Int

Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and arrangement.
Math is all around us, in everything we do. It is the building block for everything in our daily lives,
including mobile devices, architecture (ancient and modern), art, money, engineering, and even
sports.

The Sumerians were the first people to develop a counting system. Mathematicians
developed arithmetic, which includes basic operations, multiplication, fractions and square
roots.  in America, the Mayans developed elaborate calendar systems and were skilled
astronomers. About this time, the concept of zero was developed.

Mathematicians began to work with geometry, which computes areas and volumes to
make angular measurements and has many practical applications. Geometry is used in
everything from home construction to fashion and interior design. Algebra offered civilizations a
way to divide inheritances and allocate resources.

Obje

• study the importance of mathematics in our day to day life

• Collect pictures and resources related to different concepts in mathematics

• To study the graet mathematicians and their contribution in mathematics

Imp

Mathematics is a methodical application of matter. Certain qualities that are nurtured

by mathematics are power of reasoning,creativity,abstract thinking,critical thinking,problem
solving ability and even effective communication skills. Mathematics is the cradle of all
creations, without which the world cannot move an inch.be it a cook or a farmer,a carpenter
or a mechanic,everyone needs mathematics in their day-to-day life.

A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or

her work, typically to solve mathematical problems.Mathematics is concerned with numbers,
data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change.Many professional mathematicians also
engage in the teaching of mathematics.
Duties may include:
• teaching university mathematics courses.
• supervising undergraduate and graduate research; and
• serving on academic committees.

Methodology
 As with other educational research (and the social sciences in general), mathematics
education research depends on both quantitative and qualitative studies. Quantitative
research includes studies that use inferential statistics to answer specific questions, such as whether
a certain teaching method gives significantly better results than the status quo. The best quantitative
studies involve randomized trials where students or classes are randomly assigned different
methods in order to test their effects. They depend on large samples to obtain statistically significant
results.

Qualitative research, such as case studies, action research, discourse analysis, and clinical

interviews, depend on small but focused samples in an attempt to understand student learning and
to look at how and why a given method gives the results it does. Such studies cannot conclusively
establish that one method is better than another, as randomized trials can.

Concepts in Mathematics

Number Theory

Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and
integer-valued functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) said,
"Mathematics is the queen of the sciences—and number theory is the queen of mathematics".
Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of objects made out of integers (for
example, rational numbers) or defined as generalizations of the integers (for example, algebraic
integers).

Questions in number theory are often best understood through the study of analytical objects that
encode properties of the integers, primes or other number-theoretic objects in some fashion.The
older term for number theory is arithmetic. The word "arithmetic" is used by the general public to
mean "elementary calculations"; it has also acquired other meanings in mathematical logic, as in
Peano arithmetic, and computer science, as in floating point arithmetic

RESOURCES

INTERNET
• Number Theory Web: The Number Theory Web is a collection of links to online information of
interest to number theorists.

• The Mathematical Atlas : Dave Rusin’s brief summary of what number theory is about.

• Number Theory Mailing List

REGIONAL CONFERENCES
• Palmetto Number Theory Series (PANTS): The Palmetto Number Theory Series (PANTS) is
 a series of number theory meetings held at colleges and universities in the Southeast since
2006. The goal of the PANTS meetings is to provide an opportunity for number theorists in
South Carolina, and more generally, in the Southeast, to hear about recent research in all
areas of number theory, pure and applied.

• SouthEast Regional Meeting On Numbers (SERMON): SERMON is a small, friendly and

informal gathering of number theorists and combinatorialists

SOFTWARE
• Magma: Magma is a large, well-supported software package designed for computations in
algebra, number theory, algebraic geometry and algebraic combinatorics. It provides a
mathematically rigorous environment for defining and working with structures such as
groups, rings, fields, modules, algebras, schemes, curves, graphs, designs, codes and many
others.

• Sage: Sage is a free open-source mathematics software system licensed under the GPL. It
combines the power of many existing open-source packages into a common Python-based
interface.

LITERATURE
• MathSciNet: MathSciNet is an electronic publication offering access to a carefully maintained
and easily searchable database of reviews, abstracts and bibliographic information for much
of the mathematical sciences literature.

• Project Euclid: Project Euclid’s mission is to advance scholarly communication in the field of
theoretical and applied mathematics and statistics. Project Euclid is designed to address the
unique needs of low-cost independent and society journals.

• Springer Link: Graduate Texts in Mathematics

• arXiv.org: Open access to e-prints in Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, Quantitative

Biology, Quantitative Finance and Statistics.

Combinatorics
Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and
an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many
other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics,
from evolutionary biology to computer science, etc.

combinatorics is involved with

• the enumeration (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or

configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems,
• the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria,
• the construction of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and
• optimization, finding the "best" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the
"largest", "smallest" or satisfying some other optimality criterion.

Resources
• Ryser, Combinatorial Mathematics

• Cohen, Basic Techniques of Combinatorial Theory

• Tucker, Applied Combinatorics

• Brualdi, Introductory Combinatorics

• Comtet, Advanced Combinatorics.

Algebra

Algebra  is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number

theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical
symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols. it is a unifying thread of almost all of
mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions
such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra; the
more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally
considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such
applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics,
studied primarily by professional mathematicians.

Elementary algebra differs from arithmetic in the use of abstractions, such as using letters to stand
for numbers that are either unknown or allowed to take on many values example  E = mc2

Resources

• Walk The Plank - When one end of a wooden board is placed on a bathroom scale and the other end is
suspended on a textbook, students can "walk the plank" and record the weight measurement as their
distance from the scale changes. The results are unexpected— the relationship between the weight and
distance is linear, and all lines have the same x-intercept. This investigation leads to a real world occurrence
of negative slope, examples of which are often hard to find.

• Talk or Text- In this lesson, students compare different costs associated with two cell phone plans. They
write equations with 2 variables and graph to find the solution of the system of equations. They then analyze
the meaning of the graph and discuss other factors involved in choosing a cell phone plan.

• Domain Representations- Students use graphs, tables, number lines, verbal descriptions, and symbols to
represent the domain of various functions.
 • Understanding Algebraic Factoring- The lesson shows the geometric basis for algebraic factoring using
algebra tiles.

• Variables Math Lesson Plan- Full lesson plan on assigning values to variables. Uses manipulatives.

• Quadratic Transformer- demonstrate the effect on the graph of changes in the coefficients and the
relationship between zeros and intercepts.

• Finding the Domain of a Function- This applet guides the user through the process of finding the domain of a
function. Hints and feedback are plentiful and useful. New problems are generated at the click of a button.

• Web Math - Students could use this as a resource for review or to clarify topics discussed in class but not
fully understood. The resource is easy to use and navigate to either specific concepts or broader topics. The
site also offers specific sections on the conversion of units (applicable to the sciences).

Geometry

Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of

figures, and the properties of space.  Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as
a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. While geometry has evolved
significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are fundamental to
geometry. These include the concepts of point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface, and curve, as
well as the more advanced notions of topology and manifold.Geometry has applications to many
fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics.

Resources

• Pythagorean Theorem - uses interactive activities to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.

• Computing Pi- The Greek mathematician Archimedes approximated pi by inscribing and circumscribing

polygons about a circle and calculating their perimeters. Similarly, the value of pi can be approximated by
calculating the areas of inscribed and circumscribed polygons. This applet allows for the investigation and
comparison of both methods.

• Proportioner- This applet is useful in discovering ratios of various objects as well as comparing two objects,
as well as finding perimeter and area of objects.

• Trigonometry- This web site has definitions, applets, and much more to help students learn about
trigonometry and other connected concepts.

• The Math Page: Trigonometry- This resource has multiple concepts for geometry and trigonometry. The
concepts are divided among chapters with links on common unknown concepts to help students understand
the text. This resource also provides exercises that can be done by the students (answers are provided).

• Web Math - Students could use this as a resource for review or to clarify topics discussed in class but not
fully understood. The resource is easy to use and navigate to either specific concepts or broader topics. The
site also offers specific sections on the conversion of units (applicable to the sciences).

• Discovery Math: Exploring Geometry - This lesson plan includes a project that allows students to deepen
their understanding of simialar and congruent figures while also learning about surface area and geometric
transformations.
 About Few Mathematicians and their contributution

Diophantus

Very little is known about Diophantus of Alexandria; he probably lived in the third century CE, that is,
about five hundred years after Euclid. Six out of the thirteen books of
Diophantus's Arithmetica survive in the original Greek; four more books survive in an Arabic
translation. The Arithmetica is a collection of worked-out problems where the task is invariably to find
rational solutions to a system of polynomial equations, usually of the form  or . Thus, nowadays, we
speak of Diophantine equations when 8
One may say that Diophantus was studying rational points, that is, points whose coordinates are
rational—on curves and algebraic varieties.

Diophantus also studied the equations of some non-rational curves, for which no rational
parametrisation is possible. While Diophantus was concerned largely with rational solutions, he
assumed some results on integer numbers, in particular that every integer is the sum of four
squares.

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) Germany

Carl Friedrich Gauss, the "Prince of Mathematics," exhibited his calculative powers when he
corrected his father's arithmetic before the age of three. His revolutionary nature was demonstrated
at age twelve, when he began questioning the axioms of Euclid. His genius was confirmed at the
age of nineteen when he proved that the regular n-gon was constructible if and only if it is the
product of distinct prime Fermat numbers. Also at age 19, he proved Fermat's conjecture that every
number is the sum of three triangle numbers.At age 24 he published Disquisitiones Arithmeticae,
probably the greatest book of pure mathematics ever.

• Gauss proved fundamental theorems in statistics, vector analysis, function theory, and
generalizations of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

• Gauss built the theory of complex numbers into its modern form, including the notion of
"monogenic" functions which are now ubiquitous in mathematical physics.

• Gauss developed the arithmetic of congruences and became the premier number
theoretician of all time.

• Other contributions of Gauss include hypergeometric series, foundations of statistics, and

differential geometry.

• He also did important work in geometry, providing an improved solution to Apollonius' famous
problem of tangent circles, stating and proving the Fundamental Theorem of Normal
Axonometry, and solving astronomical problems related to comet orbits and navigation by
the stars.
Gauss once wrote "It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, ... which grants the greatest
enjoyment. When I have clarified and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go
into darkness again ..."

Āryabhaṭa, Brahmagupta, Bhāskara

While Greek astronomy probably influenced Indian learning, to the point of introducing
trigonometry, it seems to be the case that Indian mathematics is otherwise an indigenous tradition; in
particular, there is no evidence that Euclid's Elements reached India before the 18th century.

Āryabhaṭa (476–550 CE)

Aryabhata  was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian

mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the Āryabhaṭīya  and the Arya-siddhanta.

His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was extensively

referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The mathematical
part of the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry, and spherical trigonometry. It
also contains continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-power series, and a table of sines.

The Arya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations.This work appears to be based on

the older Surya Siddhanta and uses the midnight-day reckoning, as opposed to sunrise
in Aryabhatiya. It also contained a description of several astronomical instruments:

Brahmagupta 

Brahmagupta (born c. 598 CE, died c. 668 CE) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He is

the author of three early works on mathematics and astronomy: the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta , a
theoretical treatise, and the Khaṇḍakhādyaka a more practical text.

Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero. The texts composed by Brahmagupta
were in elliptic verse in Sanskrit, as was common practice in Indian mathematics. As no proofs are
given, it is not known how Brahmagupta's results were derived.

• Brahmagupta gave the solution of the general linear equation in of Brahmasphutasiddhanta,

• This current system of The four fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division) is based on the Hindu Arabic number system and first appeared in
Brahmasphutasiddhanta.
 • Brahmagupta describes the multiplication as thus "The multiplicand is repeated like a string
for cattle, as often as there are integrant portions in the multiplier and is repeatedly multiplied
by them and the products are added together. In Brahmasphutasiddhanta, multiplication was
named Gomutrika.

• Brahmagupta details operations on fractions. He then gives rules for dealing with five types
of combinations of fractions: a/c + b/c; a/c × b/d; a/1 + b/d; a/c + b/d × a/c = a(d + b)/cd;
and a/c − b/d × a/c = a(d − b)/cd.

• Brahmagupta then goes on to give the sum of the squares and cubes of the first n integers.

• Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuṭasiddhanta is the first book that provides rules for arithmetic

manipulations that apply to zero and to negative numbers.

Bhskara II

Bhāskara(1114–1185) also known as Bhāskarāchārya ("Bhāskara, the teacher"), and as Bhaskara

was an Indian mathematician and astronomer.

Bhāskara and his works represent a significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical
knowledge in the 12th century. He has been called the greatest mathematician of medieval India.His
main work Siddhānta Shiromani, is divided into four parts
called Lilāvatī, Bījagaṇita, Grahagaṇita and Golādhyāya,which are also sometimes considered four
independent works.These four sections deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets,
and spheres respectively. He also wrote another treatise named Karaṇaa Kautūhala.

Bhāskara's work on calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by over half a millennium.He is

particularly known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to
astronomical problems and computations.He was perhaps the first to conceive the differential
coefficient and differential calculus.

Some of Bhaskara's contributions to mathematics include the following:

• A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways and then
cancelling out terms to get a2 + b2 = c2.
• In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations are explained.
• Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax2 + b = y2).
• The first general method for finding the solutions of the problem x2 − ny2 = 1 was given by
Bhaskara II.
• Solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown, and
found negative and irrational solutions.
• Preliminary concept of mathematical analysis.
• Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with notable contributions towards integral
calculus.
• Conceived differential calculus, after discovering an approximation of
the derivative and differential coefficient.
• Calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae.
Suggestions
1. Create Hands-On Learning Experiences
2. Use Real-Life Examples Whenever Possible
3. Help Your Students Make Sense of What They Are Learning
.
4. Encourage Group Problem Solving
5. Help Your Students Identify the Source of Their Most Common
6. Recognize Stereotypes
7. Incorporate Different Learning Experiences
8. Provide Comprehensive Study Guides Prior to Math Tests
9. Make Homework Consistent and Valuable
Conclusion
I have realised how maths is involved in our everyday lives. Maths is used in
many ways, such as; when you go to the shops and something is 15% off, you
have to know how to figure out percentages and even when driving, maths is
needed to not go over speed limits and to know what the value of a kilometer
is. In conclusion I believe life would be a struggle without maths.
Early childhood mathematics is vitally important for young children's present and future educational success.
Furthermore, young children enjoy their early informal experiences with mathematics. Unfortunately, many
children's potential in mathematics is not fully realized, especially those children who are economically
disadvantaged. This is due, in part, to a lack of opportunities to learn mathematics in early childhood settings or
through everyday experiences in the home and in their communities. Improvements in early childhood
mathematics education can provide young children with the foundation for school success.
References
• “Introduction to the Theory of Numbers” by W W Adams and L J Goldstein
• “A Concise Introduction to the Theory of Numbers” by A Baker
• Introduction to Combinatorial analysis by Riordan
• Concrete Mathematics by Graham, Knuth, Patashnik
• The Universal Book of Mathematics: from abracadabra to Zeno's
paradoxes by David J. Darling
• “Basic Abstract Algebra” by P B Bhattacharya
• Handbook of Computational Geometry” by Urrutia Sack
• Wikipwedia: www.wikipedia.org