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What is Engine?
An engine is a machine that converts chemical energy into useful mechanical motion. It is also the heart
of an automobile and works on petrol, diesel, CNG or LPG based on application. Engines are available in
various cylinder configurations ranging.

Basic Engine Terminologies

A number of terminologies are used to compare and differentiate engines. Following are some engine
terminologies:

 Top dead center  Piston displacement

 Bottom dead center  Compression ration
 Bore  Engine torque
 Engine capacity  Indicative power
 Stroke  Brake power
 Clearance volume Power
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Top Dead Centre: Top dead center refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is at the
topmost position, i.e. when the piston the closest to the cylinder head.

Bottom Dead Centre: This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is at the lowest
position, i.e. when the piston the farthest to the cylinder head.
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Bore: Bore is the internal diameter of the of the engine cylinder.

Stroke: This is the distance travelled by the piston when it travels from top dead center to the bottom
dead center.
Clearance volume: The volume of the cylinder above the piston when it is in the top dead center
position is called clearance volume.

Piston displacement: It is the volume swept by the piston in moving from top dead center to bottom
dead center. It is also called swept volume.
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Engine Capacity
It is the total piston displacement or the swept volume of all the cylinders. It is denoted by cc (cubic
capacity).

Compression Ratio
This indicates the extent of which the charge (air/fuel) can be compressed. It is calculated as the ratio of
volume above the piston at the bottom dead center to the volume above the piston at the top dead
center.

Power
It is the work done in a given period of time. Doing the same amount of work in a lesser time would require
more power.

Indicated Power (IP)

The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power. This is calculated from the
area on the engine indicator diagram. It is denoted by kW (kilowatt).

Brake Power (BP)

The power available at the crankshaft is called brake power. It is obtained by deducting various power
losses like friction. Usually measured using a dynamometer and is denoted by kW, PS (Pferdestärke) or
BHP (Brake Horse Power).

Engine Torque
It is described as the force of rotation acting about the crankshaft axis at any given point of time. It is
denoted by Nm (Newton Meter).

Engine Cycles
Automobiles are equipped with internal combustion engines that are used to produce the power required
to move the vehicle from one place to another. The two basic cycles on which internal combustion engines
work are as below:
 Otto cycle
 Diesel cycle
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Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is named after the German engineer Nicolaus Otto, who was the first person to build a
working four stroke engine, a stationary engine using a coal gas-air mixture for fuel (a gas engine). The
cycle consists of two adiabetics and two constant volume lines.

Process 1-2
This is the adiabatic compression of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder, also known as the compression
stroke.
Process 2-3
At this stage the air/fuel mixture is compressed at the top of the compression stroke with constant
volume, also known as ignition phase.

Process 3-4
This is the adiabatic expansion of the hot gaseous mixture in the cylinder head, also known as power
stroke.
Process 4-1
This is a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at the bottom
dead center.
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Diesel cycle
The diesel cycle is named after its inventor, Rudolph Diesel. It is similar to the Otto cycle, except in this
case the combustion takes place at constant pressure.

Process 1-2
This is the adiabatic compression of the air in the cylinder, also known as the compression stroke.

Process 2-3
At this stage the air is heated at constant pressure and diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder, also
known as ignition stage.

Process 3-4
This is the adiabatic expansion of the hot gaseous mixture in the cylinder head, also known as power
stroke.

Process 4-1
This is a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at the bottom
dead center.
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Classification of Engines

Automobile engines are classified based on different parameters viz. construction, fuel used and
mechanical action operating them. The fuel system used in these engines can be direct or indirect
injection, each having their own benefits and drawbacks.

Engine Categories
An internal combustion engine is classified into various categories based on its construction, fuel used to
achieve mechanical action and place of application.
Engines can be categorized on the basis of the following:
 Number of strokes
 Type of fuel used
 Engine layout

Number of Strokes
According to number of strokes engine classified in to two categories.

 Two stroke engine

 Four stroke engine

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Two Stroke Engine

In a two stroke engine entire cycle is completed and power output is achieved in two stroke i.e. one
revolution of the crankshaft. A two-stroke engine provides higher power-to-weight ratio, usually in a
narrow range of rotational speeds called the “power band” and have a less number of moving parts
which makes it compact and significantly lighter. These engines were earlier used mostly in two
wheelers, but now are almost obsolete.

Working
 The air/fuel mixture from the carburetor enters the cylinder when the piston moves upwards.
 The upward movement of the piston also compresses the air/fuel mixture which is ignited using a
spark plug when the piston just reaches TDC.

The ignition of air/fuel mixture generates a downward force which pushes the piston downwards.
During the downward movement of the piston, the fresh mixture entered into the crankcase from the
inlet port is compressed and pushed into the cylinder through the port by the crankshaft.

 Simultaneously the burnt gasses are also pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust port. This
process is called cross flow scavenging.
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Four Stroke Engine

In a four stroke engine the entire cycle is completed and power output is achieved in four strokes i.e.
two revolution of the crankshaft. These engines are generally bulkier and consists of a single or multiple
cylinders. They are used in all vehicles recently.
The four strokes involved in producing power in this engine are:
• Suction
• Compression
• Power
• Exhaust
Working
Suction: Suction or the Intake stroke is the first of the four strokes of the cycle. During this stroke the
piston moves to BDC from TDC causing the suction inside the cylinder via the inlet valve. This stroke
takes place during 0°-180° of crank rotation.

Compression: The compression stroke is the second of the four strokes of the cycle. During this stroke
the piston moves from BDC to TDC with both valves closed. The intake mixture is therefore compressed
in the combustion chamber due to the upward movement of the piston. As the piston rises the
temperature and pressure of the charge increases. This stroke takes place during 180°-360° of crank
rotation.
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Power: The intense heat and pressure generated by igniting the compressed mixture in the cylinder
causes the pressure to increase rapidly, this pressure forces the piston down towards the BDC with both
valves closed. This stroke takes place during 360°-540° of crank rotation.

Exhaust: The exhaust stroke is the last in the cycle. During this stroke the piston starts moving from BDC
to TDC. The inlet valve remains closed while the exhaust valve opens forces the burnt gases out through
the exhaust. This stroke takes place during 540°-720° of crank rotation.
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Type of Fuel Used

Engines used in automobiles use various fuels to generate power. Below are the most commonly fuels
used in automobiles.

Petrol Engine: Petrol engines use gasoline or petrol as a fuel to produce heat energy required to
produce power. Generally petrol engines are spark ignited engines, means the fuel and air mixture is
ignited by a spark plug.

Diesel Engines: Diesel engines use diesel as the fuel to produce the heat energy required to produce
power. Diesel engines are compression ignition engines in which only air is compressed and a fine diesel
spray through injectors ignites the compressed air at high temperature and pressure to produce the
heat energy.

Engine Layout
Automobile engines are also categorized by the layout. The most commonly used layouts are:
Reciprocating type
Rotary type
Reciprocating Type
In this type of layout, the piston moves inside the vertically arranged or horizontally arranged
cylinder block in back and forth manner to complete all the strokes of an engine. The crankshaft
is horizontally placed in the block on which the pistons and connecting rods are vertically fitted inside
the cylinder block. All recent engines, whether two or four stroke, diesel or petrol use this type of
layout.

The reciprocating type layout is further divided in the below categories:

 Inline cylinders
 V-Type cylinders
 W-Type cylinders
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Inline cylinders
The cylinders are arranged in a single line and each cylinder is adjacent to each other. There can
be single, 2, 3, 4 and 6 cylinder engines which can be arranged inline.

V-Type cylinders
As the name indicates the cylinders are arranged in a shape of ‘’ V’’ with a common crankshaft.
There can be 6, 8 cylinder engines in this configurations.

W-Type cylinders
The cylinders are arranged V type but the bores on each bank are offset to each other which are
in the shape of letter “W’’. There can be 12 or more cylinder engines in this configuration.
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Rotary Type
In this type of layout, the piston or rotor which is triangular shaped rotates inside the oval
shaped housing or chamber to complete the four strokes of an engine. The rotor and the housings
are sixed to form three working chambers of varying sizes. Each chamber is in different phase at same
time. The main advantage of this layout is greater power to weight ratio and is capable of sustaining a
high RPM. This layout is prone to poor emissions and requires an extra emission system. It is also known
as a Wankel engine. Not used much in Automobile applications now.

Fuel System
The fuel injection system used in automobiles is classified into two categories:
Direct injection
Indirect injection
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Direct Injection
In a direct injection diesel engine, fuel is injected directly into the cylinder through a injector located
above the engine cylinder.

The advantages of this system are:

 High power
 High efficiency
 Low emissions
However, some drawbacks of this system are:
 Higher sound levels and vibrations.

Indirect Injection
An indirect injection system is used to overcome the drawbacks of a direct injection system.
Here fuel is injected into a small pre-injection chamber which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow
opening. The initial combustion takes place in this pre-chamber slowing the rate of combustion
The advantages of this are:
 Reduced sound and vibrations
However it also has some disadvantages like:
 Less power
 Less efficiency
 More emissions
Differences between direct and indirect injection
Direct Injection Indirect Injection
High Compression ratio Little lower compression ratio
Higher injection pressure Lower injection pressure
Multi Hole Injection Single or dual hole injectors
Combustion chamber on piston Combustion chamber in cylinder head
Stronger combustion Relatively smoother combustion
Heavier components Little less heavier
More Noise Less Noise
Glow Plug can be Optional Glow plugs are necessary
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Working of Petrol and Diesel Engines

Engines are broadly classified into petrol and diesel engines. Each of these engines has a particular way
of operating which is different from each other.

Petrol Engine

Suction Stroke: During this stroke the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The movement to the piston away
from the cylinder head creates a pressure reduction below atmospheric pressure. The actual pressure
reduction depends on the speed and load on the engine. This reduction of pressure sucks the air/fuel
mixture (charge) into the cylinder via the intake valve till the piston reaches completely to the bottom
dead center.
Engines in which air/fuel mixture is inducted into the cylinder only due to pressure reduction are known
as naturally aspirated engines.
Compression Stroke: During this stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The movement to the
piston along with the charge towards the cylinder head creates an increase in pressure and temperature
During this stroke both, intake and exhaust valves are closed and at the end of which the cylinder
pressure will be from 8-13 bars. When the piston is just about to reach TDC, the charge is ignited using a
spark plug. The ignition of charge generates heat and rapid rise in pressure which may reach to even 60
bars at full load condition.

Power Stroke: Due to the ignition of the charge, the burning gasses expand exerting pressure on the
piston during this stage the force pushes the piston from TDC to BDC which is called the power stroke or
expansion stroke. At the end of the power stroke the inlet valve remains closed but the exhaust valve
starts opening.

Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Opening of the exhaust valve at
this stage allows the burnt gasses to escape or be pushed out from the cylinder. At the end of the
exhaust stroke, the cylinder pressure may fall to atmospheric pressure or even lesser.
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Diesel Engine
Suction Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Here, only air from the
atmosphere enters the cylinder unlike air and fuel mixture in the case of petrol engine. Engines in which
air is inducted into the cylinder only due to pressure reduction are known as naturally aspirated engines.
However, in recent times engines are also equipped with a turbocharger to force a higher volume of air
into the cylinder.

Compression Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The upward movement of
the piston compresses the air to a ratio of 1:22 of its original volume due to both valves being closed
which results in increase in air temperature. When the piston is just about to reach the TDC fuel (diesel)
is injected into the cylinder with the help of an injector.

Power Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The injection of fuel (diesel) in
the presence of high temperature compressed air causes the fuel to self-ignite. The ignition temperature
of diesel is about 400° C. The burning gasses exert pressure on the piston pushing it downwards which is
called power stroke. During this process both the valves are closed. When the piston reaches BDC, the
exhaust valve starts opening gradually.

Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The movement of piston from
BDC to TDC pushes the exhaust gasses out of the engine cylinder. During this process the exhaust valve
is open and the intake valve is closed. However, the intake valve also gradually opens just before the
completion of the exhaust valve.
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Internal Components of an Engine

The engine is made up of numerous components that are made of two main assemblies. These
assemblies are further divided into sub-assemblies and components. Each of these components plays a
vital role in the smooth functioning of the engine.
An engine component can be categorized into two main assemblies namely:
 Cylinder head
 Engine block
Each of the above main assemblies contains many different sub-assemblies and sub-components.
Cylinder Head
Cylinder Head is made of Aluminum which sits directly on the cylinder block over the pistons. It consists
of internal tracts and passages for the water flow, oil path, intake and exhaust ports, and combustion
chamber and so on. A gasket is also installed between the two mating surfaces of the cylinder head and
cylinder block to prevent leakage.

Following are the sub components that are housed inside the cylinder head:

 Cam shaft

 Rocker Shafts

 Rocker arms

 Tappets or lifters

 Valve and springs

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Cam Shaft
Camshaft is placed on the top of the cylinder head. Its main job is to operate and manage the inlet and
exhaust valves with the help of cam lobes which are an integral part of camshaft, based on the engine
cycle. Camshaft is made up of steel and attached to the crankshaft by means of belts, chain or gears. The
rotational speed of the camshaft is half the speed of the crankshaft.

Engines can be equipped with single overhead cam shaft (SOHC) or double overhead camshaft (DOHC).
In a SOHC configuration, both intake and exhaust valves are operated by a single camshaft. In a DOHC
configuration, the engine is equipped with separate camshafts for intake and exhaust valves. Camshaft
in some models drive the fuel pump, vacuum pump, fuel injectors etc.
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Rocker Shaft
The rocker shaft is made up of steel and usually used in SOHC mechanism. It holds the rocker arms in
place which operate the inlet and exhaust valves. Separate shafts for inlet and exhaust valves.

Rocker Arms
The rocker arms are made up of cast iron or steel. This will be fitted on the rocker shafts and each arm
operates one valve.
Tappets or Lifters
Tappet is a projection that is mounted on a rod and gets its rotation movement from the camshaft
lobes. In a cam drive mechanism it runs on the cam lobe and operates the valves.

In OHC, it transfers the linear motion to the valves through long push rods. The two types of tappets
found in engines are as below:
 Mechanical Tappets – which require adjustments periodically.

 Hydraulic Tappets – or HLA (Hydraulic Lash Adjuster) which does not require adjustments.
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Valves and springs

Valve is an important component in the cylinder head which opens and closes to allow the charge
(Air/fuel) to enter the combustion chamber and exit in the form of exhaust gases during the exhaust
stroke. The springs provide tension to the valve in-order to help it seat firmly on the valve seat, it also
helps the valve to return to the closed position once the stroke is completed.

Engines are generally provided with two separate valves for the inlet and exhaust for better engine
breathing. In some vehicles there can be two each for inlet and exhaust ports (altogether 4 valves per
cylinder).
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Engine Block
An engine block is made up of cast iron or aluminum. It is the main component of an engine as all 4
strokes or cycles are carried out in it. Like the cylinder head, engine block also has coolant passages,
lubrication passages, galleries, exhaust and intake etc. machined in it. It consists of cylinder bores and
provisions for the crankshaft and other sub components fitments.

The Engine Block houses the following components:

 Crankshaft assembly
 Crankshaft balancer
 Main bearings
 Connecting rod and bearings
 Piston, Piston pin and rings
 Crank case
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Crankshaft Assembly
The crankshaft is made of forged steel to provide a strength and is located between the engine block
and the bed plate. It consists of 5 main bearing journals, the main bearing journals have oil passages
cross drilled for lubrication of the connecting rod bearings

The 3rd main bearing or the center main bearing is where the thrust bearing is located, which ensures
that the crankshaft has the proper axial end play. The crankshaft gear on the front end of the crankshaft
drives the oil pump and crankshaft balancer. The back of the crankshaft is mounted with a target wheel
to send signals to CKP (Crankshaft Position Sensor).
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Crankshaft Balancer
The crankshaft balancer assembly is driven by the crankshaft. The 2 balancer shafts revolve in opposite
directions so that the balancer counterbalances the vibration that comes from the crank shaft assembly.
It is located between the bed plate and the oil pan and is submersed in engine oil.

Main Bearings and Thrust Bearings

The Crankshaft is fixed to the cylinder block journal with the help of bearings to make the rotation
smooth and friction free. The main bearings are of split type. One half fits (lower) into the engine block
bearing journal whereas the second half (upper) fits on the top of the crank shaft journal in the bearing
cap. The thrust bearing located in the center fits into the groove made in the block.
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Connecting Rod and Bearing

The connecting rod is a part which connects the crankshaft to the piston so that the linear motion of the
Crankshaft and piston is converted in to rotary motion of the crankshaft
Connecting rod is made up of cast iron, steel or alloys of aluminum. The small end which connects to the
piston is known as gudgeon pin or wrist pin which is normally press fitted to the piston with a piston pin
whereas the big end is connected to the crankshaft. The big ends have two slit bearings and are
connected to the crankshaft with the help of bearing cap and bolts. The pin hole on the bearing and on
the big end of connecting rod provides lubrication.

Piston, Piston Pins and Rings

The pistons are made of cast aluminum with a flat top design and piston skirts that are coated to reduce
friction. Each piston uses 2 compression rings and a 3-piece oil control ring assembly. The piston pin is a
full-floating design and is retained to the connecting rod by clips located in each end of the piston pin
bore. The connecting rod and rod cap are positioned and aligned by a dowel pin and retained by bolts.
The piston rings are of split type made up of cast iron and steel which fits in to the grove on the outer
diameter of piston

Usually three in numbers and the top two are compression rings and the bottom helical one are oil
rings. The piston pin is made up of steel and has two locks to keep the piston in place and connected to
the connecting rod.
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Crank Case or Oil Pan

The oil pan is made up of sheet metal and stores lubricating oil required for the lubrication of internal
engine components. It consists of baffles (metal separators) on the lower surface to prevent oil from
moving from one end to another when taking so. If oil moves from one side to another there can be
possibility that the oil pump runs out of oil which could result in seizing of the engine. The oil pan acts as
a covering and protecting device for the crankshaft and related components. It has an opening at the
bottom to drain out oil from the crank case while replacing new oil.

The oil pan is fixed to the Engine block with the help of gaskets/seals to prevent leakage. Crank case is a
component that is placed between the cylinder block and the oil pan.