Task 1: Reading Comprehension Part 1

The Creators of Grammar

No student of a foreign language needs to be told that grammar is complex. By
changing word sequences and by adding a range of auxiliary verbs and suffixes,
we are able to communicate tiny variations in meaning. We can turn a statement
into a question, state whether an action has taken place or is soon to take place,
and perform many other word tricks to convey subtle differences in meaning. Nor
is this complexity inherent to the English language. All languages, even those of
so-called 'primitive' tribes have clever grammatical components. The Cherokee
pronoun system, for example, can distinguish between 'you and I', 'several other
people and I' and 'you, another person and I'. In English, all these meanings are
summed up in the one, crude pronoun 'we'. Grammar is universal and plays a part
in every language, no matter how widespread it is. So the question which has
baffled many linguists is - who created grammar?

At first, it would appear that this question is impossible to answer. To find out
how grammar is created, someone needs to be present at the time of a language's
creation, documenting its emergence. Many historical linguists are able to trace
modern complex languages back to earlier languages, but in order to answer the
question of how complex languages are actually formed, the researcher needs to
observe how languages are started from scratch. Amazingly, however, this is
possible.

Some of the most recent languages evolved due to the Atlantic slave trade. At
that time, slaves from a number of different ethnicities were forced to work
together under colonizer's rule. Since they had no opportunity to learn each
other's languages, they developed a make-shift language called a pidgin. Pidgins
are strings of words copied from the language of the landowner. They have little
in the way of grammar, and in many cases it is difficult for a listener to deduce
when an event happened, and who did what to whom. [A] Speakers need to use
circumlocution in order to make their meaning understood. [B] Interestingly,
however, all it takes for a pidgin to become a complex language is for a group of
children to be exposed to it at the time when they learn their mother
tongue. [C] Slave children did not simply copy the strings of words uttered by
their elders, they adapted their words to create a new, expressive language. [D] It
included standardized word orders and grammatical markers that existed in
neither the pidgin language, nor the language of the colonizers. Complex
 grammar systems which emerge from pidgins are termed creoles, and they are
invented by children. Further evidence of this can be seen in studying sign
languages for the deaf. Sign languages are not simply a series of gestures; they
utilizes the same grammatical machinery that is found in spoken
languages. Moreover, there are many different languages used worldwide. The
creation of one such language was documented quite recently in Nicaragua.
Previously, all deaf people were isolated from each other, but in 1979 a new
government introduced schools for the deaf. Although children were taught
speech and lip reading in the classroom, in the playgrounds they began to invent
their own sign system, using the gestures that they used at home. It was basically
a pidgin. Each child used the signs differently, and there was no consistent
grammar. However, children who joined the school later, when this inventive
sign system was already around, developed a quite different sign
language. Although it was based on the signs of the older children, the younger
children's language was more fluid and compact, and it utilized a large range of
grammatical devices to clarify meaning. What is more, all the children used the
signs in the same way. A new creole was born.
Some linguists believe that many of the world's most established languages were
creoles at first. The English past tensed ending may have evolved from the verb
'do'. 'It ended' may once have been 'It end-did'. Therefore, it would appear that
even the most widespread languages were partly created by children. Children
appear to have innate grammatical machinery in their brains, which springs to life
when they are first trying to make sense of the world around them. Their minds
can serve to create logical, complex structures, even when there is no grammar
present for them to copy.

1. In paragraph 1, why does the writer include information about the Cherokee
language?
A. To show how simple, traditional cultures can have complicated grammar
structures
B. To show how English grammar differs from Cherokee grammar
C. To prove that complex grammar structures were invented by the Cherokees.
D. To demonstrate how difficult it is to learn the Cherokee language

2. What can be inferred about the slaves' pidgin language?

A. It contained complex grammar.
B. It was based on many different languages.
 C. It was difficult to understand, even among slaves.
D. It was created by the land-owners.

3. All the following sentences about Nicaraguan sign language are true EXCEPT:
A. The language has been created since 1979.
B. The language is based on speech and lip reading.
C. The language incorporates signs which children used at home.
D. The language was perfected by younger children.

4. In paragraph 3, where can the following sentence be placed?

“It included standardized word orders and grammatical markers that existed in
neither the pidgin language, nor the language of the colonizers.”
A . [A]
B . [B]
C . [C]
D . [D]

5. ‘From scratch' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:

A. from the very beginning
B. in simple cultures
C. by copying something else
D. by using written information

6. 'Make-shift' in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:

A complicated and expressive
B simple and temporary
C extensive and diverse
D private and personal

7. Which sentence is closest in meaning to the highlighted sentence?

“Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how
widespread it is.”
A. All languages, whether they are spoken by a few people or a lot of
people, contain grammar.
B. Some languages include a lot of grammar, whereas other languages contain a
little.
 C. Languages which contain a lot of grammar are more common that languages
that contain a little.
D. The grammar of all languages is the same, no matter where the languages
evolved.

8. All of the following are features of the new Nicaraguan sign language
EXCEPT:
A. All children used the same gestures to show meaning.
B. The meaning was clearer than the previous sign language.
C. The hand movements were smoother and smaller.
D. New gestures were created for everyday objects and activities.

9. Which idea is presented in the final paragraph?

A. English was probably once a creole.
B. The English past tense system is inaccurate.
C. Linguists have proven that English was created by children.
D. Children say English past tenses differently from adults.

10. Look at the word 'consistent' in paragraph 4. This word could best be replaced
by which of the following?
A. natural
B. predictable
C. imaginable
D. uniform

Reading Comprehension For No. 11-20

Robert Capa
Robert Capa is a name that has for many years been synonymous with war
photography.
Born in Hungary in 1913 as Friedmann Endre Ernő, Capa was forced to
leave his native country after his involvement in antigovernment protests. Capa
had originally wanted to become a writer, but after his arrival in Berlin had first
found work as a photographer. He later left Germany and moved to France due to
the rise in Nazism. He tried to find work as a freelance journalist and it was here
that he changed his name to Robert Capa, mainly because he thought it would
sound more American.
In 1936, after the breakout of the Spanish Civil war, Capa went to Spain
and it was here over the next three years that he built his reputation as a war
photographer. It was here too in 1936 that he took one of his most famous pictures,
The Death of a Loyalist Soldier. One of Capa’s most famous quotes was 'If your
pictures aren't good enough, you're not close enough.' And he took his attitude of
getting close to the action to an extreme. His photograph, The Death of a Loyalist
Soldier is a prime example of this as Capa captures the very moment the soldier
falls. However, many have questioned the authenticity of this photograph,
claiming that it was staged.
When World war II broke out, Capa was in New York, but he was soon
back in Europe covering the war for Life magazine. Some of his most famous
work was created on 6th June 1944 when he swam ashore with the first assault on
Omaha Beach in the D-Day invasion of Normandy. Capa, armed only with two
cameras, took more than one hundred photographs in the first hour of the landing,
but a mistake in the darkroom during the drying of the film destroyed all but eight
frames. It was the images from these frames however that inspired the visual style
of Steven Spielberg's Oscar winning movie ‘Saving Private Ryan’. When Life
magazine published the photographs, they claimed that they were slightly out of
focus, and Capa later used this as the title of his autobiographical account of the
war.
Capa’s private life was no less dramatic. He was friend to many of
Hollywood’s directors, actors and actresses. In 1943 he fell in love with the wife
of actor John Austin. His affair with her lasted until the end of the war and became
the subject of his war memoirs. He was at one time lover to actress Ingrid
Bergman. Their relationship finally ended in 1946 when he refused to settle in
Hollywood and went off to Turkey.
In 1947 Capa was among a group of photojournalists who founded
Magnum Photos. This was a co-operative organisation set up to support
photographers and help them to retain ownership of the copyright to their
work. Capa went on to document many other wars. He never attempted to
glamorise war though, but to record the horror. He once said, "The desire of any
war photographer is to be put out of business."
Capa died as he had lived. After promising not to photograph any more
wars, he accepted an assignment to go to Indochina to cover the first Indochina
war. On May 25th 1954 Capa was accompanying a French regiment when he left
 his jeep to take some photographs of the advance and stepped on a land mine. He
was taken to a nearby hospital, still clutching his camera, but was pronounced
dead on arrival. He left behind him a testament to the horrors of war and a standard
for photojournalism that few others have been able to reach.
Capa’s legacy has lived on though and in 1966 his brother Cornell founded
the International Fund for Concerned Photography in his honor. There is also a
Robert Capa Gold Medal, which is given to the photographer who publishes the
best photographic reporting from abroad with evidence of exceptional courage.
But perhaps his greatest legacy of all are the haunting images of the human
struggles that he captured.

11. Why did Capa change his name?

A. To hide his identity
B. Because he had been involved in protests
C. To sound more American
D. Because he had to leave Hungary
12. Capa originally wanted to be
A. A photojournalist
B. A writer
C. American
D. A protestor

13. Capa went to Spain to

A. fight in the civil war.
B. build his reputation.
C. have a holiday.
D. take photographs.

14. Capa’s famous picture Death of a Loyalist Soldier

A. was taken by someone else.
B. was definitely genuine.
C. wasn’t even taken in Spain.
D. cannot be proven genuine or staged.

15. When World War II broke out Capa

A. went to New York.
B. swam ashore on Omaha Beach.
 C. went to Europe.
D. went to Normandy.

16. A mistake meant that

A. only one hundred of Capa’s photographs were published.
B. Capa lost both of his two cameras.
C. Capa’s images inspired an Oscar winning movie.
D. Most of Capa’s images of the D-Day landing were destroyed.

17. Capa’s private life was

A. less dramatic than his professional life.
B. spent mostly in Hollywood.
C. very glamorous.
D. spent in Turkey.

18. Capa wanted his work to

A. be very famous.
B. show how glamorous war can be.
C. show the true horror of war.
D. make lots of money.

19. Which sentence best paraphrases paragraph 5?

A. Capa had a tragic private life and was never able to settle down and find
happiness.
B. Despite having many good friends and lovers, Capa always put his work
first.
C. Capa wanted to make friends with important people in Hollywood so that he
could move into the movie industry.
D. Capa’s private life was very complicated. He could not choose between the
two women he loved, so he went off to work in Turkey.

20. Which sentence best paraphrases paragraph 4?

A. Capa never tried to avoid danger. He risked his life to take photographs of the
D-Day invasion, but then destroyed most of them.
B. Capa took some of his most famous photographs during the D-Day
invasion, but most were tragically destroyed in an accident.
C. Capa only kept the best eight D-Day photographs as the others were out of
focus. These inspired the visual style of a Hollywood film.
D. Capa left Europe when the war broke out and went to take his most famous
photographs of the D-Day invasion.

Reading Comprehension for No. 21-25

Smart Energy
The next few decades will see great changes in the way energy is supplied
and used. In some major oil producing nations, 'peak oil' has already been
reached, and there are increasing fears of global warming. Consequently, many
countries are focusing on the switch to a low carbon economy. This transition will
lead to major changes in the supply and use of electricity. [A] Firstly, there will
be an increase in overall demand, as consumers switch from oil and gas to
electricity to power their homes and vehicles. [B] Secondly, there will be an
increase in power generation, not only in terms of how much is generated, but also
how it is generated, as there is growing electricity generation from renewable
sources. [C] There is also likely more electricity generation centers, as households
and communities take up the opportunity to install photovoltaic cells and small
scale wind turbines. To meet these challenges, countries are investing in Smart
Grid technology. [D] This system aims to provide the electricity industry with a
better understanding of power generation and demand, and to use this information
to create a more efficient power network.
Smart Grid technology basically involves the application of a computer
system to the electricity network. The computer system can be used to collect
information about supply and demand and improve engineer's ability to manage
the system. With better information about electricity demand, the network will
be able to increase the amount of electricity delivered per unit generated, leading
to potential reductions in fuel needs and carbon emissions. Moreover, the
computer system will assist in reducing operational and maintenance costs.
Smart Grid technology offers benefits to the consumer too. They will be
able to collect real-time information on their energy use for each
appliance. Varying tariffs throughout the day will give customers the incentive
to use appliances at times when supply greatly exceeds demand, leading to great
reductions in bills. For example, they may use their washing machines at
night. Smart meters can also be connected to the internet or telephone system,
allowing customers to switch appliances on or off remotely. Furthermore, if
houses are fitted with the apparatus to generate their own power, appliances can
 be set to run directly from the on-site power source, and any excess can be sold to
the grid.
With these changes comes a range of challenges. The first involves
managing the supply and demand. Sources of renewable energy, such as wind,
wave and solar, are notoriously unpredictable, and nuclear power, which is also
set to increase as nations switch to alternative energy sources, is inflexible. With
oil and gas, it is relatively simple to increase the supply of energy to match the
increasing demand during peak times of the day or year. With alternative sources,
this is far more difficult, and may lead to blackouts or system collapse. Potential
solutions include investigating new and efficient ways to store energy and
encouraging consumers to use electricity at off-peak times.
A second problem is the fact that many renewable power generation
sources are located in remote areas, such as windy uplands and coastal regions,
where there is currently a lack of electrical infrastructure. New infrastructures
therefore must be built. Thankfully, with improved smart technology, this can be
done more efficiently by reducing the reinforcement or construction costs.
Although Smart Technology is still in its infancy, pilot schemes to promote
and test it are already underway. Consumers are currently testing the new smart
meters which can be used in their homes to manage electricity use. There are also
a number of demonstrations being planned to show how the smart technology
could practically work, and trials are in place to test the new electrical
infrastructure. It is likely that technology will be added in 'layers', starting with
'quick win' methods which will provide initial carbon savings, to be followed by
more advanced systems at a later date. Cities are prime candidates for investment
into smart energy, due to the high population density and high energy use. It is
here where Smart Technology is likely to be promoted first, utilizing a range of
sustainable power sources, transport solutions and an infrastructure for charging
electrically powered vehicles. The infrastructure is already changing fast. By the
year 2050, changes in the energy supply will have transformed our homes, our
roads and our behavior.

21. According to paragraph 1, what has happened in some oil producing countries?
A.They are unwilling to sell their oil any more.
B. They are not producing as much oil as they used to.
C. The supply of oil is unpredictable.
D. Global warming is more sever here than in other countries.
22. Where in paragraph 1 can the following sentence be placed?
“There is also likely more electricity generation centers, as households and
communities take up the opportunity to install photovoltaic cells and small scale
wind turbines.”
A. [A]
B. [B]
C. [C]
D. [D]

23. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of Smart Grid technology to

consumers?
A. It can reduce their electricity bills.
B. It can tell them how much energy each appliance is using.
C. It can allow them to turn appliances on and off when they are not at home.
D. It can reduce the amount of energy needed to power appliances.

24. According to paragraph 4, what is the problem with using renewable sources
of power?
A. They do not provide much energy.
B. They often cause system failure and blackouts.
C. They do not supply a continuous flow of energy.
D. They can't be used at off-peak times.

25. In paragraph 5, what can be inferred about cities in the future?

A. More people will be living in cities in the future than nowadays.
B. People in cities will be using cars and buses powered by electricity.
C. All buildings will generate their own electricity.
D. Smart Grid technology will only be available in cities.
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