Chapter 4

Ch
Network Layer

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Network Layer 4-1
Chapter 4: Network Layer
Ch t goals:
Chapter l
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding
f versus routing
 how a router works
 routing
ti (path
( th selection)
l ti )
 dealing with scale
 advanced topics: IPv6
IPv6, mobility
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
 transport segment from application
transport

sending to receiving host network

data link
physical

 on sending side network

data link
network
data link

encapsulates
p segments
gm
network physical
physical
data link
physical
into datagrams
network network
data link data link
physical physical

 on rcvingg side, delivers network

t k network
segments to transport data link
physical
network
data link
physical

layer data link

physical
application
 network layer protocols network
data link
transport
network

in every host, router

network
physical data link
network data link
physical
data link physical

router
t examines i h
header
d
physical

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-4
Two Key Network
Network-Layer
Layer Functions

 forwarding: move analogy:

packets from router’s
input to appropriate  routing: process of
router output planning trip from
source to dest
 routing: determine
route taken by  forwarding
forwarding: process
packets from source of getting through
to dest.
dest single interchange

 routing
g algorithms
g

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s
k t’ h
header
d
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
 3rdd important
i f
function
i iin some network
k architectures:
hi
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening
routers establish virtual connection
 routers
t gett involved
i l d
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network:
k between
b two h
hosts (may
( also
l involve
i l
intervening routers in case of VCs)
 transport:
t nsp t: between
b t n ttwo p
processes
c ss s

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel”
channel transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?

Example services for Example

E l services
i for
f a
individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
 guaranteed
t dd delivery
li  in-order
in order datagram
 guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40 msec  guaranteed minimum
delay bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

 Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

I t
Internet
t best ff t none
b t effort no no no no (inferred
(i f d
via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
g
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR o e
none o
no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-10

Network layer connection and
connection-less service
 datagram
d network
k provides
d network-layer
k l
connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer
connection service
 analogous to the transport-layer services,
but
but:
 service:host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or the other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source
source-to-dest
to dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
 performance wise
performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
dd )
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each p passing
g connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)

Network Layer 4-12

VC implementation
a VC consists of:
f
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along
path
 packet
k belonging
b l i to VC carries
i VC number
b
(rather than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each link.
 New VC number comes from forwarding
g table

Network Layer 4-13

 Forwarding
g table VC number

12 22 32

1 3
2

Forwarding
F din ttable
bl in interface
number
northwest router:
I
Incoming
i iinterface
t f I
Incoming
i VC # Outgoing
O t i interface
i t f Outgoing
O t i VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

Routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols

 used to setup, maintain teardown VC

 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet

application
transport 5.5 Data flow begins 6 Receive data application
6. pp
transport
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call
network
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call
data link
physical
h i l
physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end
end to end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”

 packets forwarded using destination host address

 packets between same source-dest pair may take
different paths

application
application
transport
transport
network
network
d t li
data link
k 1.
1 S
Send
dddata
t 2. Receive data
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-16

 4 billion
Forwarding table possible entries

Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

th
through
h 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise
th i 3

Network Layer 4-17

Longest prefix matching

Prefix Match Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 1
11001000 00010111 00011 2
otherwise 3

Examples

D 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001

DA: Whi h interface?
Which i t f ?

DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 Which interface?

Network Layer 4-18

Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)

 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers
 human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict
 strict timing, reliability
timing req.
requirements
 “smart”
smart end systems
 need for guaranteed
(computers)
service
 can adapt, perform
 “dumb”
dumb end systems
control, error recovery
 telephones
 simple inside network,
 complexity inside
complexity at “edge”
edge
network
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult
Network Layer 4-19
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-20

Router Architecture Overview
Two key
y router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding
forward ng datagrams from incoming
ncom ng to outgo
outgoing
ng llink
nk

Network Layer 4-21

 Input Port Functions

Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:
e g Ethernet
e.g.,  given datagram dest.,
dest lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric

Network Layer 4-22

Three types
yp of switching
g fabrics

Network Layer 4-23

Switching Via Memory
First generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct
control of CPU
packet copied to system’s
system s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus
crossings per datagram)
Input Memory Output
Port Port

System Bus

Network Layer 4-24

 Switching Via a Bus

 datagram from input port memory

to output port memory via a shared
bus
 bus contention: switching speed
limit d b
limited by bus b
bandwidth
nd idth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient
speed for access and enterprise
routers

Network Layer 4-25

Switching Via An Interconnection
Network

 overcome bus bandwidth limitations

 Banyan networks, other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
lti
 advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed
length cells
cells, switch cells through the fabric.
fabric
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps through the
interconnection network

Network Layer 4-26

Output Ports

 Buffering required when datagrams arrive from

fabric faster than the transmission rate
 Scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission

Network Layer 4-27

Output port queueing

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output
t t li
line speed
d
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
Network Layer 4-28
How much buffering?
 RFC
F 3439
4 rule
l of
f thumb:
h b average buffering
b ff
equal to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times
l k capacity C
link
 e.g., C = 10 Gps link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 Recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering
g equal
q to RTT. C
N

Network Layer 4-29

Input Port Queuing
 Fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing
may occur at input queues
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram
at front of queue prevents others in queue from
moving forward
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!

Network Layer 4-30

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-31

 The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:

Transport layer: TCP, UDP

Routing protocols IP protocol

•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP
RIP, OSPF
OSPF, BGP •datagram
g format
Network
N t k •packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table
•error reporting
•router “signaling”

Link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-32

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-33

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number 32 bits total datagram
g
header length a . type
head.
h yp of f length (bytes)
(bytes) ver l
lengthh
len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number ti
time to
t upper header
h d
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
each router) 32 bit source IP address

upper layer protocol 32 bit destination IP address

to deliver payload to E.g.
g timestamp,
p,
Options (if any)
record route
how much overhead data taken, specify
with TCP? (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of TCP typically
ll a TCPP to visit.
or UDP segment)
 20 bytes of IP
 = 40 bytes
b t s + app
layer overhead
Network Layer 4-34
 IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
 network links have MTU
((max.transfer
t f size)
i ) - largest
l t
possible link-level frame.
 different link types, fragmentation:
diff
different t MTU
MTUs in: one large
l datagram
d
 large IP datagram divided out: 3 smaller datagrams
(“fragmented”) within net
 one datagram becomes
several datagrams
reassembly
 “reassembled” only y at final
destination
 IP header bits used to
fy, order related
identify,
fragments

Network Layer 4-35

 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
Example =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte
One large datagram becomes
d
datagram several smaller datagrams
 MTU = 1500 bytes
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =0
1480 bytes in
data field length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =185
offset =
1480/8 length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.1.1

identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection
223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

and physical link

 router’s typically have
multiple
p interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 host typically has one
interface
 IP addresses
dd
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-38

Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1

 subnet part (high 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
order bits) 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 host
h t partt (low
(l order
d
bits) 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.27
 What’ss a subnet ?
What
subnet
 device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
address
dd
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network
k consisting of
f 3 subnets
b

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets 223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24

Recipe
R cip
 To determine the
subnets detach each
subnets,
interface from its
host or router,,
creating islands of
isolated networks.
E h isolated
Each i l d network
k
is called a subnet. 223.1.3.0/24

Subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-40

Subnets 223.1.1.2

How many?
y 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-41

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x,
a b c d/x where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200 23 16 0/23
200.23.16.0/23
Network Layer 4-42
IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control panel >network >configuration
control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX:
N X /etc/rc.config
/ tc/rc.conf g
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically
y y get
g address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-43

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Goal:
G l allow
ll host to dynamically
h d i ll obtain
b i iits IP address
dd f
from
network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected an
“on”)
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
[optional]
l
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
Network Layer 4-44
DHCP client-server
li t scenario
i

A 223.1.1.1 DHCP 223.1.2.1

server
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
B
223.1.2.2 arriving DHCP
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27 E client needs
address
dd iin thi
this
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
network

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 arriving
DHCP discover
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
time Lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-46

DHCP: more than IP address
DHCP
DH P can return more than
h just allocated
ll d IP
P
address on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host
portion of address)

Network Layer 4-47

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs its
DHCP UDP IP address, addr of first-
IP
hop router, addr of DNS
DHCP

DHCP Eth
Phy server: use DHCP

 DHCP request encapsulated

DHCP

in UDP, encapsulated in IP,

DHCP encapsulated in 802.1
Ethernet
DHCP
168 1 1 1
168.1.1.1
DHCP UDP
IP
 Ethernet frame broadcast
DHCP

DHCP Eth router (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,

Phy (runs DHCP) received
i d at router running
i
DHCP server

 Ethernet demux’ed
demux ed to IP
demux’ed, UDP demux’ed to
DHCP

Network Layer 4-48

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’ss IP address
client address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server

 encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client
client, demux’ing
demux ing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router  client now knows its IP
DHCP
Phy (runs DHCP) address, name and IP
address of DSN server, IP
address of its first-hop
router

Network Layer 4-49

 DHCP: wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
Hardware type:
yp Ethernet reply
py
output (home LAN)
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
B t flags:
Bootp fl 0
0x0000
0000 (Unicast)
(U i t) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron
Wistron_23:68:8a
23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1
(t=1,l=4)
l=4) Subnet Mask = 255255.255.255.0
255 255 0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option:
p ((t=12,l=5)
, ) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-50

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP
Q
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP
ISP’ss
address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200

200.23.16.0/23
23 16 0/23
Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-51

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing
g allows efficient advertisement of routing
g
information:

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send
Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
199.31.0.0/16

Network Layer 4-52

H rar
Hierarchical
a aaddressing:
r ng mmore
r specific
p f
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

Network Layer 4-53

IP addressing: the last word...
word

Q: How
H d
does an ISP P get block
bl k of f addresses?
dd
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation
p for Assigned
g
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns
g domain names,, resolves disputes
p

Network Layer 4-54

 NAT: Network Address Translation

rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138 76 29 7
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address:
dd 138
138.76.29.7,
76 29 7 h
have 10.0.0/24
10 0 0/24 address
dd f
for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)

Network Layer 4-55

 NAT: Network Address Translation

 Motivation:
M i i l
local
l network
k uses just
j one IP address
dd as
far as outside world is concerned:
 range off addresses
dd ss s nott needed
d d from
f ISP:
ISP just
j st one IP
address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).

Network Layer 4-56

 NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port

#) of every y outgoing
g g datagram
g to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.

 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source

IP address,
address port #) to (NAT IP address
address, new port #)
translation pair

 incoming
i i d
datagrams: replace
l (NAT IP address,
dd new
port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram
p
with corresponding g (source
( IP address, port
p #))
stored
d in NAT
N table
bl
Network Layer 4-57
 NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
10 0 0 1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
…… ……
10 0 0 1 3345 to
10.0.0.1,
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10 0 0 1
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
. . .
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138 76 29 7 5001 to 10
138.76.29.7, 10.0.0.1,
0 0 1 3345

Network Layer 4-58

NAT: Network Address Translation

 16-bit
16 b port-number b f field:
ld
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
L N d address!
LAN-side dd !
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, eg, P2P applications
 address
dd ss shortage
sh t should
sh uld instead
inst d be
b solved
s lv d by
b
IPv6

Network Layer 4-59

NAT traversal problem
 c
client
nt want
wants tto connect
c nn ct tto
server with address 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.1
 server address 10.0.0.1 local Client
to LAN (client can
can’tt use it as ?
destination addr)
 only one externally visible 10.0.0.4
NATted address: 138.76.29.7
138 76 29 7
138.76.29.7 NAT
 solution 1: statically
router
configure
g NAT to forward
incoming connection
requests at given port to
server
 e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
portt 25000
Network Layer 4-60
NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway 10.0.0.1
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows
NATted host to: IGD
 learn public IP address 10.0.0.4
(138 76 29 7)
(138.76.29.7)
138.76.29.7 NAT
 add/remove port mappings
router
(with lease times)

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-61

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 External client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to
b client
by li t relay
l initiated
initi t d
10.0.0.1
by NATted host
3. relaying
Client
established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-62

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-63

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

 used
d by
b hosts
h t & routers
t to
t
communicate network-level Type Code description
information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting:
3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest p
port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used 3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer
y “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
 ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
 ICMP message
message: type, code plus 9 0 route advertisement
first 8 bytes of IP datagram 10 0 router discovery
causing error 11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-64

Traceroute and ICMP
 Source
S sends
d series
i off  When
Wh ICMP message
UDP segments to dest arrives, source calculates
 First has TTL =1 RTT
 Second has TTL=2, etc.  Traceroute does this 3
 Unlikely port number times
 When nth datagram arrives Stopping criterion
to nth router:  UDP segment eventually
 Router discards datagram arrives at destination host
 And sends to source an  Destination returns ICMP
ICMP message (type 11, “host unreachable” packet
code 0)
(type 3,
3 code 3)
 Message includes name of
 When source gets this
router& IP address
ICMP, stops.

Network Layer 4-65

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-66

 IPv6
 Initial motivation: 32
32-bit
bit address space soon
to be completely allocated.
 Additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header
h d changes
h tto facilitate
f ilit t Q QoS
S
IPv6 datagram format:
 fixed-length
fi d l th 40 bbyte
t h
header
d
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-67

IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority:
y identify
fy priority
p y among
g datagrams
g in flow
f
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
N
Next header:
h d id
identify
if upper layer
l protocoll f
for d
data

Network Layer 4-68

Other Changes from IPv4
 Checksum
h k : removed
d entirely
l to reduce
d
processing time at each hop
 Options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated byy “Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additionalmessage types,
types e.g.
e g “Packet
Packet Too Big”
Big
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-69

Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
 Not
N all ll routers can be
b upgradedd d simultaneous
l
 no “flag days”
 How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

Network Layer 4-70

Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B E F
Ph i l view:
Physical i
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-71

Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
Ph i l view:
Physical i
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Flow: X Src:B Src:B Flow: X

Src: A Dest: E Dest: E Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
B-to-C: B-to-C:
t
IPv6 IP 6
IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4
Network Layer 4-72
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5 Routing
R i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-73

Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing
ti algorithm
l ith

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-74

Graph abstraction
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
Graph: G = (N
(N,E)
E) 1

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-75

 Graph abstraction: costs
5 • c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
v 3 w
5 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
2
u 2 z
1 • cost could always be 1, or
3
1 inversely related to bandwidth,
x y 2
or inversely
l related
l d to
1
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost p

Q path between u and z ?

Routing
g algorithm:
g algorithm
g that finds least-cost p
path

Network Layer 4-76

Routing Algorithm classification
Global
G o a or decentralized
c ntra z Static or dynamic?
information? Static:
Global:
 routes change slowly
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info over time
 “link
link state”
state algorithms Dynamic:
Decentralized:  routes change more
 router knows p physically-
y y quickly
q y
connected neighbors, link
 periodic update
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of  in
n response to llink
nk
computation, exchange of cost changes
info with neighbors
 “distance
“di t vector”
t ” algorithms
l ith
Network Layer 4-77
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-78

A Link
Link-State
State Routing Algorithm

Dijk
Dijkstra’s
’ algorithm
l i h Notation:
N i
 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from node
known to all nodes x to y; = ∞ if not direct
 accomplished via “link neighbors
state broadcast”
 D(v): current value of cost
 all nodes have same info of path from source to
 computes least cost paths dest. v
from one node (‘source”)
( source ) to
all other nodes
( ) predecessor
 p(v): d node
d
along path from source to v
 gives forwarding table
f th
for thatt node
d N : set of nodes whose
 N':
least cost path definitively
 iterative: after k
known
iterations,, know least cost
path to k dest.’s
Network Layer 4-79
Dijsktra’ss Algorithm
Dijsktra
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v)
( ) = min(( D(v),
( ) D(w)
( ) + c(w,v)
( ))
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N N'

Network Layer 4-80

 Dijkstra’ss algorithm: example
Dijkstra
Step N
N' D(v),p(v)
D(v) p(v) D(w)
D(w),p(w)
p(w) D(x),p(x)
D(x) p(x) D(y),p(y)
D(y) p(y) D(z) p(z)
D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2
2,u 3
3,y 4,y
4
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
1
Network Layer 4-81
Dijkstra’ss algorithm: example (2)
Dijkstra
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

Resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u x)
(u,x)
y (u,x)
w ((u,x)
, )
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-82
 Dijkstra’ss algorithm,
Dijkstra algorithm discussion
Algorithm
g complexity:
p y n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
Oscillations possible:
p
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

A A A A
1 1+e 2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e
D 0
B D B D B D B
0 0 1+e 1 0 0 1+e 1
0 C e 0 0 1 e
C C 1+e 0 C
1 1
e … recompute
p … recompute
p … recompute
p
initially
routing
Network Layer 4-83
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-84

Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford
B ll F dE Equation (dynamic
(d programming))
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y

Then

dx(y)
y = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y)
y }

where min is taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-85
Bellman-Ford example
5
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z B-F equation says:
1
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x y 2
1 c(u,x)
( ) + dx(z),
( )
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
5
1 + 3,
5 + 3}} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table
Network Layer 4-86
Distance Vector Algorithm
 Dx(y)
( ) = estimate of
f least
l cost from
f x to y
 Node x knows cost to each neighbor
g v:
c(x,v)
 Node x maintains distance vector Dx =
[Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x also maintains its neighbors
neighbors’
distance vectors
 For each neighbor v, v x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-87

 Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic
B i id
idea:
 From time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 Asynchronous
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{{c(x,v)
( , ) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate

Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-88

Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative,, asynchronous:
y Each node
node:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
 DV update message from cost or msg from neighbor)
neighbor
Distributed:
recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors
i hb only
l when
h its
i DV
changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors
g then notify
y
changed notify neighbors
changed,
their neighbors if
necessary

Network Layer 4-89

 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to
x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
node y table
cost to
x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
y 2 0 1
from

7
z ∞∞ ∞
node z table
cost to
x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 71 0
f

time
Network Layer 4-90
 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

from
y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
f

time
Network Layer 4-91
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
1
 node detects local link cost change y
4 1
 updates routing info, recalculates
x z
distance vector 50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,

and informs its neighbors.
“good
news At time
ti t1, z receives
i s the
th update
d t ffrom y and
d updates
d t s its ttable.
bl
It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV.
travels
fast”
fast At time t2, y receives z’ss update and updates its distance table.
table
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.

Network Layer 4-92

Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
g
60
 good news travels fast y
 bad news travels slow - 4 1
x z
““countt to
t iinfinity”
fi it ” problem!
bl !
50
 44 iterations before
algorithm
g stabilizes: see
text
Poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to
get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s)
(Z s) distance
to X is infinite (so Y won’t
route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve
count to infinity problem?
Network Layer 4-93
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message
g complexity
p y Robustness: what happens
pp
 LS: with n nodes, E links, if router malfunctions?
O(nE) msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between
 node can advertise
neighbors only
incorrect link cost
 convergence time varies
 each node computes only
Speed of Convergence its own table
 LS: O(n
( 2) algorithm
g requires
q DV:
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
 may have oscillations incorrect path cost
 DV:
DV convergence time
ti varies
i  each node’s
node s table used by
 may be routing loops
others
• error propagate thru
 count
count-to-infinity
to infinity problem
networkk
Network Layer 4-94
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5 Routing
R i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-95

Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
flat
… not true in practice

scale: with 200 million administrative autonomy

destinations:  internet = network of
 can’t store all dest’s in networks
routing tables!  each network admin may
 routing table exchange want to control routing in its
would swamp links! own network

Network Layer 4-96

Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into Gateway router
G
regions, “autonomous
 Direct link to router in
systems”
y t m (AS)
( )
th AS
another
 routers in same AS run
same routingg protocol
p
 “intra-AS” routing
protocol
 r ut rs in diff
routers different
r nt AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

Network Layer 4-97

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d
d AS1
 forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing routing algorithm
algorithm algorithm
 intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding f int
for internal
n lddests
sts
table
 inter-AS & intra-As
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-98
Inter-AS tasks AS1 must
must:
 suppose router in AS1 1. learn which dests are
receives datagram reachable through
d
destined
d outside
d off AS2 which
AS2, hi h through
h h
AS1: AS3
 router should 2 propagate this
2.
forward packet to reachability info to all
gateway router, but routers in AS1
which one? Job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a
a 1b
1d AS11
Network Layer 4-99
 Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d

 suppose
pp AS1 learns (via
( inter-AS p
protocol)) that subnet
x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2.
 inter-AS p
protocol propagates
p p g reachability
y info to all
internal routers.
 router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.
 installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

x
3c
3a
3 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1
1a 1b AS1
1d
Network Layer 4-100
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.AS2
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets
k t ffor ddestt x.
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

x
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1

Network Layer 4-101

Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.AS2
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets
k t ffor ddestt x.
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
 hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of
two routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-102

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-103

Intra-AS
Intra AS Routing

 also
l known
k as Interior
I i G Gateway Protocols
P l (IGP)
 most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF:
OSPF Open
O Shortest
Sh t t Path
P th First
Fi t

 IGRP: Interior Gateway

y Routing
g Protocol (Cisco
(
proprietary)

Network Layer 4-104

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-105

RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)

 distance
di vector algorithm
l i h
 included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

From router A to subnets:

u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y

Network Layer 4-106

RIP advertisements
 distance
d vectors: exchanged
h d among
neighbors every 30 sec via Response
M
Message (also
( l called
ll d advertisement)
d )
 each advertisement: list of up
p to 25
destination subnets within AS

Network Layer 4-107

RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
R ti /F
Routing/Forwarding
di ttable
bl iin D

Network Layer 4-108

 RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - 1 Advertisement
x - 1 from A to D
f
z C 4
…. … ...
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num
Num. of hops to dest
dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing/Forwarding table in D Network Layer 4-109
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If
f no aadvertisement
rt s m nt h heard
ar aft
afterr 180
8 ssec
c -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor
g invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors
g in turn send out new advertisements (if
(
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-110

RIP Table processing

 RIP routing
i tables
bl managed
dbby application-level
li i l l
process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements
d tis ts ssentt iin UDP packets,
k ts periodically
i di ll
repeated
routed routed

Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) t bl
table t bl
table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-111

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-112

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”:
open : publicly available
 uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor

router
t
 advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP

Network Layer 4-113

OSPF “advanced”
advanced features (not in RIP)

 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to

prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 F each
For h li
link,
k multiple
lti l costt metrics
t i ffor diff
differentt
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort;
high for real time)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
domains
Network Layer 4-114
Hi
Hierarchical
hi l OSPF

Network Layer 4-115

Hierarchical OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area
area, backbone
backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 area border routers: “summarize”
summarize distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers
routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundaryy routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-116

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-117

Internet inter
inter-AS
AS routing: BGP

 BGP (Border
(B d Gateway
G t Protocol):
P t l) th de
the d
facto standard
 BGP provides
id each
h AS a means to:
t
1. Obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
ASs
2. Propagate reachability information to all AS-
internal routers.
3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based on
reachability information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to
rest of Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer 4-118

BGP basics
 pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info
over semi-permanent TCP connections: BGP sessions
 BGP sessions
i need
d nott correspond d to
t physical
h i l
links.
 when AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1AS1:
 AS2 promises it will forward datagrams towards
that prefix.
 AS2 can aggregate
t prefixes
fi iin it
its advertisement
d ti t

eBGP session
3c iBGP session
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
Network Layer 4-119
Distributing
g reachability
y info
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends
prefix reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix
info to all routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info
to AS2 over 1b-to-2a eBGP session
 when
h routert learns
l of
f new prefix,
fi it creates
t entry
t
for prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3c iBGP session
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
Network Layer 4-120
Path attributes & BGP routes
 advertised
d ti d prefix fi iincludes
l d BGP attributes.
tt ib t
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 two
t iimportant
t t attributes:
tt ib t
 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e
e.g,
g AS 67 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router
to next
next-hop
hop AS. (may be multiple links from
current AS to next-hop-AS)
 when g
gateway
y router receives route
advertisement, uses import policy to
accept/decline.

Network Layer 4-121

BGP route selection
 router may learn
l about
b more than
h 1 route
to some prefix. Router must select route.
 elimination rules:
1. local p
preference value attribute: policy
p y
decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-122

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
TCP
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: openss TCP connection
ti tot peer and
d
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer 4-123

 BGP routing policy
legend
g : p
provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A,B,C are provider networks

 X,W,Y are customer (of
( f provider
d networks)
k )
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-124

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend
g : p
provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A advertises path AW to B
 B advertises path BAW to X
 Should B advertise path BAW to C?
 No way! B gets no “revenue”
revenue for routing CBAW
since neither W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to fforce C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Network Layer 4-125
Why different Intra-
Intra and Inter-AS
Inter AS routing ?

Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
routed
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-126

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-127

 Broadcast Routing
g
 deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 source duplication
d li ti is i iinefficient:
ffi i t
duplicate
duplicate R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

 source duplication: how does source

determine recipient
p addresses?
Network Layer 4-128
In-network duplication
 flooding:
fl di when
h node
d receives
i b
brdcst
d t pckt,
kt
sends copy to all neighbors
 Problems:
P bl s cycles
l s & broadcast
b d st storm
st
 controlled flooding: node only brdcsts pkt
if it hasn
hasn’tt brdcst same packet before
 Node keeps track of pckt ids already brdcsted
 Or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
pckt if it arrived on shortest path between
node and source
 spanning tree
 No redundant p
packets received by
y any
y node

Network Layer 4-129

Spanning Tree
 First
F construct a spanning tree
 Nodes forward copies
p only
y along
g spanning
p g
tree
A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A (b) Broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-130

Spanning
p g Tree: Creation
 Center node
 Each node sends unicast join message to center
node
 Message
M ss forwarded
f d d until
ntil it arrives
i s att a node
n d already
l d
belonging to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) Stepwise construction (b) Constructed spanning
of spanning tree tree
Network Layer 4-131
Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
 Goal
Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting
routers having local mcast group members
 tree: not all p
paths between routers used
 source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
 shared-tree: same tree used by all group members

Shared tree Source-based trees

A
Approaches
h s for
f b building
ildi mcast
st ttreess
Approaches:
h
 source-based tree: one tree p
per source
 shortest path trees
 reverse p
path forwarding
g
 group-shared tree: group uses one tree
 minimal spanning (Steiner)
 center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific

protocols adopting these approaches
Shortest Path Tree
 mcast
m st forwarding
f di tree:
t : tree
t of
f sh
shortest
t st
path routes from source to all receivers
 Dijkstra’s
Dijk ’ algorithm
l i h

S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added
dd d bby algorithm
l ith
Reverse Path Forwarding

 rely on router’s knowledge of unicast

shortest path from it to sender
 each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link

on shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
Reverse Path Forwarding: example
S: source
S
LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be
R6 R7 forwarded
datagram will not be
forwarded

• result is a source-specific reverse SPT

– may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
Reverse Path Forwarding:
g pruning
p g
 forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast
group members
 no need to forward datagrams down subtree
 “prune”
“p ” msgs
ms s sent
s t upstream
pst m by
b router
t with
ith no
downstream group members

S: source LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
group member
b

R2 router with no attached

P group
g p member
P
R5 prune message
R3 P links with multicast
R6 R7 forwarding
Shared-Tree:
Shared Tree: Steiner Tree

 Steiner Tree: minimum cost tree

connecting all routers with attached group
members
b
pproblem is NP-complete
p
 excellent heuristics exists
 not used in practice:
 computational complexity
 information about entire network needed
 monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave
Center-based trees
 single
l ddelivery
l tree shared
h d by
b all
ll
 one router identified as “center” of tree
 to join:
 edge router sends unicast join
join-msg
msg addressed
to center router
jjoin-msg
g “processed”
p byy intermediate routers
and forwarded towards center
jjoin-msg
g either hits existingg tree branch for
this center, or arrives at center
 path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router
Center-based trees: an example

Suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6 R7
I t
Internet
t Multicasting
M lti ti R Routing:
ti DVMRP

 DVMRP:
D P distance
d vector multicast
l routing
protocol, RFC1075
 flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
 RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
 no assumptions about underlying unicast
 initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
 routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs
DVMRP: continued…
continued
 soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
min )
“forgets” branches are pruned:
 mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
 downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
 routers can quickly regraft to tree
 following
f ll i IGMP jjoin
i att leaf
l f
 odds and ends
 commonly implemented in commercial routers
 Mbone routing done using DVMRP
Tunneling
Q: How to connect “islands”
islands of multicast
routers in a “sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

 mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-multicast-

addressed)) datagram
g
 normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast to
receiving mcast router
 receiving
i i mcastt router
t unencapsulates
l t tto gett mcastt d
datagram
t
 PIM Protocol
PIM: P t l Independent
I d d t Multicast
M lti t
 not dependent on any specific underlying unicast
routing algorithm (works with all)
 two different multicast distribution scenarios :

Dense: Sparse:
 group members  # networks with group
densely packed,
packed in members small wrt #
“close” proximity. interconnected networks
 bandwidth more  g
group
p members “widelyy
plentiful dispersed”
 bandwidth not plentiful
C
Consequences of
f Sparse-Dense
S D Dichotomy:
Di h t

Dense Sparse:
 group membership by  no membership until
routers
t assumed d until
til routers
t explicitly
li itl jjoin
i
routers explicitly prune  receiver- driven
 data-driven
data driven construction construction of mcast
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF) tree (e.g., center-based)
 bandwidth and non
non-  bandwidth and nonnon-group-
group
group-router processing router processing
profligate conservative
PIM Dense
PIM- D s Mode
M d

flood-and-prune RPF, similar to DVMRP but

 underlying
y g unicast protocol
p provides
p RPF info
for incoming datagram
 less complicated (less efficient) downstream
flood than DVMRP reduces reliance on
underlying routing algorithm
 has
h protocol
t l mechanism
h i for
f router
t tot detect
d t t it
is a leaf-node router
PIM - Sparse Mode
 center-based
b d approach
h
 router sends join msg
tto rendezvous
d s point
i t R1
R4
(RP) join
 intermediate routers R2
join
update state and
forward join R5
jjoin
 after
f joining via RP, R3 R7
router can switch to R6

source specific tree

source-specific all
ll d
data
t multicast
lti t rendezvous
 increased performance: from rendezvous point
less concentration, point
shorter paths
PIM - Sparse Mode
sender(s):
d ( )
 unicast data to RP,
which
hi h dist
distributes
ib t s d
down R1
R4
RP-rooted tree join

 RP can extend mcast R2

join
tree upstream to R5
source
ur jjoin
R3 R7
 RP can send stop msg R6
if no attached
all
ll d
data
t multicast
lti t
receivers from rendezvous
rendezvous
point
 “no one is listening!” point
Chapter 4: summary
 4.
4 1 Introduction
I d i  4
4.5
5RRouting
i algorithms
l i h
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram
d t networks
t ks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6
4 6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet
Internet
RIP
Protocol 
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
g
 ICMP  4.7
4 B Broadcast
d and
d
 IPv6 multicast routing

Network Layer 4-149