Sacred geometry in nature and Persian

architecture
M. Hejazi
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Isfahan, Iran

Abstract
Geometry has a ritual origin and utilisation of Sacred Geometry by man goes
back many centuries. Certain specific ratios can be found in the design of
lifeforms in nature
Traditional civilisations regarded architecture as a sacred means by which the
heavens were manifested. Persian architecture utilised proportions
comprehensively and by means of Sacred Geometry measured the proportions of
heaven and reflected them in the dimensions of buildings on Earth.
In this paper, the design of a number of Persian historical buildings by the use
of the science of geometry will be presented. The geometric factors upon which
the design of these buildings is made, from both architectural and structural
viewpoints, will be discussed and common design laws between Persian
monuments and creatures in nature will be explained.
Keywords: sacred, geometry, nature, Persian, architecture, structural, golden
ratio, design, aesthetics.

1 Introduction
In Persian and Arabic, the term hindisah (the common word for geometry) has
the meaning of measuring and it is used for both the sciences of geometry and
architecture. The Greek γεωµετρι ′α (geometry) in etymological sense means
∧
the art of measuring ground. The Greek α ρχιτε ′κτων (architecture) literally
means a master-builder or a skilled scholar of the art of building, and it is close
in meaning to the Greek κο ′σµος (cosmos), which means at once the world,

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
26 Design and Nature II

∧,
order and beauty, and to α ι σθησις (aesthetics). Persian architects always used
geometry to measure the proportions of heaven and create beauty on the earth; to
put beauty in order.

2 The universe as geometrisation of Divine Unity

Plato (circa 427-347 B.C.) in his book Timaeus [1] presents the idea that the
Creator created the visible world similar to a geometric progression:
fire/air = air/water = water/earth
He associates four of the Platonic Solids with the four elements, the cube
with earth, the icosahedron with water, the tetrahedron with fire, the octahedron
with air, and the fifth Platonic Solid the dodecahedron with ether or heaven or
the cosmos. The dodecahedron with twelve faces that are regular pentagons, was
used by the Creator in creating the universe. The Golden Ratio governs the shape
of a pentagon and for Pythagoreans it symbolises the generation of the cosmos,
spirit or ether.
On geometry he writes in his Republic [2], “[Geometry is] ... persuaded for
the sake of the knowledge of what eternally exists, and not of what comes for a
moment into existence, and then perishes, ... [it] must draw the soul towards
truth and give the finishing touch to the philosophic spirit.”

3 Sacred geometry in nature

In nature, systems of patterns as geometric structures of form and proportion can
be found from the minutest particles to the greater cosmos. Life is interwoven
with geometric forms, such as the angles of atomic bonds in the molecules, the
spherical shape of the cell that itself develops with a geometric progression from
one to two to four to eight cells and beyond, the helical spirals of DNA, and the
lattice patterns of crystals.
Reality, as Plato stated, consisted of Archetypal Ideas, or pure essences, of
which the visible world is only a reflection. Sacred geometry makes use of the
visible forms to describe these Ideas.

3.1 The Golden Ratio

The Golden Ratio is a supra rational or transcendent ratio found in fundamental

forms: plants, flowers, viruses, DNA, shells, planets and galaxies. Although the
Golden Ratio is first and foremost a proportion, not a number, as a numerical
1+ 5
quantity it is φ = about 1.618. The Golden Ratio is the unique ratio of
2
two terms when the ratio of the larger term to the smaller term is in the same way
as the smaller plus larger to the larger (Figure 1). It symbolises the regeneration
and progression and extension from the Unity as each generation is linked to its
ancestors. The Golden Ratio φ is the most pleasing aesthetic proportion.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
 Design and Nature II 27

sum = φ 2

longer = φ shorter = 1

Figure 1: The Golden Ratio.

Figure 2: The Golden Mean spiral, and arabesque as the cosmic spiral, the
journey towards the Unity through multiplicity, Chahar-Bagh
madrassa, Isfahan, 1706-14 A.D.

The Golden ratio φ is the ratio of adjacent terms of the Fibonacci Series
evaluated at infinity. The Fibonacci Series can be found in the ratio of the
number of spiral arms in daisies, in the chronology of rabbit populations, in the
sequence of leaf patterns twisted around a branch, and many places in nature.

3.2 Spirals and arabesque patterns

The spiral created by a recursive nest of Golden Rectangles (rectangles with

relative side lengths of 1 and φ , or successive terms in the Fibonacci Series) can
be found in a myriad of places in nature; in a snake coil, in an elephant trunk,
and in the cochlea of the inner ear. In Persian architecture, arabesque patterns are
based on ascending spirals with succession of form elements indicating the idea
of infinity and multiplicity, as the creation of the universe (Figure 2).

4 Sacred geometry in Persian architecture

Geometry plays a fundamental role in design of Persian architectural
monuments. From the viewpoint of exterior functioning, the use of geometry as
art for creation of shapes, patterns and proportions reminds the Great
Architecture of the World and recalls the Archetypes. From the viewpoint of
interior functioning, geometry as science for selection of structural dimensions
such as height, length and width of the building and its structural elements

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
28 Design and Nature II

governs the structural behaviour of the building, the behaviour that follows the
geometry. The right geometry makes the building behave correctly.

4.1 The mathematics of two-dimensional geometric patters

In Persian architecture geometric patterns are as aspects of the multiplicity of the

Unity. Geometric patterns as spatial concepts are used to fill surfaces. It could be
shown that as a mathematical fact solving the equation
360 D 4
= 2+ (1)
((n − 2) / n)180 n − 2 D

where n is the number of sides of each regular polygon, for a whole number for n
greater than 2 there are only three regular polygons, known as the regular
equipartitions, that may be used to fill a surface area exactly where the vertices
sum up to 360 degrees: the triangle, the square, and the hexagon [3, 4].
There cannot be less than three polygons nor more than six around a vertex,
thus the equation
m
( ∑ (n − 2) / n )180
i =1
i i
D
= 360 D (2)

where m=3, 4, 5, or 6 and ni is the order of regular polygon at face m, yields

seventeenth possible solutions in whole numbers. The combinations of these
three regular polygons form eight semi-regular equipartitions in which the
vertices are similar on all occasions and fourteen demi-regular equipartitions in
which the vertices vary.
Geometric patterns have been used widely in Persian architecture. Figure
3(a) shows a semi-regular pattern, a combination of triangles and hexagons. In
Figure 3(b) the same pattern is used in a tile lattice pattern in the Jami mosque in
Yazd (fourteenth century A.D.), Central Iran.

(a) (b)

Figure 3: Semi-regular tile lattice pattern, Jami mosque, Yazd, fourteenth

century A.D.

4.2 Mechanical features of Persian architectural patterns

In Figure 4 tile, door and window decorations based on mathematical patterns

are shown. In design of wooden doors and windows, geometrical patterns enable

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
 Design and Nature II 29

small pieces of wood to be used economically and allow the whole combination
to conform to climatic changes of temperature and humidity. There is no need
for string, glue or screws to hold the wooden pieces together.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4: Decoration based on mathematical patterns: (a) tile, Jami mosque,

Isfahan, fifteenth century A.D.; (b) door, Imam-Zadeh Ismail Shrine,
Isfahan, fifteenth and seventeenth centuries A.D.; (c) window,
Chahar-Bagh madrassa, Isfahan, 1706-14 A.D.

4.3 Platonic Ideas in Persian architectural patterns

Recall that the pentagon, containing the Golden Ratio, is the shape for the faces
of the Platonic Solid the dodecahedron, symbolising the cosmos or ether. The
pentagon is in mutual relation with the pentagram and the spiral all representing
the generation of the cosmos, universal love and rebirth. Such concepts can be
explained through Persian Islamic architectural patterns. Figure 5 demonstrates a
combination of geometric patterns and calligraphy using tile in a wall in the Jami
mosque in Yazd. It shows the arrangement of ten peripheral pentagons, with a
pentagram (five-pointed star) inside, arranged symmetrically around a star
decagon, with arms related in a Golden Mean proportion to the side of the
pentagon. The sacred name Muhammad, the Cosmic or Divine Man, is rotated
around a five-pointed star. The number five, represented by the five-pointed star
(pentagram) standing on two legs, symbolises the Perfect Man. The name
Muhammad calls for the pentagram (man) to be reborn as a Whole Person. The
number ten, represented by the decagon outside and the decagon (ten-pointed)
star inside, symbolises the return to the Unity. The whole pattern indicates that
creation is a continual inversing exchange between eternal Divine Man and
humanity. The Divine Man incarnates continuously, and the Divinity reflects
Itself in matter so as to become perceptible. Man is not a mere constituent part of
the universe, but the original goal and the final stage of creation.

4.4 Geometrical analysis of historical buildings

Geometrical analysis of many Persian historical buildings has proven that a

complete knowledge of proportions, in particular the Golden Ratio, was widely
used in Persian architecture and it was the basis of Persian aesthetics.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
30 Design and Nature II

Figure 5: Combination of geometric patterns and calligraphy indicating the

Cosmic Man, Jami mosque, Yazd, fourteenth century A.D.

In many Persian buildings the plan and elevation were set out in a
framework of squares and equilateral triangles, whose intersections gave all the
important fixed points, such as the width and height of doors, the width, length
and height of galleries, the position of inscriptions, etc.
For example, geometrical analysis shows that a complete knowledge of the
Golden Ratio is applied in the plan of Persepolis (518-330 B.C.) as shown in
Figure 6(a).
Aesthetically, the Ali Qapu building (1597-1668 A.D.), in Isfahan, shows
the application of the Golden Ratio in architecture. If the width of the building is
considered as unity, important points such as the corners of the entrance to the
building and the heights of different levels produce ratios of the Golden Ratio
(Figure 6(b)).

(One) (b)

Figure 6: The use of the Golden Ratio: (a) plan of Persepolis, Shiraz, 518-330
B.C.; (b) elevation of Ali Qapu, Isfahan, 1597-1688 A.D.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
 Design and Nature II 31

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7: The Taj-al-Mulk dome and the Golden Ratio, Isfahan, 1088 A.D.: (a)
Schroeder’s [5] geometrical analysis; (b) Hejazi’s [6] suggestion; (c)
comparison of the meridional shape of theoretically perfect dome and
the Taj-al-Mulk dome [7].

The Golden Ratio has been masterly used in the design of the Taj-al-Mulk
dome dated 1088 A.D., in Jami mosque in Isfahan. Schroeder [5] thoroughly
explains the aesthetic and geometrical features of the monument. He shows the
sophisticated application of the Golden Ratio, in such a way that the lesser part is
below, in the dimensions of the dome and the chamber below. His geometrical
analysis proves that the architect of the building has taken a pentagon, which is
generated between the sides of a grand equilateral triangle the apex of which is
the peak of the dome, as a symbol for the ratio (Figure 7(a)). Hejazi [6]
independently shows that the rule of the Golden Ratio, in such a way that the
lesser part is above, can be applied to the structure. He suggests that the
dimension of the Golden Rectangle in which the vertical cross-section of the
dome is lying could have been alternatively used as a module by the architect
(Figure 7(b)).

4.5 Relation between geometry and structural features

In the field of Persian historical buildings, it is meaningless to consider structural

phenomena such as strength, stiffness and stability as the main and determinant
design criteria. From the viewpoint of a traditional architect, although being fully
aware of forces, resulting stresses and structural failures, the calculation of stress
is of secondary importance. It is the function of structural elements that follows
the overall form of building, as form itself has no meaning without the right
function.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
32 Design and Nature II

As a fundamental principle in traditional art of building, the functioning and

stability of a building follow its geometry; a perfect geometry guarantees the
stability. This principle can be traced in many historical Persian buildings.

4.5.1 Optimum design of wooden structures

It has been shown that structural design of the wooden structure of the Ali Qapu
building has been relatively optimum and structurally a masterpiece according to
the modern codes [6]. The optimum design is very much related to the Golden
Ratio used in the dimensions of the whole building (Figure 6(b)).

4.5.2 The shape of momentless tensionless masonry domes

Recalling the Taj-al-Mulk dome with its striking geometry, Farshad [7] shows
that for weight loading the dimensions of the Taj-al-Mulk dome exactly match
the mathematical formulae for the shape of the meridional curve and thickness
variation of masonry domes without tensile stresses and bending forces. The
equilibrium equations for symmetrically loaded shells of revolution are:
d
(rN ϕ ) − rNθ cos ϕ = − pϕ rr1 (3)
dϕ
N ϕ Nθ
+ = pr (4)
r1 r2
where φ and θ are meridional and circumferential angles, N ϕ and N θ are
meridional and hoop forces, r is the radius of the circle normal to the axis of
revolution, r1 and r2 are meridional and circumferential radii, and pϕ and p r
are the components of external load per unit area in the φ and r directions,
respectively (Figure 8(a)). For weight load, that is p (per unit area), N ϕ is
always compressive, then by eliminating N θ , that is N θ = 0 , in regions where it
may become tensile, the formulae for the variation of meridional thickness h and
radius r of the shell will respectively be:
h = h0 r 1\ν (5)
2 A 1 + sin ϕ
r2 = − ln +B (6)
ph cos ϕ
where h0 and ν are reference thickness and Poisson’s ratio, respectively, and A
and B are constant values that can be obtained according to boundary
conditions. The meridional shapes of theoretically perfect dome and the Taj-al-
Mulk dome are plotted in Figure 7(c). The agreement between the two shapes is
striking.
Hejazi’s [6] structural analysis of the dome, using the finite element method,
shows that the resultant stresses due to the system of bending forces are
negligible compared with the system of membrane forces not only for weight
load but also for wind and temperature and more significantly for the dynamic
effects of earthquakes.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
 Design and Nature II 33

Finite element analysis of the Taj-al-Mulk dome proves that if different

shapes of cross-section, or different variation of meridional thickness, were used
for the dome shell the magnitude of stresses and forces induced in the dome
would increase and the design would not be perfect any more.

4.5.3 Relation between the Golden Ratio and crack patterns in circular
shapes
Persian architects have always disliked the use of circular shape in constructing
load bearing arches, vaults and domes, because hinging cracks occurred at a
certain meridional angle that caused the failure mechanism and collapse of the
structure. In cases that they used this shape, they changed the radius of the shape
well before the meridional angle 51D 50′ in order to avoid tensile forces. Solving
the equilibrium equation for a spherical dome under weight load shows that this
is the angle where the sign of hoop force N θ changes from negative
(compressive) to positive (tensile), that is N θ = 0 . Masonry materials have no
tensile strength and therefore cracks occur at this angle (Figure 8(b)). For a
hemispherical dome of radius r subjected to its self weight p (per unit area), it
can be shown that:
1 − cos ϕ − cos 2 ϕ
Nθ = pr (7)
1 + cos ϕ

The sign of the hoop force changes at a value of ϕ given by:

1 − cos ϕ − cos 2 ϕ = 0 (8)
This yields:
−1+ 5 1
cos ϕ = = (9)
2 φ
or
ϕ = 51D 50′ (10)
It is interesting to evaluate the meridional force N ϕ at this angle to show
that it is inversely proportional to the Golden Ratio:

1 1
N ϕ = − pr = − pr ( ) (11)
1 + cos ϕ φ

This angle and meridional force could be called the Golden Angle and the
Golden Force, respectively. Therefore, the meridional angle dominated by the
Golden Ratio is the critical location for the stability of a spherical dome, or a
circular arch or vault.
Similar to the cases of the Ali Qapu building and the Taj-al-Mulk dome it
can be concluded that structural stability has direct relation with geometrical
characteristics of a building. Again the Golden Ratio (geometric proportions)
rules the stability (mechanics).

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3
34 Design and Nature II

(a) (b)

Figure 8: (a) Shell element; (b) crack pattern dominated by the Golden Ratio in
a circular arch under weight load.

5 Conclusions
An intrinsic character of Persian traditional architecture is the practice of Sacred
Geometry, both in scientific and artistic dimensions. Sacred Geometry is the
powerful tool by which Persian architecture has been able to create right
proportions in order to reflect Divine Beauty, which could only be reflected
through patterns that are exactly constructed upon right proportions. Many
proportions used by Persian architecture to build up a traditional style of
architecture that indicates the methods of right design and correct engineering
can be found in many natural life-forms. In many traditional structures geometry
rules the stability. Persian architecture is the Sacred Geometrisation of Divine
Beauty.

References
[1] Plato, Timaeus (trs. Thomas Taylor), Wizard’s Bookshelf: Minneapolis,
1975.
[2] Plato, Republic (trs. Robin Waterfield), Oxford University Press: Oxford,
1993.
[3] Kritchlow, K., Order in Space, Thames and Hudson: London, 1969 (Viking,
New York, 1970).
[4] Kritchlow, K., Islamic Patterns, Thames and Hudson: London, 1976.
[5] Pope, A. U., and Ackerman, P. (ed.), A Survey of Persian Art: from
Prehistoric Times to the Present, 6 Vols, Oxford University Press: London
and New York, 1938, (and 3rd edn 1965).
[6] Hejazi, M., M., Historical Buildings of Iran: their Architecture and
Structure, Computational Mechanics Publications: Southampton, 1997.
[7] Farshad, M., On the Shape of Momentless Tensionless Masonry Domes.
Building and Environment, 12, pp. 81-85, 1977.

Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia (Editors)

© 2004 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISBN 1-85312-721-3