder
= Quotient +
Divisor Divisor
In the next example we demonstrate how to divide any two polynomials.

EXAMPLE 8 Dividing Polynomials

Divide each expression.
6x2 + 5x - 10
(a)
2x + 3
(b) (5x3 - 4x2 + 7x - 2) , (x2 + 1)
5 2
(c) ax3 + x + x + 2b , (2x2 + x - 1)
2
Solution 
(a) Begin by dividing 2x into 6x2.
6x 2
3x 2x
= 3x
2x + 3) 6x2 + 5x - 10
6x2 + 9x 3x (2x + 3) = 6x 2 + 9x
- 4x - 10 Subtract: 5x - 9x = -4x.
Bring down the -10.

In the next step, divide 2x into - 4x.

- 4x
3x - 2 2x
= -2
2x + 3) 6x2+ 5x - 10
6x2 + 9x
- 4x - 10
- 4x - 6 -2(2x + 3) = -4x - 6
- 4 Subtract: -10 - (-6) = -4.

The quotient is 3x - 2 with remainder - 4. This result can also be written as

-4 Remainder
3x - 2 + .    Quotient +
2x + 3 Divisor

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4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 257

(b) Begin by writing x2 + 1 as x2 + 0x + 1.

5x 3
5x - 4 x2
= 5x
x2 + 0x + 1) 5x3 - 4x2 + 7x - 2
Insert 0x as a
5x3 + 0x2 + 5x
placeholder. - 4x2 + 2x - 2
- 4x2 - 0x - 4
2x + 2
The quotient is 5x - 4 with remainder 2x + 2, which can be written as follows.
2x + 2
5x - 4 + 2
x + 1

(c) Begin by dividing 2x2 into x3.

1 x3 1
2
x + 1 2x 2
= 2
x

 5
2x2 + x - 1 x3 + 2 x2 + x + 2
1 1
x3 + 2 x2 - 2 x
3
2x2 + 2
x + 2
2x2 + x - 1
 
1
2
x + 3
1 1
The quotient is 2 x + 1 and the remainder is 2 x + 3. By the division algorithm,
this result can be written as follows.
1
1 2
x + 3
x + 1 + 2
2 2x + x - 1

NOTE The final rational expression in the result of Example 8(c) can also be
written as
x + 6
4x 2 + 2x - 2
2
by multiplying by 1 in the form 2 .

4.2 Exercises
a + b a b
CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Simplify each rational expression. Apply the property c
= c
+ c
if necessary. Do not use a calculator.
10x6 6x4 8x9 2x5
1. 2. 3. 4. -
5x3 2x3 3x7 7x2

2x6 + 3x3 5x3 + x2 8x3 - 5x 7x8 - 6x3

5. 6. 7. 8.
2x 3x2 2x 6x2

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

258 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Use the intermediate value theorem to show that each function has a real zero between the two
numbers given. Then, use a calculator to approximate the zero to the nearest hundredth.

9. P(x) = 3x2 - 2x - 6;  1 and 2 10. P(x) = - x3 - x2 + 5x + 5;  2 and 3

11. P(x) = 2x3 - 8x2 + x + 16;  2 and 2.5 12. P(x) = 3x3 + 7x2 - 4;  0.5 and 1

13. P(x) = 2x4 - 4x2 + 3x - 6;  1.5 and 2 14. P(x) = x4 - 4x3 - x + 1;  0.3 and 1

15. P(x) = - x4 + 2x3 + x + 12;  2.7 and 2.8 16. P(x) = - 2x4 + x3 - x2 + 3;  - 1 and - 0.9

17. P(x) = x5 - 2x3 + 1;  - 1.6 and - 1.5 18. P(x) = 2x7 - x4 + x - 4;  1.1 and 1.2

Answer each of the following.

19. CONCEPT CHECK  Suppose that a polynomial function 20. Suppose that a polynomial function P is defined in such a
P is defined in such a way that P(2) = - 4 and P(2.5) = 2. way that P(3) = - 4 and P(4) = - 10. Can we be certain
What conclusion does the intermediate value theorem allow that there is no zero between 3 and 4? Explain, using a
you to make? graph.

Find each quotient when P(x) is divided by the specified binomial.

21. P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 17x - 10;  x + 5 22. P(x) = x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 + 9x + 4;  x + 4

23. P(x) = 3x3 - 11x2 - 20x + 3;  x - 5 24. P(x) = x4 - 3x3 - 5x2 + 2x - 16; x - 3

25. P(x) = x4 - 3x3 - 4x2 + 12x;  x - 2 26. P(x) = 2x4 + 3x3 - 5x2 - 18x;  x - 2

27. P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 3;  x - 1 28. P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - 9;  x - 3

29. P(x) = - 2x3 - x - 2;  x + 1 30. P(x) = - 3x3 - x - 5;  x + 1

31. P(x) = x5 - 1;  x - 1 32. P(x) = x7 + 1;  x + 1

Use synthetic substitution to find P(k).

33. k = 3;  P(x) = x2 - 4x + 3 34. k = - 2;  P(x) = x2 + 5x + 6

35. k = - 2;  P(x) = 5x3 + 2x2 - x + 5 36. k = 2;  P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 5x + 4

37. k = 2;  P(x) = x2 - 5x + 1 38. k = 3;  P(x) = x2 - x + 3

39. k = 0.5;  P(x) = x3 - x + 4 40. k = 1.5;  P(x) = x3 + x - 3

41. k = 22;  P(x) = x4 - x2 - 3 42. k = 23;  P(x) = x4 + 2x2 - 10

3 5
43. k = 2 4;  P(x) = - x3 + x + 4 44. k = 2 3;  P(x) = - x5 + 2x + 3

Use synthetic substitution to determine whether the given number is a zero of the polynomial.
45. 2;  P(x) = x2 + 2x - 8 46. - 1;  P(x) = x2 + 4x - 5

47. 4;  P(x) = 2x3 - 6x2 - 9x + 6 48. - 4;  P(x) = 9x3 + 39x2 + 12x

49. - 0.5;  P(x) = 4x3 + 12x2 + 7x + 1 50. - 0.25;  P(x) = 8x3 + 6x2 - 3x - 1

51. - 5; P(x) = 8x3 + 50x2 + 47x + 15 52. - 4; P(x) = 6x3 + 25x2 + 3x - 3

53. 26; P(x) = - 2x6 + 5x4 - 3x2 + 270 54. 27; P(x) = - 3x6 + 7x4 - 5x2 + 721

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.2  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (I) 259

RELATING CONCEPTS   For individual or group investigation (Exercises 55–60)

The close relationships among x-intercepts of a graph of a function, real zeros of the function,
and real solutions of the associated equation should, by now, be apparent to you. Consider the
graph of the polynomial function P, given by Y1 = X3 - 2X2 - 11X + 12, and work Exercises
55–60 in order.
55. What are the solutions of the equation P(x) = 0?
56. What are the zeros of the function P?
25
57. What are the linear factors of P(x)?
210 10
58. If P(x) is divided by x - 2, what is the remainder? What is P(2)?
225

59. Give the solution set of P(x) 7 0, using interval notation.

60. Give the solution set of P(x) 6 0, using interval notation.

For each polynomial at least one zero is given. Find all others analytically.
61. P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - 5x + 6; 3 62. P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 11x - 12; 3

63. P(x) = x3 - 2x + 1; 1   64. P(x) = 2x3 + 8x2 - 11x - 5;  - 5

65. P(x) = 3x3 + 5x2 - 3x - 2;  - 2 66. P(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 13x - 3; 3

67. P(x) = x4 - 41x2 + 180;  - 6 and 6 68. P(x) = x4 - 52x2 + 147;  - 7 and 7

69. P(x) = - x3 + 8x2 + 3x - 24; 8 70. P(x) = - x3 + 4x2 + 7x - 28; 4

Factor P(x) into linear factors given that k is a zero of P.

71. P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 17x + 30;  k = 2 72. P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 5x + 6;  k = 1

73. P(x) = 6x3 + 25x2 + 3x - 4;  k = - 4 74. P(x) = 8x3 + 50x2 + 47x - 15;  k = - 5

75. P(x) = - 6x3 - 13x2 + 14x - 3;  k = - 3 76. P(x) = - 6x3 - 17x2 + 63x - 10;  k = - 5

77. P(x) = x3 + 5x2 - 3x - 15;  k = - 5 78. P(x) = x3 + 9x2 - 7x - 63;  k = - 9

79. P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - 7x - 4;  k = - 1 80. P(x) = x3 + x2 - 21x - 45;  k = - 3

Divide.
3x4 - 7x3 + 6x - 16 20x4 + 6x3 - 2x2 + 15x - 2
81. 82.
3x - 7 5x - 1
5x4 - 2x2 + 6 x3 - x2 + 2x - 3
83. 84.
x2 + 2 x2 + 3
8x3 + 10x2 - 12x - 15 3x4 - 2x2 - 5
85. 86.
2x2 - 3 3x2 - 5
2x4 - x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 7 3x4 + 2x3 - x2 + 4x - 8
87. 88.
2x2 + 3x + 2 x2 + x - 1
1
89. ax2 + x - 1b , (2x + 1) 90. (- x2 - 1) , (3x - 9)
2
91. (x3 - x2 + 1) , (2x2 - 1) 92. (- 3x3 + 2x2 + 2x) , (6x2 + 2x + 1)

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

260 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

SECTIONS
4.1–4.2
Reviewing Basic Concepts

For P(x) = 2x3 - 9x2 + 4x + 15, answer the following. Answer each of the following.
1. Predict the end behavior. 7. Find the quotient when 2x3 - 15x2 + 25x - 42 is
divided by x - 6.
2. What is the maximum number of extrema the graph of P can
have? What is the maximum number of zeros? 8. Use synthetic substitution to find the value of P(3)
for P(x) = x4 - 5x3 + 4x + 7.
For P(x) = x4 + 4x3 - 20, answer the following.
9. Use synthetic substitution to determine whether - 1 is a
3. Predict the end behavior.   zero of P(x) = x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 + x2 + 3x + 4.
4. Give a comprehensive graph of function P. 10. Factor P(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 - 25x - 84 into linear factors
5. Find all extreme points. Tell whether each one is a maxi- given that - 4 is a zero of P.
mum or minimum and a local or absolute extremum.
6. Find all intercepts. Approximate values to the nearest
hundredth.

4.3   Topics in the Theory of Polynomial Functions (II)

Complex Zeros and the Fundamental T
  heorem of Algebra • Number of Zeros • Rational Zeros T
  heorem •  Descartes’ Rule
of Signs • Boundedness T
  heorem

Complex Zeros and the Fundamental Theorem

of Algebra
In the previous chapter, we presented an example showing that the quadratic formula
can be used to determine that the nonreal complex solutions of the equation
2x2 - x + 4 = 0
are
1 231 1 231
+ i  and  - i  .
4 4 4 4
These two solutions are complex conjugates. This is not a coincidence, as given in the
conjugate zeros theorem.

Conjugate Zeros Theorem

If P(x) is a polynomial function having only real coefficients, and if a + bi
is a zero of P(x), then the conjugate a - bi is also a zero of P(x).

EXAMPLE 1 Defining a Polynomial Function Satisfying

Given Conditions
(a) Find a cubic polynomial function P in standard form with real coefficients having
zeros 3 and 2 + i.
(b) Find a polynomial function P satisfying the conditions of part (a), with the addi-
tional requirement P(- 2) = 4. Support the result graphically.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 261

Algebra Review Solution 

To review multiplying (a) By the conjugate zeros theorem, 2 - i must also be a zero of the function.
polynomials, see the Review Because P(x) will be cubic, it will have three linear factors, and by the factor
chapter.
theorem they must be x - 3, x - (2 + i), and x - (2 - i).
P(x) = (x - 3) 3 x - (2 + i) 4 3 x - (2 - i) 4 Factor theorem

P(x) = (x - 3)(x - 2 - i)(x - 2 + i) Distributive property

P(x) = (x - 3)(x2 - 4x + 5) Multiply.

P(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 17x - 15 Multiply.

Multiplying the polynomial by any real nonzero constant a will also yield a func-
tion satisfying the given conditions, so a more general form is
P(x) = a(x3 - 7x2 + 17x - 15).
(b) We must define P(x) = a(x3 - 7x2 + 17x - 15) in such a way that P(- 2) = 4.
To find a, let x = - 2, and set the result equal to 4. Then solve for a.
a 3 (- 2)3 - 7(- 2)2 + 17(- 2) - 154 = 4 Substitute.

a(- 8 - 28 - 34 - 15) = 4 Multiply.

Use parentheses
TECHNOLOGY NOTE around substituted - 85a = 4 Simplify.
In FIGURE 26, we used the values to avoid errors. 4
decimal form - 0.8 as the a = - Divide by -85.
85
coefficient of X so that the entire
expression for Y1 would be Therefore, the desired function is
visible at the top of the screen.
4 3
P(x) = - (x - 7x2 + 17x - 15)
85
10 4 28 2 4 12
= - x3 + x - x + . Distributive property
85 85 5 17
4 28 12
210 10 We can support this result by graphing Y1 = - 85 X3 + 85 X2 - 0.8 X + 17
and
showing that the point (- 2, 4) lies on the graph. See FIGURE 26.
210

FIGURE 26

Number of Zeros
The fundamental theorem of algebra was first proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his
doctoral thesis in 1799, when he was 22 years old. Although many proofs of this result
have been done, all involve mathematics beyond this text.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every function defined by a polynomial of degree 1 or more has at least one
complex zero.

Carl Friedrich Gauss

(1777–1855)
Gauss, one of the most brilliant math-
ematicians of all time, also studied NOTE Complex zeros include real zeros. A polynomial function can have
astronomy and physics.
only real zeros, only nonreal complex zeros, or both real zeros and nonreal com-
plex zeros.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

262 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

From the fundamental theorem, if P(x) is of degree 1 or more, then there is some
number k such that P(k) = 0. Thus, by the factor theorem, P(x) = (x - k) # Q(x)
for some polynomial Q(x). The fundamental theorem and the factor theorem can be
used to factor Q(x) in the same way. Assuming that P(x) has degree n, repeating this
process n times gives
P(x) = a(x - k1 )(x - k2 ) g(x - kn ),
where a is the leading coefficient of P(x). Each factor leads to a zero of P(x), so P(x)
has n zeros k1, k2, k3, c, kn. This suggests the number of zeros theorem.

Number of Zeros Theorem

A function defined by a polynomial of degree n has at most n distinct
(distinguishable) complex zeros.

EXAMPLE 2 Finding All Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find all complex zeros of P(x) = x4 - 7x3 + 18x2 - 22x + 12, given that 1 - i is
a zero.

Analytic Solution Graphing Calculator Solution

This quartic function will have at most four complex By the conjugate zeros theorem, because 1 - i is a zero,
zeros. Since 1 - i is a zero and the coefficients are real 1 + i is also a zero. We can use a graphing calculator
numbers, by the conjugate zeros theorem 1 + i is also a to find the real zeros as in FIGURE 27, which shows the
zero. The remaining zeros are found by first dividing the graph of
original polynomial by x - (1 - i).
Y1 = X4 - 7X3 + 18X2 - 22X + 12,
1 - i) 1 - 7 18 - 22 12 with the real zeros identified at the bottom.
1 - i - 7 + 5i 16 - 6i - 12
1 -6 - i 11 + 5i - 6 - 6i 0
4.1 4.1
Next, divide the quotient from the first division by
x - (1 + i).
26.6 6.6 26.6 6.6

1 + i) 1 - 6 - i 11 + 5i - 6 - 6i
1 + i - 5 - 5i 6 + 6i 24.1 24.1
  
1 -5 6 0
FIGURE 27
Now find the zeros of the polynomial x2 - 5x + 6
by solving x2 - 5x + 6 = 0. By the zero-product prop- If no zero had been given for this function, one
erty, we obtain (x - 2)(x - 3) = 0, and so the other could find the real zeros using the graph, and then use
zeros are 2 and 3. Thus, this function has four complex synthetic division twice. Once a quadratic factor is
zeros: 1 - i, 1 + i, 2, and 3. determined, the quadratic formula can then be used.

The number of zeros theorem says that a polynomial function of degree n has at
most n distinct zeros. In the polynomial function
P(x) = x6 + x5 - 5x4 - x3 + 8x2 - 4x = x(x + 2)2(x - 1)3,
each factor leads to a zero of the function. The factor x leads to a single zero of 0, the
factor (x + 2)2 leads to a zero of - 2 appearing twice, and the factor (x - 1)3 leads to
a zero of 1 appearing three times. The number of times a zero appears is referred to
as the multiplicity of the zero.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 263

EXAMPLE 3 Defining a Polynomial Function Satisfying

Given Conditions
Find a polynomial function with real coefficients of least possible degree having a
zero 2 of multiplicity 3, a zero 0 of multiplicity 2, and a zero i of single multiplicity.

3 Solution  By the conjugate zeros theorem, this polynomial function must also have
a zero of - i. This means there are seven zeros, so the least possible degree of the
22 3
polynomial is 7. Therefore,
P(x) = x2(x - 2)3(x - i)(x + i) Factor theorem

23 P(x) = x7 - 6x6 + 13x5 - 14x4 + 12x3 - 8x2. Multiply.

The graph is tangent to the x-axis at This is one of infinitely many such functions. Multiplying P(x) by a nonzero constant
(0, 0) and crosses the x-axis at (2, 0). will yield another polynomial function satisfying these conditions.
FIGURE 28 The graph of Y1 = P(x) in FIGURE 28 shows that there are two distinct X-inter-
cepts, corresponding to real zeros of 0 and 2.

DISCUSSING CONCEPTS
Graph each function in the window indicated below its formula. Then respond to
the following items.
Y1 = (X + 3)(X - 2)2 Y2 = (X + 3)2(X - 2)3 Y3 = X2(X - 1)(X + 2)2
3 - 10, 104 by 3 - 30, 304 3 - 4, 44 by 3 - 125, 504 3 - 4, 44 by 3 - 5, 54
1. Describe the behavior of the graph at each X-intercept that corresponds to a
zero of odd multiplicity.
2. Describe the behavior of the graph at each X-intercept that corresponds to a
zero of even multiplicity.

The observations in the “Discussing Concepts” box suggest that the behavior of
the graph of a polynomial function near an x-intercept depends on the parity (odd or
even) of multiplicity of the zero that leads to the x-intercept.
A zero k of a polynomial function has as multiplicity the exponent of the factor
x - k. Determining the multiplicity of a zero aids in sketching the graph near that zero.
1. If the zero has multiplicity one, the graph crosses the x-axis at the corresponding
x-intercept as seen in FIGURE 29(a).
2. If the zero has even multiplicity, the graph is tangent to the x-axis at the corre-
sponding x-intercept. See FIGURE 29(b).
3. If the zero has odd multiplicity greater than one, the graph crosses the x-axis and
is tangent to the x-axis at the corresponding x-intercept. This causes a change in
concavity, or shape, at the x-intercept and the graph curves there. See FIGURE 29(c).
Graphs and Multiplicities

x x
x k
k k
k
x
x x
k k
The graph crosses the x-axis at (k, 0) The graph is tangent to the x-axis at The graph crosses and is tangent to the x-axis at
if k is a zero of multiplicity one. (k, 0) if k is a zero of even multiplicity. (k, 0) if k is a zero of odd multiplicity
The graph bounces, or turns, at k. greater than one. The graph “wiggles” at k.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 29

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

264 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

By observing the dominating term, the y-intercept, and noting the parity of multi-
plicities of zeros of a polynomial function in factored form, we can sketch a rough graph.

EXAMPLE 4 Sketching a Graph of a Polynomial Function

by Hand
Consider the polynomial function
P(x) = - 2x5 - 18x4 - 38x3 + 42x2 + 112x - 96,
or P(x) = - 2(x + 4)2(x + 3)(x - 1)2. Factored form

Sketch a graph of P by hand. Confirm the result with a calculator.

Solution  Because the dominating term is - 2x5, the end behavior of the graph will
be . Since (- 4, 0) and (1, 0) are both x-intercepts determined by zeros of even
multiplicity, the graph will be tangent to the x-axis at these intercepts. Because - 3 is
a zero of multiplicity 1, the graph will cross the x-axis at (- 3, 0). The y-intercept is
(0, - 96). This information leads to the rough sketch in FIGURE 30(a).
y

-4-3-2-1 1 234
x 50

We cannot deter- 25 3
mine the exact
location of this –96
part of the graph
without plotting
points. P(x) = –2(x + 4)2(x + 3)(x – 1)2 2150

(a) (b)
FIGURE 30

The hand-drawn graph does not necessarily give a good indication of local
extrema. The calculator graph shown in FIGURE 30(b) fills in the details.

Rational Zeros Theorem

The rational zeros theorem gives a method to determine all possible candidates for
rational zeros of a polynomial function with integer coefficients.

Rational Zeros Theorem

Let P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + g + a1 x + a0, where an ≠ 0 and
p
a0 ≠ 0, be a polynomial function with integer coefficients. If q is a rational
p
number written in lowest terms, and if q is a zero of P(x), then p is a factor of
the constant term a0, and q is a factor of the leading coefficient an.

Proof  P 1 q 2 = 0 because
p p
q is a zero of P(x).
p n p n-1 p
an a b + an - 1 a b + g + a1 a b + a0 = 0 Substitute.
q q q

pn pn - 1 p
an a b + an-1 a b + g + a1 a b + a0 = 0 Property of exponents
q n q n - 1 q
an p n + an - 1 p n - 1 q + g + a1 pq n - 1 = - a0q n Multiply by q n; add -a0q n.

p(an p n - 1 + an - 1 p n - 2 q + g + a1q n - 1 ) = - a0q n Factor out p.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 265

Thus, - a0qn equals the product of the two factors, p and (an p n - 1 + g + a1q n - 1 ).
p
For this reason, p must be a factor of - a0qn. Since it was assumed that q is written
in lowest terms, p and q have no common factor other than 1, so p is not a factor
of qn. Thus, p must be a factor of a0. In a similar way, it can be shown that q is a
factor of an.

EXAMPLE 5 Finding Rational Zeros and Factoring

a Polynomial
Find all rational zeros of P(x) = 6x3 - 5x2 - 7x + 4 and factor P(x).
TECHNOLOGY NOTE p
Solution If q is a rational zero in lowest terms, then p is a factor of the constant
When you use the Table Ask
option and require answers to
term 4 and q is a factor of the leading coefficient 6. Possible values for p and q are
be fractions, a TI-84 Plus C can p: { 1, { 2, {4
evaluate function values for the
rational zeros theorem. q: { 1, { 2, { 3, { 6.
p
As a result, any rational zero of P(x) in the form q must occur in the list
1 1 1 2 1 4 2 4
{ ,{ ,{ ,{ ,{ ,{ ,{ ,{ .
6 3 2 3 1 3 1 1
Evaluate P(x) at each value in the list. See the table.

x P(x) x P(x) x P(x) x P(x)

1 49 1
 6  2  0   1 -2   2    18
18
1 1 11
-6 5 -2   -1 0 -2   - 50
2
1 4 2 10 4
 3  3 - 9  3 0   4   280
3
1 50 2 14 4 88
-3 -3   3 - - -4 - 432
9 3 9

1 4
From the table, we see that - 1, 2 , and 3 are rational zeros of P(x). Because P(x)
is a cubic polynomial, there are at most three distinct zeros. By the factor theorem,
(x + 1), 1 x - 2 2, and 1 x - 3 2 are factors of P(x). The leading coefficient of P(x)
1 4

is 6, so we let a = 6.
1 4
P(x) = a(x + 1) ax - b ax - b Factor theorem
2 3
1 4
= 6(x + 1) ax - b ax - b Let a = 6.
2 3
The polynomial
can be left in 1 4 #
= (x + 1) (2) ax - b (3) ax - b Factor: 6 = 2 3.
this form. 2 3
P(x) = (x + 1)(2x - 1)(3x - 4) Multiply.

DISCUSSING CONCEPTS
Suppose that the constant term a0 of a polynomial P(x) is 0. How could you use
the rational zeros theorem to find all rational zeros? Use your method to find the
rational zeros of P(x) = 42x4 + x3 - 8x2 + x.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

266 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 6 Using the Rational Zeros Theorem

Perform the following for the polynomial function

P(x) = 6x4 + 7x3 - 12x2 - 3x + 2.

(a) List all possible rational zeros.

(b) Use a graph to eliminate some of the possible zeros listed in part (a).
(c) Find all rational zeros and factor P(x).

Solution 
p
20 (a) For a rational number q to be a zero, p must be a factor of a0 = 2 and q must be a
factor of a4 = 6. Thus, p can be { 1 or { 2, and q can be { 1, { 2, { 3, or { 6.
p 1 1 1 2
26.6 6.6 The possible rational zeros, q , are { 1, { 2, { 2 , { 3 , { 6 , { 3 .
(b) From FIGURE 31, we see that the zeros of Y1 = P(x) are no less than - 2 and no
220 greater than 1, so we can eliminate 2. Furthermore, - 1 is not a zero because the
graph does not intersect the X-axis at (- 1, 0). At this point, we have no way of
FIGURE 31
knowing whether the zeros indicated on the graph are rational numbers. They may
be irrational.
(c) In Example 5, we tested possible rational zeros by direct substitution into the
formula for P(x). In this example, we use synthetic substitution and the remainder
theorem to show that 1 and - 2 are zeros.

1) 6 7 - 12 - 3 2
6 13 1 -2
6 13 1 -2 0
The 0 remainder shows that 1 is a zero. Now we use the quotient polynomial
6x3 + 13x2 + x - 2 and synthetic substitution to find that - 2 is also a zero.

- 2) 6 13 1 -2
4.1 - 12 - 2 2
6 1 -1 0
26.6 6.6 The new quotient polynomial is 6x2 + x - 1, which is easily factored as
1 1
(3x - 1)(2x + 1). Thus, the remaining two zeros are 3 and - 2 .
24.1 1
See FIGURE 32. The four zeros of P(x) = 6x4 + 7x3 - 12x2 - 3x + 2 are 1, - 2, 3 ,
1 1 1
FIGURE 32 and - 2 , so the corresponding factors are x - 1, x + 2, x - 3 , and x + 2 .

1 1
P(x) = a(x - 1)(x + 2) ax - b ax + b
3 2

1 1 The leading coefficient

= 6(x - 1)(x + 2) ax - b ax + b 
of P (x) is 6. Let a = 6.
3 2
The polynomial
can be left 1 1 #
in this form. = (x - 1)(x + 2)(3)ax - b(2)ax + b Factor: 6 = 3 2.
3 2

P(x) = (x - 1)(x + 2)(3x - 1)(2x + 1) Multiply.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 267

CAUTION The rational zeros theorem gives only possible rational zeros; it
does not tell us whether these rational numbers are actual zeros. Furthermore,
the function must have integer coefficients. To apply the rational zeros theo-
rem to a polynomial with fractional coefficients, multiply by the least common
denominator of all the fractions. For example, any rational zeros of P (x) will also
be rational zeros of Q (x).
1 3 2 2 1 1
P (x) = x 4 - x + x - x -
6 3 6 3
Q (x) = 6x 4 - x 3 + 4x 2 - x - 2    Multiply the terms of P (x) by 6.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Descartes’ rule of signs helps to determine the number of positive and negative real
zeros of a polynomial function.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let P(x) be a polynomial function with real coefficients and a nonzero con-
stant term, with terms in descending powers of x.
(a) T
 he number of positive real zeros either equals the number of varia-
tions in sign occurring in the coefficients of P(x) or is less than the
number of variations by a positive even integer.
(b) T
 he number of negative real zeros either equals the number of varia-
tions in sign occurring in the coefficients of P(- x) or is less than the
number of variations by a positive even integer.

A variation in sign is a change from positive to negative or negative to positive in

successive terms of the polynomial when written in descending powers of the variable.

EXAMPLE 7 Applying Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Determine the possible number of positive real zeros and negative real zeros of P(x).
(a) P(x) = x4 - 6x3 + 8x2 + 2x - 1 (b)  P(x) = x5 - 3x4 + 2x2 + x - 1

Solution 
(a) We first observe that P(x) has three variations in sign.
+ x4 - 6x3 + 8x2 + 2x - 1
1   2      3
Thus, by Descartes’ rule of signs, P(x) has either 3 positive real zeros or 3 - 2 = 1
positive real zero.
For negative zeros, consider the variations in sign for P(- x).
P(- x) = (- x)4 - 6(- x)3 + 8(- x)2 + 2(- x) - 1
= x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 - 2x - 1
1
Because there is only one variation in sign, P(x) has only one negative real zero.
(b) Missing terms can be ignored, so P (x) = x5 - 3x4 + 2x2 + x - 1 has three
variations in sign if we ignore the missing x3-term. Thus, P (x) has either three or
one positive zero. Similarly P (- x) = - x5 - 3x4 + 2x2 - x - 1 has two varia-
tions in sign, so P (x) has either two or no negative zeros.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

268 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

NOTE When applying Descartes’ rule of signs, a zero of multiplicity m is

counted m times.

Boundedness Theorem
The boundedness theorem shows how the bottom row of a synthetic division is used
to place upper and lower bounds on possible real zeros of a polynomial function.

Boundedness Theorem
Let P(x) be a polynomial function of degree n Ú 1 with real coefficients
and with a positive leading coefficient. Suppose P(x) is divided syntheti-
cally by x - c.
(a) I f c 7 0 and all numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division
are nonnegative, then P(x) has no zero greater than c. The number c
is called an upper bound.
(b) If c 6 0 and the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division
alternate in sign (with 0 considered positive or negative, as needed),
then P(x) has no zero less than c. The number c is called a lower
bound.

EXAMPLE 8 Using the Boundedness Theorem

Show that the real zeros of the polynomial function P(x) = 2x4 - 5x3 + 3x + 1
satisfy the following conditions.
(a) No real zero is greater than 3 (that is, 3 is an upper bound).
(b) No real zero is less than - 1 (that is, - 1 is a lower bound).

Solution 
(a) P(x) has real coefficients and the leading coefficient, 2, is positive, so we can use
the boundedness theorem. Divide P(x) synthetically by x - 3.

c 7 0 3) 2 - 5 0 3 1
6 3 9 36
2 1 3 12 37     All are nonnegative.
3 is an upper bound.
Thus, P(x) has no real zero greater than 3.
(b) Divide P(x) = 2x4 - 5x3 + 3x + 1 synthetically by x + 1.

c 6 0 - 1) 2 - 5 0 3 1 Divide P (x) by x + 1.
-2 7 -7 4
2 - 7 7 - 4 5    The numbers alternate in sign.
-1 is a lower bound.
Thus, P(x) has no zero less than - 1.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 269

4.3 Exercises
CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Find a cubic polynomial in standard form with real coefficients,
having the given zeros. Let the leading coefficient be 1. Do not use a calculator.
1. 4 and 2 + i 2. - 3 and 6 + 2i 3. 5 and i

4. - 9 and - i 5. 0 and 3 + i 6. 0 and 4 - 3i

CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Find a polynomial function P(x) of degree 3 with real coefficients
that satisfies the given conditions. Do not use a calculator.
7. Zeros of - 3, - 1, and 4;  P(2) = 5 8. Zeros of 1, - 1, and 0;  P(2) = - 3

9. Zeros of - 2, 1, and 0;  P(- 1) = - 1 10. Zeros of 2, 5, and - 3;  P(1) = - 4

11. Zeros of 4 and 1 + i;  P(2) = 4 12. Zeros of - 7 and 2 - i;  P(1) = 9

One or more zeros are given for each polynomial. Find all remaining zeros.
13. P(x) = x3 - x2 - 4x - 6;  3 is a zero. 14. P(x) = x3 - 5x2 + 17x - 13;  1 is a zero.

15. P(x) = 3x4 - 2x3 - 26x2 + 18x - 9;  - 3 and 3 are 16. P(x) = 2x4 - x3 - 27x2 + 16x - 80;  - 4 and 4 are
zeros. zeros.

17. P(x) = x4 - x3 + 10x2 - 9x + 9; 3i is a zero. 18. P(x) = 2x4 - 2x3 + 55x2 - 50x + 125;  - 5i is a zero.

Find a polynomial function P(x) having leading coefficient 1, least possible degree, real coefficients,
and the given zeros.
19. 5 and - 4 20. 6 and - 2 21. - 3, 2, and i

22. 1 + 22, 1 - 22, and 3 23. 1 - 23, 1 + 23, and 1 24. - 2 + i, - 2 - i, 3, and - 3

25. 3 + 2i, - 1, and 2 26. 2 and 3i 27. 6 - 3i and - 1 (multiplicity 2)

28. 1 + 2i and 2 (multiplicity 2) 29. 2 + i and - 3 (multiplicity 2) 30. 5 (multiplicity 2) and - 2i

Sketch by hand the graph of each function. (You may wish to support your answer with a
calculator graph.)
31. P(x) = 2x3 - 5x2 - x + 6 32. P(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 - 6x - 40
= (x + 1)(2x - 3)(x - 2) = (x - 2)(2x + 5)(x + 4)

33. P(x) = x4 - 18x2 + 81 34. P(x) = x4 - 8x2 + 16

= (x - 3)2(x + 3)2 = (x + 2)2(x - 2)2

35. P(x) = 2x4 + x3 - 6x2 - 7x - 2 36. P(x) = 3x4 - 7x3 - 6x2 + 12x + 8
= (2x + 1)(x - 2)(x + 1)2 = (3x + 2)(x + 1)(x - 2)2

37. P(x) = x4 + 3x3 - 3x2 - 11x - 6 38. P(x) = - 2x5 + 5x4 + 34x3 - 30x2 - 84x + 45
= (x + 3)(x + 1)2(x - 2) = (x + 3)(2x - 1)(x - 5)(3 - x2 )

39. P(x) = 2x5 - 10x4 + x3 - 5x2 - x + 5 40. P(x) = 3x4 - 4x3 - 22x2 + 15x + 18
= (x - 5)(x2 + 1)(2x2 - 1) = (3x + 2)(x - 3)(x2 + x - 3)

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

270 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

CONCEPT CHECK  Use the graphs in Exercises 41– 46 to write an equation for ƒ(x) in factored form.
Assume that all intercepts have integer coordinates and that ƒ(x) is either a cubic or a quartic
polynomial.
41. y 42. y

3 8
(1, 2)

x y = f(x)
0
–3 3
x
0
–3 3
y = f(x)
–4
–4

43. y 44. y

4 3

y = f(x)
y = f(x) x
0
–3 3
x
0
–3 3

–4
–4

45. y 46. y
(1, 4)
8 4
(0, 2) y = f(x)
x
0
–3 3 y = f(x)
x
0
–3 3
–12

–4

CONCEPT CHECK  Use the concepts of this section to answer the following.

47. Show analytically that - 2 is a zero of multiplicity 2 of 48. Show analytically that - 1 is a zero of multiplicity 3 of
P(x) = x4 + 2x3 - 7x2 - 20x - 12, and find all com- P(x) = x5 + 9x4 + 33x3 + 55x2 + 42x + 12, and find
plex zeros. Then write P(x) in factored form. all complex zeros. Then write P(x) in factored form.

49. What are the possible numbers of real zeros (counting 50. Explain why a polynomial function of degree 4 with real
multiplicities) for a polynomial function with real coef- coefficients has either zero, two, or four real zeros (count-
ficients of degree 5? ing multiplicities).

51. Determine whether the description of the polynomial 52. Suppose that k, a, b, and c are real numbers, a ≠ 0, and
function P(x) with real coefficients is possible or not a polynomial function P(x) may be expressed in factored
possible. form as (x - k)(ax2 + bx + c).
(a) P(x) is of degree 3 and has zeros of 1, 2, and 1 + i. (a) What is the degree of P?
(b) P(x) is of degree 4 and has four nonreal complex zeros. (b) What are the possible numbers of distinct real zeros
(c) P(x) is of degree 5 and - 6 is a zero of multiplicity 6. of P?
(d) P(x) has 1 + 2i as a zero of multiplicity 2. (c) What are the possible numbers of nonreal complex
zeros of P?  
(d) Use the discriminant to explain how to determine the
number and type of zeros of P.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.3  Topics in the T
  heory of Polynomial Functions (II) 271

For each polynomial function, (a) list all possible rational zeros, (b) use a graph to eliminate some of
the possible zeros listed in part (a), (c) find all rational zeros, and (d) factor P(x).
53. P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - 13x - 10 54. P(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 2x - 8

55. P(x) = x3 + 6x2 - x - 30 56. P(x) = x3 - x2 - 10x - 8

57. P(x) = 6x3 + 17x2 - 31x - 12 58. P(x) = 15x3 + 61x2 + 2x - 8

Use the rational zeros theorem to completely factor P(x).

59. P(x) = 12x3 + 20x2 - x - 6 60. P(x) = 12x3 + 40x2 + 41x + 12

61. P(x) = 24x3 + 40x2 - 2x - 12 62. P(x) = 24x3 + 80x2 + 82x + 24

Find all rational zeros of each polynomial function.

1 11 10 4 5
63. P(x) = x3 + x2 - x - 5 64. P(x) = x - x3 - 7x2 + 5x -
2 2 7 7
1 4 11 3 7 2 11 1 3 2 2 1 1
65. P(x) = x - x + x - x + 1 66. P(x) = x4 - x + x - x -
6 12 6 12 6 3 6 3

Use the rational zeros theorem to completely factor P(x) into linear factors. (Hint: Not all zeros of
P(x) are rational.)
67. P(x) = 6x4 - 5x3 - 11x2 + 10x - 2 68. P(x) = 5x4 + 8x3 - 19x2 - 24x + 12

69. P(x) = 21x4 + 13x3 - 103x2 - 65x - 10 70. P(x) = 2x4 + 7x3 - 9x2 - 49x - 35

Use the given zero to completely factor P(x) into linear factors.
71. Zero: i;  P(x) = x5 - x4 + 5x3 - 5x2 + 4x - 4 72. Zero: - 3i;  P(x) = x5 + 2x4 + 10x3 + 20x2 + 9x + 18

73. Zero: - 2i;  P(x) = x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 4x - 8 74. Zero: 5i;  P(x) = x4 - x3 + 23x2 - 25x - 50

75. Zero: 1 + i;  P(x) = x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 2 76. Zero: 2 - i;  P(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 9x2 - 16x + 20

Use Descartes’ rule of signs to determine the possible numbers of positive and negative real zeros for
P(x). Then use a graph to determine the actual numbers of positive and negative real zeros.
77. P(x) = 2x3 - 4x2 + 2x + 7 78. P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x - 10

79. P(x) = 5x4 + 3x2 + 2x - 9 80. P(x) = 3x4 + 2x3 - 8x2 - 10x - 1

81. P(x) = x5 + 3x4 - x3 + 2x + 3 82. P(x) = 2x5 - x4 + x3 - x2 + x + 5

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

272 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Use the boundedness theorem to show that the real zeros of P(x) satisfy the given conditions.
83. P(x) = x4 - x3 + 3x2 - 8x + 8; 84. P(x) = 2x5 - x4 + 2x3 - 2x2 + 4x - 4;
no real zero greater than 2 no real zero greater than 1

85. P(x) = x4 + x3 - x2 + 3; 86. P(x) = x5 + 2x3 - 2x2 + 5x + 5;

no real zero less than - 2 no real zero less than - 1

87. P(x) = 3x4 + 2x3 - 4x2 + x - 1; 88. P(x) = 3x4 + 2x3 - 4x2 + x - 1;
no real zero greater than 1 no real zero less than - 2

89. P(x) = x5 - 3x3 + x + 2; 90. P(x) = x5 - 3x3 + x + 2;

no real zero greater than 2 no real zero less than - 3

CONCEPT CHECK  Find a cubic polynomial function having the graph shown.

91. 92.
y y

(0, 30) (0, 9)

x x
–6 0 2 5 –5 3

RELATING CONCEPTS  For individual or group investigation (Exercises 93–98)

For each polynomial function in Exercises 93–98, do the following in order.
(a) Use Descartes’ rule of signs to find the possible number of positive and negative real zeros.
(b) Use the rational zeros theorem to determine the possible rational zeros of the function.
(c) Find the rational zeros, if any.
(d) Find all other real zeros, if any.
(e) Find any other nonreal complex zeros, if any.
(f) Find the x-intercepts of the graph, if any.
(g) Find the y-intercept of the graph.
(h) Use synthetic division to find P(4), and give the coordinates of the corresponding point on the graph.
(i) Determine the end behavior of the graph.
(j) Sketch the graph. (You may wish to support the sketch with a calculator graph.)

93. P(x) = - 2x4 - x3 + x + 2 94. P(x) = 4x5 + 8x4 + 9x3 + 27x2 + 27x
(Hint: Factor out x first.)

95. P(x) = 3x4 - 14x2 - 5 96. P(x) = - x5 - x4 + 10x3 + 10x2 - 9x - 9

(Hint: Factor the polynomial.)

97. P(x) = - 3x4 + 22x3 - 55x2 + 52x - 12 98. For the polynomial functions in Exercises 93–97 that
have irrational zeros, find approximations to the nearest
thousandth.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 273

4.4   Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models

Polynomial Equations and Inequalities • Complex nth Roots • Applications and Polynomial Models

To solve any quadratic equation, we can use the quadratic formula. There are similar,
DISCUSSING but very complicated, formulas that can be used to solve third- and fourth-degree
CONCEPTS polynomial equations. (These are equations that contain x3- and x4-terms.) Are there
Mathematicians struggled formulas for fifth-degree or higher polynomial equations?
for centuries to find a for- In 1824, Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel proved that it is impossible
mula that solved cubic equa-
to find a formula that will yield solutions of the general quintic (fifth-degree) equation.
tions. In 1545, a method of
A similar result holds for polynomial equations of degree greater than 5.
solving a cubic equation
We use elementary methods to solve some higher-degree polynomial equations
of the form x3 + mx = n,
analytically in this section. Graphing calculators support the analytic work and enable
developed by Niccolò
Tartaglia, was ­published
us to find accurate approximations of real solutions of polynomial equations that can-
in the Ars Magna, a work not be solved easily, or at all, by analytic methods.
by Girolamo Cardano. The
formula for finding one real Polynomial Equations and Inequalities
solution of the ­equation is
EXAMPLE 1 Solving a Polynomial Equation and Associated
3n n 2 m 3 Inequalities
x = + a b + a b
D2 B 2 3
(a) Solve x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 = 0 using the zero-product property.
3 -n n m 2 3
- + a b + a b. (b) Graph P(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12.
D 2 B 2 3
Use this formula to (c) Use the graph from part (b) to solve the inequalities
show that the equation x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 7 0
x3 + 9x = 26 has 2 as a
real solution. and x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 … 0.
Solution 
(a) x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 = 0
(x3 + 3x2 ) + (- 4x - 12) = 0    Group terms with common factors.
x2 (x + 3) - 4(x + 3) = 0    Factor out common
factors in each group.
Factor out the minus
sign from each term.
(x + 3)(x2 - 4) = 0    Factor out x + 3.
Algebra Review (x + 3)(x - 2)(x + 2) = 0    Factor the difference of squares.
To review factoring by grouping,
x = - 3 or x = 2 or x = - 2   Zero-product property
see the Review chapter.
The solution set is 5 - 3, - 2, 26.
(b) Graph Y1 = X3 + 3X2 - 4X - 12 and verify that the X-intercepts are (- 3, 0),
(- 2, 0), and (2, 0), supporting the analytic solution. See FIGURE 33.
10

26.6 6.6
(c) Recall that the solution set of P(x) 7 0 consists of all numbers in the domain of P
for which the graph lies above the x-axis. In FIGURE 33, this occurs in the intervals
215 (- 3, - 2) ∪ (2, ∞), which is the solution set of this inequality.
To solve x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 … 0, locate the intervals where the
graph lies below or on the x-axis. The figure indicates that the solution set is
(- ∞, - 3 4 ∪ 3 - 2, 24 . The endpoints are included here because this is a nonstrict
FIGURE 33 inequality.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

274 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

We now discuss equations that are quadratic in form.

Equation Quadratic in Form

An equation is quadratic in form in u if it can be written as
au2 + bu + c = 0,
where a ≠ 0 and u is a variable expression.

EXAMPLE 2 Solving an Equation Quadratic in Form

and Associated Inequalities
(a) Solve x4 - 6x2 - 40 = 0 analytically. Find all complex solutions.
(b) Graph P(x) = x4 - 6x2 - 40, and use the graph to solve the inequalities
x4 - 6x2 - 40 Ú 0 and x4 - 6x2 - 40 6 0.
Give endpoints of intervals in both exact and approximate forms.

Solution 
(a) x4 - 6x2 - 40 = 0
Algebra Review
To review factoring by (x2 )2 - 6x2 - 40 = 0 x 4 = (x 2)2
u-substitution, see the Review
chapter. u2 - 6u - 40 = 0 Let u = x 2.
(u - 10)(u + 4) = 0 Factor.
u = 10 or  u = -4   Zero-product property
80 Remember both
the positive and x2 = 10 or  x2 = -4   Replace u with x 2.
negative square
roots.
x = { 210 or  x = { 2i   Square root property
26.6 6.6

The solution set is 5 - 210, 210, - 2i, 2i 6 .

280
(b) The graph of Y1 = X4 - 6X2 - 40 is shown in FIGURE 34. The
X-­intercepts are approximately (- 3.16, 0) and (3.16, 0) (X-values are
Because the graph is symmetric with
respect to the Y-axis, the two zeros approximations of - 210 and 210, respectively). The graph cannot support
are { 210 ≈ {3.162278. the imaginary solutions.
FIGURE 34 Since the graph of Y1 lies above or intersects the X-axis for real numbers less
than or equal to - 210 and for real numbers greater than or equal to 210, the
solution set of x4 - 6x2 - 40 Ú 0 consists of the intervals
The graph is above or intersecting
the x-axis for these x-values.
1 - ∞, - 210 4 ∪ 3 210, ∞ 2   Exact form
or (- ∞, - 3.164 ∪ 3 3.16, ∞).    Approximate form

By similar reasoning, the solution set of x4 - 6x2 - 40 6 0 is the interval

The graph is below the
x-axis for these x-values.
1 - 210, 210 2     Exact form
or (- 3.16, 3.16).    Approximate form

(The nonreal complex solutions do not affect the solution sets of the inequalities.)

In the next example we solve two polynomial equations analytically.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 275

EXAMPLE 3 Solving Polynomial Equations

Analytically
Find all solutions to each equation analytically.
(a) 4x4 - 5x2 - 9 = 0
(b)  2x3 + 12 = 3x2 + 8x
TECHNOLOGY NOTE Solution 
The TI-84 Plus C application (a) The expression 4x4 - 5x2 - 9 can be factored in a manner similar to the way
PlySmlt2 can be used to find
complex zeros of higher-degree
quadratic expressions are factored. (In some cases, direct factoring is simple
polynomials, as illustrated below enough to avoid using the u-substitution that was used earlier. We do not use the
where Example 3(a) is solved. u-substitution here that was used in Example 2(a).)

4x4 - 5x2 - 9 = 0
(4x2 - 9)(x2 + 1) = 0      Factor.
4x2 - 9 = 0   or x2 + 1 = 0     Zero-product property
4x2 = 9   or x2 = - 1     Add 9 or subtract 1.
9
x2 =   or x2 = - 1     Divide by 4 in left equation.
4
3
x = {   or x = { i     Square root property
2

The solution set of the given equation is 5 - 32 , 32 , - i, i 6 .

(b) First rewrite the equation so that each term on the right side of the equation is
on the left side of the equation. Then use grouping to factor the polynomial.

2x3 + 12 = 3x2 + 8x
2x3 - 3x2 - 8x + 12 = 0    Subtract 3x 2 and 8x.
(2x3 - 3x2 ) + (- 8x + 12) = 0    Associative property
x2(2x - 3) - 4(2x - 3) = 0    Factor.
(x2 - 4)(2x - 3) = 0    Factor out 2x - 3.
x2 - 4 = 0  or  
2x - 3 = 0     Zero-product property

x2 = 4    
3
x = { 2 or   x =     Solve each equation.
2

The solution set is 5 - 2, 32 , 2 6 .

NOTE Attempting to support the solution set for Example 3(a) graphically
would lead to only two solutions (the real ones). The two nonreal solutions
­cannot be determined from a graph. All three solutions in Example 3(b) can be
supported graphically because they are all real numbers.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

276 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 4 Solving a Polynomial Equation

(a) Show that 2 is a real solution of P(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 11x + 2 = 0, and then find
all solutions of this equation.
(b) Support the result of part (a) graphically.

Solution 
(a) 2) 1 3 - 11 2     Use synthetic substitution
2 10 - 2
1 5 -1
(1+)+1* 0     P (2) = 0 by the remainder theorem.
 Coefficients of the
quotient polynomial
By the factor theorem, x - 2 is a factor of P(x).
P(x) = (x - 2)(x2 + 5x - 1)
To find the other zeros of P, solve x2 + 5x - 1 = 0.

- b { 2b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
50 - 5 { 252 - 4(1)(- 1) Quadratic formula;
=    a = 1, b = 5, c = -1
2(1)
26.6 6.6
220 - 5 { 229
=
2

- 5 + 229
The solution set is 5-5 - 229 - 5 + 229
2
, 2
, 26.
The other two zeros are 2
and 2. (b) The graph of Y1 = X3 + 3X2 - 11X + 2 is shown in FIGURE 35. The zeros are 2,
FIGURE 35 approximately - 5.19, and approximately 0.19. The latter two approximations are
- 5 - 229 - 5 + 229
for 2
and 2
, supporting the analytic results.

The associated inequalities for the equation in Example 4 could be solved by

using the solutions and graph as was done in Examples 1 and 2.

EXAMPLE 5 Solving an Equation and Associated

Inequalities Graphically
Consider the function
P(x) = 2.45x3 - 3.14x2 - 6.99x + 2.58.
Use a graph to solve P(x) = 0, P(x) 7 0, and P(x) 6 0. Express solutions of the
equation and endpoints of the intervals for the inequalities to the nearest hundredth.
10
Solution  The graph of Y1 = P(x) is shown in FIGURE 36. Using a calculator, we
find that the approximate X-coordinates of the X-intercepts are - 1.37, 0.33, and 2.32.
210 10 Therefore, the solution set of the equation P(x) = 0 is
5 - 1.37, 0.33, 2.326.   Nearest hundredth
210
Based on the graph, the solution sets of P(x) 7 0 and P(x) 6 0 are, respectively,
The other two zeros are
(- 1.37, 0.33) ∪ (2.32, ∞) and (- ∞, - 1.37) ∪ (0.33, 2.32).
­approximately 0.33 and 2.32. (11++++)1++++1* (11++++)1++++1*
FIGURE 36 P (x) 7 0 P (x) 6 0

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 277

Equations and inequalities like the ones in the next example often occur in
calculus.

EXAMPLE 6 Solving a Polynomial Equation

and Associated Inequality
Solve the equation and inequality.
(a) 2(x2 - 1) + 2x(2x - 1) = 0   (b)  2(x2 - 1) + 2x(2x - 1) 6 0

Solution 
(a) 2(x2 - 1) + 2x(2x - 1) = 0    Given equation
(2x2 - 2) + (4x2 - 2x) = 0    Multiply.
6x2 - 2x - 2 = 0    Add like terms.
3x2 - x - 1 = 0    Divide each side by 2.
1 { 2(- 1)2 - 4(3)(- 1)
x =    Quadratic formula;
a = 3, b = -1, c = -1
2(3)
1 { 213
x =    Simplify.
6
{ 213
4.1
The solution set is 51 6
6.
26.6 6.6
(b) From part (a) we know that the graph of Y1 = 2(X2 - 1) + 2X(2X - 1), or
equivalently Y1 = 6X2 - 2X - 2, is a parabola that opens upward with zeros of
1 { 213
6
. The parabola is below the X-axis between its zeros, so the solution set
24.1
of the inequality is the interval
1 - 213
6
≈ - 0.434259 1 - 213 1 + 213
The other zero is
1 + 213
 .
a , b.
6 6 6
FIGURE 37
FIGURE 37 supports this.

Complex n th Roots

If n is a positive integer and k is a nonzero complex number, then a solution of xn = k
is called an nth root of k. If k = 1, the roots are called roots of unity. For example,
since - 1 and 1 are solutions of x2 = 1, they are called second, or square, roots of
unity. Similarly, the pure imaginary numbers - 2i and 2i are square roots of - 4
because ( { 2i)2 = - 4.
The real numbers - 2 and 2 are sixth roots of 64 because ( { 2)6 = 64. However,
64 has four additional complex sixth roots. A complete discussion of the next theo-
rem requires concepts from trigonometry, but we state it and use it to solve selected
problems involving nth roots.

Complex nth Roots Theorem

If n is a positive integer and k is a nonzero complex number, then the equa-
tion xn = k has exactly n complex roots.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

278 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

EXAMPLE 7 Finding n th Roots of a Number

Find all six complex sixth roots of 64.

Algebra Review Solution  The sixth roots must be solutions of x6 = 64.

To review factoring the sum and
difference of two cubes, see the
x6 = 64
Review chapter. x6 - 64 = 0    Subtract 64.
(x3 - 8)(x3 + 8) = 0    Factor the difference of
squares.
(x - 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)(x + 2)(x2 - 2x + 4) = 0    Factor the difference of cubes
and the sum of cubes.

Now apply the zero-product property to obtain the real sixth roots, 2 and - 2.
­ etting the quadratic factors equal to 0 and applying the quadratic formula twice gives
S
the remaining four complex roots, none of which are real.
x2 + 2x + 4 = 0 x2 - 2x + 4 = 0
- 2 { 222 - 4(1)(4) 2 { 2(- 2)2 - 4(1)(4)
x = x =
2(1) 2(1)
- 2 { 2- 12 2 { 2- 12
= =
2 2
- 2 { 2i 23 2 { 2i 23
= =
2 2
Factor first.
Then divide out the 21 - 1 { i 23 2 21 1 { i 23 2
common factor. = =
2 2
= - 1 { i 23 = 1 { i 23
Therefore, the six complex sixth roots of 64 are
2, - 2, - 1 + i 23, - 1 - i 23, 1 + i 23, and 1 - i 23.

Applications and Polynomial Models

EXAMPLE 8 Using a Polynomial Function to Model

the Volume of a Box

x x A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular 12-inch by 20-inch piece
x 20 – 2x x of cardboard by cutting equal-sized squares from each corner and folding up the sides.
12 – 2x 12 in. See FIGURE 38.
x x
x x (a) If x represents the length of a side of each cut out square, determine a function V
that describes the volume of the box in terms of x.
20 in.
FIGURE 38 (b) Graph Y1 = V(x) in the window 3 0, 64 by 3 0, 3004 , and locate a point on the
graph. Interpret the displayed values of X and Y.
(c) Determine the value of X for which the volume of the box is maximized. What is
this volume?
(d) For what values of X is the volume equal to 200 cubic inches? Greater than
200 cubic inches? Less than 200 cubic inches?

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4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 279

Solution 
(a) As shown in FIGURE 39, the dimensions (in inches) of the box to be formed will be
length = 20 - 2x,  width = 12 - 2x,  height = x.
x
Furthermore, x must be positive, and both 20 - 2x and 12 - 2x must be positive,
12 – 2x
implying that 0 6 x 6 6. The desired function is
20 – 2x V(x) = (20 - 2x)(12 - 2x)x   Volume = length * width * height
FIGURE 39
= 4x3 - 64x2 + 240x.
(b) FIGURE 40 shows the graph of Y1 = 4X3 - 64X2 + 240X with the cursor at the
300
arbitrarily chosen point (3.6, 221.184). This means that when the side of each cut-
out square measures 3.6 inches, the volume of the resulting box is 221.184 cubic
inches.
(c) Use a calculator to find the local maximum point on the graph. To the nearest hun-
dredth, the coordinates of this point are (2.43, 262.68). See FIGURE 41. Therefore,
0 6 when X ≈ 2.43 is the measure of the side of each cut-out square, the volume of
the box is at its maximum, approximately 262.68 cubic inches.
FIGURE 40

300 300 300

0 6 0 6 0 6

FIGURE 41 FIGURE 42

(d) The graphs of Y1 = V(x) and Y2 = 200 are shown in FIGURE 42. The points of
intersection of the line and the cubic curve are approximately (1.17, 200) and
(3.90, 200), so the volume V is equal to 200 cubic inches for x ≈ 1.17 or 3.90,
is greater than 200 cubic inches for 1.17 6 x 6 3.90, and is less than 200 cubic
inches for 0 6 x 6 1.17 or 3.90 6 x 6 6.

EXAMPLE 9 Modeling with a Cubic Polynomial

The table shows the number of unit sales of the Apple iPhones worldwide, in millions,
for selected years.

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Units sold
39.99 72.29 125.05 150.26 169.22
(in millions)
Source: Statista.

(a) Use regression to find a cubic polynomial P(x) that models the data, where x rep-
resents years after 2010. Graph P and the data together.
(b) Use the model to predict the number of units sold in 2015, and compare it with
the actual value of 231.22 million.
(c) Discuss the result of part (b).
(continued)

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280 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Solution 
(a) From FIGURE 43(a), we see that
Y1 = P(x) ≈ - 2.226x3 + 9.481x2 + 30.00x + 39.00
A graph of P and the data are shown in FIGURE 43(b). Note that x = 0 represents
2010, x = 1 represents 2011, and so on.

200

0 4
  
Cubic regression Cubic model
(a) (b)
FIGURE 43

(b) The year 2015 is 5 years after 2010, so evaluate P(5).

P(5) ≈ - 2.226(5)3 + 9.481(5)2 + 30.00(5) + 39.00 ≈ 147.8
This model estimates 147.8 million units sold in 2015, which is much lower than
the actual value of 231.22 million.
(c) Using a polynomial model to predict results outside of the data set can be mis-
leading, as we see here. The graph of this cubic model past the value 4 shows that
the function begins a downward turn (verify this), unlike the data, which trends
upward.

4.4 Exercises
CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Find all real solutions. Do not use a calculator.

1. x3 - 25x = 0 2. x4 - x3 - 6x2 = 0 3. x4 - x2 = 2x2 + 4

4. x4 + 5 = 6x2 5. x3 - 3x2 - 18x = 0 6. x4 - x2 = 0

7. 2x3 = 4x2 - 2x 8. x3 = x 9. 12x3 = 17x2 + 5x

10. 3x3 + 3x = 10x2 11. 2x3 + 4 = x(x + 8) 12. 3x3 + 18 = x(2x + 27)

CHECKING ANALYTIC SKILLS  Find all complex solutions of each equation. Do not use a calculator.

13. 7x3 + x = 0 14. 2x3 + 4x = 0 15. 3x3 + 2x2 - 3x - 2 = 0

16. x4 - 11x2 + 10 = 0 17. 5x3 - x2 + 10x - 2 = 0 18. x4 + x2 - 6 = 0

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 281

Solve each equation analytically for all complex solutions, giving exact forms in your solution set.
Then graph the left side of the equation as Y1 in the suggested viewing window and, using the
capabilities of your calculator, support the real solutions.
19. 4x4 - 25x2 + 36 = 0; 20. 4x4 - 29x2 + 25 = 0; 21. x4 - 15x2 - 16 = 0;
3- 5, 54 by 3- 5, 1004 3- 5, 54 by 3- 50, 1004 3- 5, 54 by 3- 100, 1004

22. 9x4 + 35x2 - 4 = 0; 23. x3 - x2 - 64x + 64 = 0; 24. x3 + 6x2 - 100x - 600 = 0;

3- 3, 34 by 3- 10, 1004 3- 10, 104 by 3- 300, 3004 3- 15, 154 by 3- 1000, 3004

25. - 2x3 - x2 + 3x = 0; 26. - 5x3 + 13x2 + 6x = 0; 27. x3 + x2 - 7x - 7 = 0;

3- 4, 44 by 3- 10, 104 3- 4, 44 by 3- 2, 304 3- 10, 104 by 3- 20, 204

28. x3 + 3x2 - 19x - 57 = 0; 29. - 3x3 - x2 + 6x = 0; 30. - 4x3 - x2 + 4x = 0;

3- 10, 104 by 3- 100, 504 3- 4, 44 by 3- 10, 104 3- 4, 44 by 3- 10, 104

31. 3x3 + 3x2 + 3x = 0; 32. 2x3 + 2x2 + 12x = 0; 33. x4 + 17x2 + 16 = 0;

3- 5, 54 by 3- 5, 54 3- 10, 104 by 3- 20, 204 3- 4, 44 by 3- 10, 404

34. 36x4 + 85x2 + 9 = 0; 35. x6 + 19x3 - 216 = 0; 36. 8x6 + 7x3 - 1 = 0;

3- 4, 44 by 3- 10, 404 3- 4, 44 by 3- 350, 2004 3- 4, 44 by 3- 5, 1004

Graph each polynomial function by hand, as shown in the previous section. Then solve each equation
or inequality. In part (a), state if the multiplicity of a solution is greater than one.
37. P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8 38. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 - 11x - 30
= (x - 4)(x - 1)(x + 2) = (x - 3)(x + 2)(x + 5)
(a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) 6 0  (c)  P(x) 7 0 (a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) 6 0  (c)  P(x) 7 0

39. P(x) = 2x4 - 9x3 - 5x2 + 57x - 45 40. P(x) = 4x4 + 27x3 - 42x2 - 445x - 300
= (x - 3)2(2x + 5)(x - 1) = (x + 5)2(4x + 3)(x - 4)
(a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) 6 0  (c)  P(x) 7 0 (a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) 6 0  (c)  P(x) 7 0

41. P(x) = - x4 - 4x3 + 3x2 + 18x 42. P(x) = - x4 + 2x3 + 8x2

= - x(x - 2)(x + 3)2 = - x2(x - 4)(x + 2)
(a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) Ú 0  (c)  P(x) … 0 (a) P(x) = 0  (b)  P(x) Ú 0  (c)  P(x) … 0

Solve each equation and inequality.

43. (a) 3(x2 + 4) + 2x(3x - 12) = 0 44. (a) (x2 + 3x - 1) + (2x + 3)(x - 5) = 0
(b) 3(x2 + 4) + 2x(3x - 12) 6 0 (b) (x2 + 3x - 1) + (2x + 3)(x - 5) Ú 0

45. (a) 3(x + 1)2(2x - 1)4 + 8(x + 1)3(2x - 1)3 = 0 46. (a) 4x(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)3 + 6x(x2 + 1)2(x2 + 4)2 = 0
(b) 3(x + 1)2(2x - 1)4 + 8(x + 1)3(2x - 1)3 Ú 0 (b) 4x(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)3 + 6x(x2 + 1)2(x2 + 4)2 6 0

Solve each equation and inequality, where k is a positive constant.

47. (a) 3kx2 - 7x = 0 48. (a) 4x3 - kx = 0
(b) 3kx2 - 7x 6 0 (b) 4x3 - kx 7 0

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282 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Use a graphical method to find all real solutions of each equation. Express solutions to the nearest
hundredth.
49. 0.86x3 - 5.24x2 + 3.55x + 7.84 = 0 50. - 2.47x3 - 6.58x2 - 3.33x + 0.14 = 0

51. - 27x3 + 25x2 + 217 = 0 52. 210x3 - 211x - 28 = 0

53. 2.45x4 - 3.22x3 = - 0.47x2 + 6.54x + 3 54. 217x4 - 222x2 = - 1

Find all n complex solutions of each equation of the form xn = k.

55. x2 = - 1 56. x2 = - 4 57. x3 = - 1

58. x3 = - 8 59. x3 = 27 60. x3 = 64

61. x4 = 16 62. x4 = 81 63. x3 = - 64

64. x3 = - 27 65. x2 = - 18 66. x2 = - 52

MODELING  Solve each problem. Give approximations of linear measures to the nearest hundredth.

67. Floating Ball  The polynomial function 70. Construction of a Rain Gutter  A rectangular piece of
sheet metal is 20 inches wide. It is to be made into a rain
p 3 500pd
ƒ(x) = x - 5px2 + gutter by turning up the edges to form parallel sides. Let x
3 3 represent the length of each of the parallel sides in inches.
can be used to find the depth that a ball 10 centimeters See the figure.
in diameter sinks in water. The constant d is the density
of the ball, where the density of water is 1. The smallest 20 in.
positive zero of ƒ(x) equals the depth that the ball sinks.
Approximate this depth for each material and interpret x x
the results.
(a) A wooden ball with d = 0.8 20 – 2x
(b) A solid aluminum ball with d = 2.7 (a) Give the restrictions on x.
(c) A spherical water balloon with d = 1 (b) Determine a function 𝒜 that gives the area of a cross
68. Floating Ball  Refer to Exercise 67. Determine the depth section of the gutter.
to which a pine ball with a 10-centimeter diameter sinks in (c) For what value of x will 𝒜 be a maximum (and thus
water if d = 0.55. maximize the amount of water that the gutter will
hold)? What is this maximum area?
69. Volume of a Box  A rectangular piece of cardboard mea- (d) For what values of x will the area of a cross section be
suring 12 inches by 18 inches is to be made into a box less than 40 square inches?
with an open top by cutting equal-sized squares from each
corner and folding up the sides. Let x represent the length 71. Buoyancy of a Spherical Object  It has been determined
of a side of each such square in inches. that a spherical object of radius 4 inches with specific
gravity 0.25 will sink in water to a depth of x inches,
18 in.
where x is the least positive root of the equation
x x x3 - 12x2 + 64 = 0.
x x

12 in.
To what depth will this object sink if x 6 10?

x x 72. Area of a Rectangle y

x x Approximate the value y = 9 – x2
of x in the figure that will D C(x, y)
(a) Give the restrictions on x.
maximize the area of
(b) Determine a function V that gives the volume of the
rectangle ABCD.
box as a function of x.
(c) For what value of x will the volume be a maximum?
What is this maximum volume? x
0
(d) For what values of x will the volume be greater than A B
80 cubic inches?

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

4.4  Polynomial Equations, Inequalities, Applications, and Models 283

73. Sides of a Right Triangle  A certain right triangle has (d) Use both functions from parts (b) and (c) to estimate
area 84 square inches. One leg of the triangle measures the minimum sight distance for a car traveling 43 mph.
1 inch less than the hypotenuse. Let x represent the length (e) Which function fits the data better?
of the hypotenuse.
(a) Express the length of the leg described in terms 77. Water Pollution  Copper in high doses can be lethal to
of x. aquatic life. The table lists copper concentrations in mus-
(b) Express the length of the other leg in terms of x. sels after 45 days at various distances downstream from
(c) Write an equation based on the information deter- an electroplating plant. The concentration C is measured
mined thus far. Square each side, and then write the in micrograms of copper per gram of mussel x kilometers
equation with one side as a polynomial with integer downstream. See the table.
coefficients, in descending powers, and the other side
equal to 0.
(d) Solve the equation in part (c) graphically. Find the
lengths of the three sides of the triangle.

74. Butane Gas Storage  A storage tank for butane gas is

to be built in the shape of a right circular cylinder having
altitude 12 feet, as shown, with a half sphere attached to
each end. If x represents the radius of each half sphere,
what radius should be used to cause the volume of the tank
to be 144p cubic feet? x 5 21 37 53 59
C 20 13 9 6 5
x Source: Foster, R., and J. Bates, “Use of mussels
to monitor point source industrial discharges,”
12 ft Environ. Sci. Technol.

75. Volume of a Box  A standard piece of notebook paper

measuring 8.5 inches by 11 inches is to be made into a box (a) Make a scatter diagram of the data.
with an open top by cutting equal-sized squares from each (b) Use the regression feature of a calculator to find the
corner and folding up the sides. Let x represent the length best-fitting quadratic function C for the data. Graph
of a side of each such square in inches. the function with the data.
(a) Use the table feature of a graphing calculator to find (c) Repeat part (b) for a cubic function.
the maximum volume of the box. (d) By comparing graphs of the functions in parts (b) and
(b) Use the table feature to determine to the nearest hun- (c) with the data, decide which function best fits the
dredth when the volume of the box will be greater given data.  
than 40 cubic inches. (e) Concentrations above 10 are lethal to mussels. Use
the cubic function to find the values of x to the nearest
76. Highway Design  To allow enough distance for cars to hundredth for which this is the case.
pass on two-lane highways, engineers calculate minimum
sight distances between curves and hills. The table shows 78. Bookstore Sales  The table shows the sales from book-
the minimum sight distance y in feet for a car traveling at stores in the United States for selected years between 2000
x mph. and 2012.

x (in mph) 20 30 40 50 Year 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012

y (in feet) 810 1090 1480 1840 Sales (in billions
14.88 16.22 16.98 15.80 12.27
of dollars)
x (in mph) 60 65 70 Source: www.statista.com

y (in feet) 2140 2310 2490 (a) Use cubic regression to find a model P(x) for these
Source: Haefner, L., Introduction to Transportation data, where x is the year.
Systems, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. (b) Use the model from part (a) to estimate the sales in
(a) Make a scatter diagram of the data. 2011.
(b) Use the regression feature of a calculator to find the (c) The sales in 2015 were $11.01 billion. What does the
best-fitting linear function for the data. Graph the model from part (a) predict for 2015? How accurate is
function with the data.   the model for projecting the actual figure for 2015?
(c) Repeat part (b) for a cubic function.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

284 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

SECTIONS
4.3–4.4
Reviewing Basic Concepts

For Exercises 1–3, consider P(x) = 2x4 - 7x3 + 29x - 30. 7. Find all solutions of 3x4 - 12x2 + 1 = 0.
1. Given that - 2 is a zero of P, factor P(x) into a linear factor 8. MODELING Aging in America  The table lists the num-
multiplied by a cubic factor. ber N (in thousands) of Americans over 100 years old for
selected years x.
2. Given that 2 + i is a zero of P, what must be another zero
of P?
x 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
3. Factor P(x) into linear factors.
N 3 5 15 37 75 129
Work each of the following. Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

4. Find a cubic polynomial P(x) with real coefficients that (a) Use regression to find a cubic polynomial P(x) that
3
has zeros of 2 and i and for which P(3) = 15. models the data x years after 1960.
5. Find a polynomial P(x) of least possible degree with real (b) Estimate N in 1994 to the nearest thousand.
coefficients and zeros -4 (multiplicity 2) and 1 + 2i. Write (c) Estimate the year when N first reached 100 thousand.
the answer in standard form.
6. Given P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 11x - 10, list all zeros of P.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

Unifying Polynomial Functions 285

Unifying Polynomial Functions

Analyzing the Graph of a Polynomial Function

y
This cubic example has two turning
15
points.
10 ●● Three x-intercepts: (- 4, 0), (0, 0)
Range: (2`, `)

5 and (1, 0)
0
x ●● One y-intercept: (0, 0)
25 2322 21 1 2 3 4 5
25 ●● Zeros are - 4, 0, and 1.
210 f(x) 5 x3 1 3x2 2 4x
215

Domain: (2`, `)

Solving a Polynomial Equation

Solve the equation x3 + 3x2 - 4x = 0.

Analytic Solution Graphical Solution

x3 + 3x2 - 4x = 0 x-intercept method: Because the zeros of the graph
of ƒ are the solutions to the equation, the solutions
x(x2 + 3x - 4) = 0     Factor out x. are - 4, 0, and 1.
x(x + 4)(x - 1) = 0     Factor quadratic expression.
y
x = - 4, x = 0 or x = 1    Zero-product property 15
The solution set is 5 - 4, 0, 16. 10

5
x
0
25 2322 21 1 2 3 4 5
25

210 f(x) 5 x3 1 3x2 2 4x

215

Solving a Polynomial Inequality

Solve the inequality x3 + 3x2 - 4x 7 0.

Analytic Solution Graphical Solution y

f(x) 5 x3 1 3x2 2 4x
The zeros of ƒ(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 4x are The graph supports the analytic 15
- 4, 0, and 1. They divide a number line solution and shows that the 10
into four intervals: graph indeed lies above the
5
x-axis between zeros - 4 and
A: (- ∞, - 4) B: (- 4, 0) x
0 and to the right of zero 1. 25 2322 21
0
1 2 3 4 5
C: (0, 1) D: (1, ∞ ). Therefore, the solution set is
If we choose a test number from each (- 4, 0) ∪ (1, ∞).
interval, we find that intervals B and D 215
x-values where
satisfy the inequality ƒ(x) 7 0. The solu- f(x) > 0
tion set is (- 4, 0) ∪ (1, ∞ ). (continued)

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286 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Solving a Polynomial Application

A rectangular box has sides with length x, x + 1, and x + 2. If the ­volume y
of the box is 504 cubic inches, find the dimensions of the box. 750

Solution 500

Because Length * Width * Height = Volume, solve the equa- 250

tion x(x + 1)(x + 2) = 504, or x(x + 1)(x + 2) - 504 = 0. To x
0
solve for x graphically, find the real zeros of the function 26 24 22 2 4 8 10
2250
g(x) = x(x + 1)(x + 2) - 504. The graph shows that the real zero is 7,
so the solution is x = 7. Therefore, the side lengths of the cube are 7 in.,
8 in., and 9 in., giving a total volume of 7(8)(9) = 504 cubic inches. 2750
g(x) 5 x(x 1 1)(x 1 2) 2 504

4  Summary
KEY TERMS & SYMBOLS KEY CONCEPTS

4.1 Graphs of EXTREMA OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Polynomial P2(x 2, y 2 ) P1 is a local maximum point.
Functions P1(x 1, y 1 ) P2 is a local and absolute maximum point.
P3 is a local minimum point.
polynomial function
There is no absolute minimum point.
leading coefficient
dominating term P3(x 3, y 3 )
cubic function
quartic function
turning points NUMBER OF TURNING POINTS
local maximum point The number of turning points of the graph of a polynomial function of degree n Ú 1 is at
local minimum point most n - 1.
local maximum
local minimum END BEHAVIOR OF GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
absolute maximum
­(minimum) point a>0 a<0 a<0
n odd a>0 n even
absolute maximum n odd
n even
­(minimum) value
x S -∞
xS∞      
NUMBER OF x-INTERCEPTS (AND REAL ZEROS) OF
A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
The graph of a polynomial function of degree n will have at most n x-intercepts (correspond-
ing to its real zeros).

4.2 Topics in the INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Theory of If P(x) is a polynomial function with only real coefficients, and if, for real numbers a and
Polynomial b, the values P(a) and P(b) are opposite in sign, then there exists at least one real zero
Functions (I) between a and b.

synthetic division
synthetic substitution

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

CHAPTER 4 Summary 287

KEY TERMS & SYMBOLS KEY CONCEPTS

DIVISION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY x − k
1. If the degree n polynomial P(x) (where n Ú 1) is divided by x - k, then the quotient
polynomial, Q(x), has degree n - 1.
P(x)
2. The remainder R is a constant (and may be 0). The complete quotient for may
x - k
be written as follows.
P(x) R
= Q(x) +
x − k x − k

REMAINDER THEOREM
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - k, the remainder is equal to P(k).

FACTOR THEOREM
A polynomial P(x) has a factor x - k if and only if P(k) = 0.

DIVISION ALGORITHM FOR POLYNOMIALS

Let P(x) and D(x) be two polynomials, with the degree of D(x) greater than zero and less
than the degree of P(x). Then there exist unique polynomials Q(x) and R(x) such that
P(x) R(x)
= Q(x) + ,
D(x) D(x)
where either R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of D(x).

4.3 Topics in the CONJUGATE ZEROS THEOREM

Theory of If P(x) is a polynomial function having only real coefficients, and if a + bi is a zero of P(x),
Polynomial then the conjugate a - bi is also a zero of P(x).
Functions (II)
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
multiplicity of a zero Every function defined by a polynomial of degree 1 or more has at least one complex zero.
variation in sign
upper bound
NUMBER OF ZEROS THEOREM
lower bound
 1. A function defined by a polynomial of degree n has at most n distinct complex zeros.
 2. A function defined by a polynomial of degree n has exactly n complex zeros if zeros of
multiplicity m are counted m times.

BEHAVIOR OF THE GRAPH OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION NEAR

THE x-AXIS

x x
k x
k k

x k x
k x
k
The graph crosses the The graph crosses and is tangent
x-axis at (k, 0) if k is a zero The graph is tangent to the to the x-axis at (k, 0) if k is a zero
of multiplicity one. x-axis at (k, 0) if k is a zero of odd multiplicity greater than
of even multiplicity. The one. The graph “wiggles” at k.
graph bounces, or turns, at k.
(continued)

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

288 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

KEY TERMS & SYMBOLS KEY CONCEPTS

RATIONAL ZEROS THEOREM

Let P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + g + a1x + a0, where an ≠ 0 and a0 ≠ 0, be a poly-
p
nomial function with integer coefficients. If q is a rational number written in lowest terms,
p
and if q is a zero of P(x), then p is a factor of the constant term a0 and q is a factor of the
leading coefficient an.

DESCARTES’ RULE OF SIGNS

Let P(x) be a polynomial function with real coefficients and a nonzero constant term, with
terms in descending powers of x.
(a) The number of positive real zeros either equals the number of variations in sign
occurring in the coefficients of P(x) or is less than the number of variations by a
positive even integer.
(b) The number of negative real zeros either equals the number of variations in sign
occurring in the coefficients of P(- x) or is less than the number of variations by a
positive even integer.

BOUNDEDNESS THEOREM
Let P(x) be a polynomial function of degree n Ú 1 with real coefficients and with a positive
leading coefficient. Suppose P(x) is divided synthetically by x - c.
(a) If c 7 0 and all numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division are nonnega-
tive, then P(x) has no zero greater than c. The number c is called an upper bound.
(b) If c 6 0 and the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division alternate in
sign (with 0 considered positive or negative, as needed), then P(x) has no zero less
than c. The number c is called a lower bound.

4.4 Polynomial COMPLEX nTH ROOTS THEOREM

Equations, If n is a positive integer and k is a nonzero complex number, then the equation xn = k has
Inequalities, exactly n complex roots.
Applications,
and Models POLYNOMIAL MODELS
Graphing calculators can be used to find the best-fitting polynomial function models for a
equation quadratic in form
set of data points.
roots of unity

4   Review Exercises
CONCEPT CHECK  Answer each of the following. Work each of the following.
1. If a polynomial function of odd degree has the set of real 5. Use the intermediate value theorem to show that the poly-
numbers as its domain, what must be its range? nomial function P(x) = - 3x3 - x2 + 2x - 4 has a real
2. Use an end behavior diagram to illustrate the end behavior zero between - 2 and - 1.
of the graph of P(x) = - 345x14.   6. Use synthetic division to find the quotient Q(x) and the
remainder R.
3. What is the maximum number of turning points of the
graph of P(x) = 12x3 - 32x2 + 66x + 156? x3 + x2 - 11x - 10
(a)
4. Does the graph of P(x) = 45x4 + 59x2 + 1600 lie com- x - 3
pletely above the x-axis? 3x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 10
(b)
x + 2

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

CHAPTER 4  Review Exercises 289

Divide. 26. Use your answer in Exercise 25 along with synthetic

6x3 - 4x2 + 4x + 3 division to factor x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3 so that one factor is
7. linear and the other is quadratic.
3x + 1
27. Find exact values of any remaining zeros analytically.
2x3 - 5x2 + 1
8. 2 28. Use a calculator to support your answer in Exercise 27.
x - 3x + 1
29. Give the solution set of each inequality, using exact ­values.
Use synthetic substitution to find P(2).
(a) x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3 7 0
9. P(x) = - x3 + 5x2 - 7x + 1
(b) x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3 … 0
10. P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 + 7x - 12
30. CONCEPT CHECK  See the graph below. Given that all
11. P(x) = 5x4 - 12x2 + 2x - 8 zeros of P are integers and each zero has multiplicity 1 or
12. P(x) = x5 + 4x2 - 2x - 4 2, find the factored form of P(x).

Find a polynomial function with real coefficients and of least

P(x) = x4 – 5x3 + x2 + 21x – 18
possible degree having the given zeros. Let the leading coef- y
ficient be 1.
10
13. - 1, 4, 7 x
0
–3 5
14. 8, 2, 3
15. 23, - 23, 2, 3
16. - 2 + 25, - 2 - 25, - 2, 1
–40

Work each of the following.

CONCEPT CHECK  Comprehensive graphs of polynomial
17. Show that - 1 is not a zero of the polynomial function
P(x) = 2x4 + x3 - 4x2 + 3x + 1. functions f and g are shown here. They have only real coef-
ficients. Answer Exercises 31–38 based on the graphs.
18. Show that x + 1 is a factor of the polynomial function
P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 2. y
y = g(x)
19. Find a polynomial function P with real coefficients of
degree 4 with 3, 1, and - 1 - 3i as zeros and for which (d, e) y = f (x)
P(2) = - 36. (h, k)
(a, 0)
20. Find all zeros of P(x) = x4 - 3x3 - 8x2 + 22x - 24, x
0 (b, 0) (c, 0)
given that 1 - i is a zero.
21. Find all zeros of P(x) = 2x4 - x3 + 7x2 - 4x - 4,
given that 1 and 2i are zeros.
22. Find all rational zeros of
31. Is the degree of g even or odd?
P(x) = 3x5 - 4x4 - 26x3 - 21x2 - 14x + 8
32. Is the degree of ƒ even or odd?
by first listing the possible rational zeros based on the
rational zeros theorem. 33. Is the leading coefficient of ƒ positive or negative?

23. Use Descartes’ rule of signs to determine the possible 34. How many real solutions does g(x) = 0 have?
number of positive real zeros and negative real zeros of 35. Express the solution set of ƒ(x) 6 0 in interval form.
P(x) = 3x4 + x3 - x2 - 2x - 1. 36. What is the solution set of ƒ(x) 7 g(x)?
24. Use the boundedness theorem to show that 37. What is the solution set of ƒ(x) - g(x) = 0?
P(x) = 2x4 + 3x3 - 5x2 + 8x - 10  38. Suppose that ƒ is of degree 3. Explain why ƒ cannot have
nonreal complex zeros.
has no real zero greater than 2 and no real zero less
than - 4. CONCEPT CHECK  Answer true or false to each statement in
Exercises 39– 44.
In Exercises 25–29, consider the polynomial function
P(x) = x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3. 39. The graph of ƒ(x) = 3x7 - 8x6 + 12x4 - 18x3 + 500
has eight x-intercepts.
25. Graph the function in an appropriate window to show
a comprehensive graph. Based on the graph, how many 40. The function ƒ in Exercise 39 may have up to six local
real solutions does the equation x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3 = 0 extrema.
have? Use a calculator to find the real root that is an 41. The function ƒ in Exercise 39 has a positive y-coordinate
­integer. of its y-intercept.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

290 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

42. Based on end behavior of the function ƒ in Exercise 39 MODELING  Solve each problem.
and your answer in Exercise 41, the graph must have at 51. Dimensions of a Cube  After a 2-inch slice is cut off the
least one x-intercept with a negative x-value. top of a cube, the resulting solid has a volume of 32 cubic
43. If a polynomial function of even degree has a positive inches. Find the dimensions of the original cube.
leading coefficient and a negative y-coordinate for its
y-intercept, it must have at least two real zeros.
1 23
44. Because - 2 + i 2
is a nonreal complex zero of 2

ƒ(x) = x2 + x + 1,
x–2
1 23 x
another zero must be 2 + i 2
.
x
Graph the function
52. Private College Costs  The table gives the average total
P(x) = - 2x5 + 15x4 - 21x3 - 32x2 + 60x tuition, fees, and room and board rates at private colleges
in the window 3- 8, 84 by 3- 100, 2004 to obtain a compre- and universities (in constant 2014 dollars).
hensive graph. Then use a calculator and the concepts of this
chapter to answer Exercises 45– 48. Year 1984 1994 2004 2014
45. How many local maxima does this function have? Amount
18,354 25,502 31,875 37,424
46. One local minimum point lies on the x-axis and has an (in dollars)
integer as its x-value. What are its coordinates? Source: https://nces.ed.gov

47. The greatest x-value of an x-intercept is 5. Therefore,

(a) Use regression to find a cubic model C(x) for this
x - 5 is a factor of P(x). Use synthetic division to find the
data, where x = 0 represents 1984, x = 10 represents
quotient polynomial Q(x) obtained when P(x) is divided
1994, and so on.
by x - 5.
(b) Use the model from part (a) to estimate the amount in
48. The graph has a local minimum point with a negative 2000.
x-value. Use a calculator to find its coordinates. Express (c) If this model were to continue to be accurate past
them to the nearest hundredth. 2014, what would be the cost in 2024?
Work each problem.
RELATING CONCEPTS
49. Solve the equation
For individual or group investigation
3x3 + 2x2 - 21x - 14 = 0 (Exercises 53–56)

analytically for all complex solutions, giving exact values We can create a polynomial that represents a telephone
in the solution set. Then graph the left side of the equation number. For example, the 7-digit telephone number
and support the real solutions.
123– 4567
50. Consider the polynomial function
can be used to form the polynomial
P(x) = - x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 - 7x - 6
= (- x + 2)(x - 3)(x + 1)2. TEL(x) =
(x - 1)(x + 2)(x - 3)(x + 4)(x - 5)(x + 6)(x - 7).
Graph the function by hand and solve each equation or
inequality.
(a) P(x) = 0 53. Make your own telephone polynomial. Give its degree
(b) P(x) 7 0 and dominating term, and draw its end ­ behavior
(c) P(x) 6 0 diagram.
54. List all zeros of multiplicity 1, of multiplicity 2, and
of multiplicity 3 or greater.
55. Use a graphing calculator to graph a comprehensive
graph of TEL(x).
56. Identify the local extrema, domain, range, and
­intervals where TEL(x) is increasing or decreasing.

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 SAMPLE CHAPTER. NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION.

CHAPTER 4 Test 291

4  Test
1. Use the polynomial function graphs, which include all extrema, to determine each of the following.

(s, t)
(p, q)

(a, b) y = Q(x)
(u, v)
y = P(x)
(m, n)
(r, s)
(p, q)

(a) the minimum possible degree of P (b) the minimum possible degree of Q
(c) the two local minimum values of P (d) the two local maximum values of Q
(e) the absolute minimum value of P (f) the range of Q
(g) whether the degree of P is even or odd (h) whether the degree of Q is even or odd

2. Use a diagram to describe the end behavior of each of the 6. Consider the function
following functions.
P(x) = 4x4 - 21x2 - 25.
(a) P(x) = - 2356x16 (b)  P(x) = 5546x29
(c) P(x) = - 8440x81 (d)  P(x) = 9853x32   (a) Find all zeros analytically.
(b) Find a comprehensive graph of P, and support the real
3. Consider the function zeros found in part (a).
P(x) = - x3 + 2x2 + x + 3. (c) Discuss the symmetry of the graph of y = P(x).
(d) Use the graph and the results of part (a) to find the
(a) Use a calculator to give a comprehensive graph. solution set of each inequality.
(b) Determine any local and absolute extrema. Approxi-
mate coordinates to the nearest hundredth. (i) P(x) Ú 0
(c) Determine the domain and the range. (ii) P(x) 6 0
(d) Determine the x- and y-intercepts. If necessary, approx- 7. Consider the function
imate to the nearest hundredth.
(e) Give the open interval(s) where the function is P(x) = 3x4 + 5x3 - 35x2 - 55x + 22.
increasing. If necessary, approximate to the nearest (a) List all possible rational zeros.
hundredth.
(b) Find all rational zeros.  
4. Consider the function
(c) Use the intermediate value theorem to show that there
P(x) = 2x4 + 9x3 - 3x2 - 29x + 21 must be a zero between 3 and 4.
= (2x + 7)(x - 1)2(x + 3). (d) Use Descartes’ rule of signs to determine the possible
number of positive zeros and negative zeros.
Sketch the graph by hand. Indicate all intercepts. (e) Use the boundedness theorem to show that there is no
5. The function zero less than - 5 and no zero greater than 4.
P(x) = x6 - 5x5 + 3x4 + x3 + 40x2 - 24x - 72 8. (a) Use only a graphical method to find the real solutions,
to the nearest thousandth if applicable, of
has 3 as a zero of multiplicity 2, 2 as a single zero, and - 1
as a single zero. x5 - 4x4 + 2x3 - 4x2 + 6x - 1 = 0.
(a) Find all other zeros of P.
(b) Give an end behavior diagram. Use the information (b) Based on the degree and your answer in part (a), how
from part (a) to sketch the graph of y = P(x) by many nonreal complex solutions does the equation
hand.   have?
9. Divide.
8x3 - 4x2 3x3 - 5x2 + 6
(a) (b) 
2x x - 1
2x4 - x3 + 4x2 - 4x + 3 x4 - 2x + 6
(c) (d) 
2x - 1 x2 + 2

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292 CHAPTER 4  Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

10. Find a cubic polynomial function P(x) in standard form Highway Design  In order to allow enough distance for
having real coefficients with zeros of 4 and 2i, such that vehicles to pass on two-lane highways, designers determine
P(1) = - 15. the minimum sight distance according to the data in the table.
11. Solve x3 + 3x = 0 analytically.
x (mph) 20 30 40 50 60 65
12. Dimensions of a Box  The width of a rectangular box is
y (ft) 810 1090 1480 1840 2140 2310
3 times its height, and its length is 11 inches more than
Source: Haefner, L. Introduction to Transportation Systems.
its height. Find the dimensions of the box if its volume is
720 cubic inches. 13. Use cubic regression to find a model P(x) for these data.
14. Use the model from Exercise 13 to estimate the sight
x distance for 45 mph.

3x
x + 11

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