Stress distribution, Compressibility &

Settlement of Soils

TOPIC 2C : STRESS DISTRIBUTION,

CONSOLIDATION

and …..

SETTLEMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Coverage : Determination of Primary and Secondary

settlement. Effect of construction period

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the students would
be able to:
 Identify and discuss all parameters required in the
determination of primary and secondary settlement as a
consequent of the increase in vertical stress.
 Formulate and evaluate the associated settlement for a
specified geotechnical problems founded in compressible
soils
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OUTLINE of PRESENTATION
2.10 Introduction
2.11 Theory of Consolidation
2.12 Laboratory Consolidation Test
2.13 Results of Laboratory Test
2.14 Determination of Compressibility
Characteristics
2.15 Determination of Primary & Secondary
Settlements
2.16 Effect of Construction on Settlement
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2.10 Introduction

When a saturated layer is subjected to a stress

increase, the pore water pressure is suddenly
increased. In sandy soils that are highly permeable,
the drainage caused by the increase in the pore
water pressure is completed immediately. Pore
water drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the
volume of the soil mass, which results in
settlement. Because of rapid drainage of the pore
water in sandy soils, immediate settlement and
consolidation occur simultaneously.
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…..Introduction – cont….

When a saturated compressible clay layer is subjected

to a stress increase, the elastic settlement occurs
immediately. Because the hydraulic conductivity of
clay is significantly smaller than that of sand, the
excess pore water pressure generated by loading
gradually dissipates over a long period. Thus the
associated volume change (i.e., the consolidation) in
the clay may continue long after the immediate
settlement. The settlement caused by consolidation in
clay may be several times greater that the immediate
settlement.
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…..Introduction – cont….
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What is then the fundamental difference in the

process between :

 COMPACTION, and
 CONSOLIDATION

explain it in your own words …..and discuss it in the

context of piston and spring analogy !!!
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Read about an engineering feat in

relation to the topic in Newsweek,
June 18, 2001, entitled “Righting
One Wrong Tower”
How it all
started ……

….. Over 800

years ago..
 Consolidation for
hundred of years…an
on-going process ---a
time dependent process

A classic example of
differential settlement.
The foundation of the tower
is loacated about 3 m into a
bed of silty sand that is
underlain by 30 m of clay on
a deposit of sand. A sand
layer approximately 5 m
thick intersects the clay.
How a brave
professor fixed
(sort of) the
world’s most
crooked jewel
(1996). At least
for now…

…extruding out
the soft soil..to
counter the
uneven
consolidation on
both sides.
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Theory
2.11
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Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation

Regarding the theory of consolidation, Terzaghi

made the following assumptions :-
 The soil is fully saturated and homogeneous.
 Both the water and the soil particles are
incompressible.
 Darcy’s law of water flow applies.
 The change in volume is one dimensional in the
direction of the applied stress.
 The coefficient of permeability and volume
compressibility remain constant.
 The change in volume corresponds to the
change in void ratio and ∆e/∆σ remains constant.
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Theory

The rate of consolidation for a stratum of clay is

affected by the following factors:-

 the permeability of the soil

 the extent or thickness of the compressible soil

and the distance that pore water pressure of the
soil must travel to escape from the zone where
pressures due to the foundation loading exist

 the in-place void ratio of the compressible soil

 the ratio of new loading to the original loading

 the compression properties of the soil
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Piston & Spring Analogy

When a saturated soil

is loaded, there will
be an increase in the
pore water pressure.

Subsequently it will
be compressed
because of the
squeezing out of
water from the voids
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2.12 LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST

Primary Compression Settlement for Clays

The term compressibility is used to

indicate one dimensional volume
changes that occur in the soil deposit
when the compressive loading is applied
and the particles rearrange as a reaction.

The compression properties of a fine-

grained soil can be determined directly
by performing a laboratory compression
test, frequently called a consolidation
test.
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Laboratory Test
CONSOLIDATION TEST
SET-UP

Laboratory consolidation test set up

to determine the compressibility
characteristics of the soil
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Laboratory Test

CONSOLIDATION APPARATUS
ACCESSORIES
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 What is a consolidation test ?

 What is its prime objective ?

 How is the test carried out ?

 How is the results analysed and used in practice ?

 Your assignment !!

 Describe the consolidation test, outline its

objectives, discuss the analysis of test data
and show how the results are used in practice
to determine the expected consolidation
settlement.
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Laboratory Test Results
2.13 Results of Test

(b) Vertical strain versus effective stress

(after Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)
(a) Time-deformation plot
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Laboratory Test Results

Coefficient of Compressibility
e
av   ( m 2 / kN )


Coefficient of Volume Change

av e 1
mv  
1  eo  1  eo

(c) Void ratio versus effective stress

(after Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)
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Laboratory Test Results

Compression Index

e2  e1
Cc 
 2
log
 1

Recompression Index

e2  e1
Cr 
 2
log
 1

(d) Void ratio versus effective stress (log scale)

(after Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)
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Laboratory Test Results

Swelling and recompression (after Whitlow, 2001)

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Preconsolidation Pressure
2.14 Determination of the Compressibility
Characteristics
• Soils have a “memory” of the stress and other changes that
have occurred during their history.

• The maximum stress experienced by the soil in their history

is known as the preconsolidation pressure p.

• To know the soil preconsolidation status, Overconsolidation

ratio (OCR) is used :
 p
OCR  where vo is the existing overburden

 vo pressure

If OCR > 1, Overconsolidated

OCR = 1, Normal Consolidated
OCR < 1, Under Consolidated
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2.14.1 Determination of the preconsolidation pressure,

pc, and Compression Index, Cc.

 Solutions can be obtained using the method

proposed by Casagrande.
 The method requires the plotting of graph of void
ratio against log pressure for all the stages of
testing

 Follow the procedures outline in the lecture to

obtain pc and Cc

 Cc is the gradient of the straight line of the graph.

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Preconsolidation Pressure
Determination of preconsolidation
pressure using Casagrande construction
• Choose by eye the point of
minimum radius (or maximum
curvature) on the consolidation
curve (indicated by point a).
• Draw a horizontal line from point a.
• Draw a line tangent to the curve at
point a.
• Bisect the angle made by steps 2
and 3.
• Extend the straight line portion of
the virgin compression curve up to
where it meets the bisector line
obtained in step 4. The pre-
consolidation pressure p is the
intersect point between the two
(indicated by point f ).

Casagrande construction
Example
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2.14.2 Determination of the coefficient of

consolidation cv

 Solution can be obtained using :-

Tv 90 d 2 0.848 d 2
 Square root of time method cv  
(Taylor’s method) t90 t90

 Log-time method Tv 50 d 2 0.196 d 2

cv  
(Casagrande’s method) t50 t50

 Early stage Log-time method Tv 22.14 d 2 0.0385 d 2

cv  
(Robinson and Allam, 1996) – t22.14 t22.14
pg 341, Braja M. Das
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Root Time Method
Correlation between degree of consolidation, U, and
theoretical time factor, Tv

Uv  1.13 Tv

Alternatively use : Uv  1.13 Tv (valid for U up to 65%)

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Root Time Method

Determination of drainage path length, d.

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Coefficient of Consolidation

For U = 90%
Tv = 0.848 (1) Draw the best-fit line
cv=0.848 Hdr2/ t90 across the initial part of
the curve as indicated by
AB.
(2) Draw a second line from
point A with all abscissas
1.15 times greater than
those of OB (indicated by
line AC).
(3) t90 will be the time
corresponded to the
intersect point between
the second line and
curve, i.e. point D that
occurs at the degree of
consolidation U of 90%.

(a) Taylor’s Square Root of Time Fitting Method

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Root Time Method

(a) Taylor’s Square

Root of
Time Fitting
Geotechniques (ECG433) Method
ARM - 2007
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Root Time Method

Initial compression ratio

OF
ri 
OG

Primary compression ratio

FD
rp 
OG

Secondary compression ratio

DG
rs   1  ri  rp
OG
Determination of the compression ratios
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Coefficient of Consolidation

For U = 50%
Tv = 0.197
cv=0.197 Hdr2 / t50

(b) Casagrande’s Logarithm of Time Fitting Method

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Log Time Method

Understand the
procedures of
plotting the
graph !!!
…and
determining the
compression
ratios
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Early stage Log Time Method

Early stage Log-time method

Method proposed by Robinson and
Allam, 1996
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General discussion on the determination of cv

In most cases, for a given soil and pressure range,
the magnitude of cv determine by using the log-time
method provides lower value. The highest value is
obtained from the early stage log t method.
The primary reason is because the early stage log t
method uses the earlier part of the consolidation
curve, whereas the log-time method uses the lower
portion of the consolidation curve. When the lower
portion of the consolidation curve is taken into
account, the effect of secondary consolidation plays
a role in the magnitude of cv. The lowest value is
obtained from the root-time method.
Example
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2.15 Determination of Primary & Secondary settlement.

2.15.1 Primary Settlement

 Using coefficient of consolidation, cv
k
c  mv  H where mv 
cvw
 Using compression index, Cc
 P 0 ' z 
 
Cc where Cc obtain from the
c  H log  
1  eo  P 0'  Casagrande’s method

Otherwise use these correlations : Cc = 0.54 ( eo – 0.35)

Cc = 0.0054 (2.6w – 35)

Cc = 0.009 (LL – 10)

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Calculation of Settlement

H = sc L
v 
LO
Hf
H s e
 c 
H O H O 1  eO

Calculation of settlement from the phase diagram

e sc = mv  Ho
sc  HO
1  eO
where
mv = coefficient of volume
change
 = change in stress
Ho = thickness of soil layer
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If Terzaghi’s theory were a perfect model of

consolidation, no further compression would occur
after the excess pore pressure had been fully
dissipated. However typical e vs log t curves shows
otherwise. The latter part of the curve is found to be
sloping and linear. This stage is referred to as
secondary compression or creep.

Factors influencing the amount and rate of

secondary compression are: the principal stress
ratio, the rate of load increase, the ambient
temperature, the stress history and the layer
thickness.
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Secondary Compression Index
2.15.2 Secondary Settlement

Variation of e with
log t under a given
load increment,
and definition of
secondary
compression index
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

Determination secondary consolidation

settlement :
 
t 2
  C ' H log
s






t 1 

where C '  C /(1  e ) e e

p
and C  
log t  log t log(t / t )
2 1 2 1

C = secondary compression index

(it is the gradient of the straight line for the
secondary compression zone in the plot of
e vs log t )
ep = void ratio at U = 100%
t2, t1 = time
e = change of void ratio
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2.15.3 Total settlement

In conclusion the total settlement for a

compressible saturated soil as a consequent of
the applied loading which induces an increase in
the vertical stress is given by:

T = i + c + s
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2.16 Effect of Construction on Settlement

In the development of the consolidation theory,

it was assumed that the load was applied
instantaneously. In practice, most consolidation
problems are connected with construction
processes extending over several months or
even years.

Terzaghi has suggested a method of correcting

the instantaneous curve. Refer to text by R.
Whitlow, pgs 449-450 and lecture notes.

Understand the procedure of how the correction

is made.
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Gradual Application of Load

Correction for gradual load application during construction

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References

References

1. Roy Whitlow, “Basic Soil Mechanics”, 4th Edition 2001, Prentice

Hall

2. David F. McCarthy, “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and

Foundations”, 5th Edition, 1998, Prentice Hall

3. Braja M. Das, “Principles of Geotechnical Engineering”, 4th

Edition, 1998, PWS Publishing Company

4. G. N. Smith and Ian G. N. Smith, “Basic Soil Mechanics”, 7th

Edition, 2000, Blackwell Science