Engineehino

LlBRAPY

TO'

A TEXT-BOOK OF

ENGINEEBINa DRAWING

AND DESIGN.

Part I." Practical Geometry.

STANDARD WORKS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS.
I m I

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 A TEXT-BOOK OF

ENGINEERING DRAWING

AND DESIGN:

INCLUDING

#"omctrg, |plam utiiiS^altin.antr p;ac|rim

IPraxiieal
anb^ (Engine|prafannganb ^tniQn,

SIDNEY H."^ELLS,
Wh.Sc.,
A.M.INST.C.B., A.M.INST.MSOH.E.,
PBINCIPAL 07, AND HBAD OJ TBB ENOINXB"IITG DBPABTMBNX IN, THB BATTBRSBA FOLYTECHNia

With Numerous IHuatrations, Examples and Test Questions, specially Intended

for the Use of Students of Technical Schools and Colleges.

PART l.-PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

jfouctb Edition.

LONDON:

CHARLES GRIFFIN " COMPANY, LIMITED;

EXETEB STREET, STRAKD.

1905.

[All Bights Reserved,]

ri
"

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

This book is intended for the use of Engineering students

^.^ in schools and colleges, and as a text-book for examinations

^
in which a knowledge of Practical Qeometrj^ and Machine

^ Drawing is required.
^ The chief reason which has led to its preparation is that

during the time I was engaged in teaching on the Engineer-

^^

hj ing side of Dulwich College, and had charge of the classes in

C^ Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, I found it impossible

to obtain a book wherein the problems, or examples, were

not accompanied by diagrams which the student could

easily without in the least knowing to what they

copy,

referred. In Plane and Solid Geometry there was a lack

of properly graduated questions, and such important parts

of the subject as problems on loci, the construction of the

useful plane curves and their practical application to cams

and wheel-teeth, the interpenetration and development of

simple solids, and isometric projection were only to be

found in advanced books " although really more suited for

elementary students than the troublesome problems on

140101
 ^ PREFACE.

''points,lines, and planes" which usually precede them.

In Machine Drawing and Design, agaiu, the deficiencywas
still greater, there being no choice between sheets of

Diagrams and Text-Books which, although they produce

admirable copyists,are utterly devoid of any utility as

regards education in design. The well-known treatise by

Prof. XTnwin is, of course, most excellent as an aid to

design, but it does not profess to teach drawing, and is

certainly not intended for elementary students.

Under these conditions, I found myself obliged to

questions so graduated in regard to sequence and

arrange
"
dijfficulty
as to be really helpful in "
teaching the subject,
by bringing out important principles,by making clear

mathematical relations, and by requiring the application

of real thought and the knowledge gained in other classes
.

and subjects. The setting of the questions was always

preceded by a lesson in which, for geometrical drawing,
typical problems were worked upon the blackboard and

explained; and for machine drawing, the parts concerned

were drawn separatelyor together,or illustrated by models,

and the relations of, and reasons for, the shape and size

of the different parts made clear. The book, then, has

grown out of my own felt wants, and the effort to supply

them by the questions and lecture-notes mentioned.

In Part I.,I have included chapters on those parts of

Practical Geometry already referred to as usually taken

later, because I believe them to be essential to a good

elementary course of Practical Geometry, and admirably
suited for the ordinary engineering or technical student

commencing without preyious knowledge, and desiring

 PREFACE. VII

to go on to an intelligent study of Machine Drawing

and Design. I have also included some special cases of

intersection, such as occur in metal plate w^ork and in the

drawing of some engine parts, in order that students may

have no excuse for putting in the necessary curves by

"guess work.*' Thus, in preparing Part I.,I have steadily
kept in view the work of Part II.,from the conviction that

Plane and Solid Geometry should always precede Machine

Drawing, just as Arithmetic precedes Algebra.

In Part II.,I have avoided dimensioning the illustrations
except in rare cases, and have endeavoured to build up the

subjects so that all primary and common parts are first

explained and understood, such explanations not being

repeated when the parts occur in connection with larger
or complete designs. Such ' a method will, I am sure,

commend itself to all true teachers. A student ought not

to be told the sizes of bolts and nuts, or the diameter of

flanges, or the details of stuffing boxes in drawing an

engine cylinder,any more than we should expect to have

to prove to him the truth of the triangle of forces,at each

step in the graphical determination of the stresses in a

roof-truss. But such an arrangement obviously requires

that the examples be worked through in the order given,
and especiallyis this so in the Sections on Engine Design,
the examples in which have been intentionally arranged to

show the interdependence of the different parts. I have

throughout endeavoured to give the reasons for all features

of the designs ; when these are purely empirical or for

workshop convenience, this is stated. My object will have

been attained if I have made it impossible for a student to

VI 11 PREFACE.
*

draw any part vdihout having an intelligentreason for

all he does.

It has certainly been my desire to make the book

suitable for beginners,believing that the sizes and ments

arrange-

of simple common parts cannot be acquired too early,

and I have therefore endeavoured to teach the principleof
"drawing" as well as of "design." I have found some
'

in deciding what
difficulty terms and definitions to employ
in order to make the book acceptable to the ordinary
student and teacher, and yet free from unscientific and

ambiguous expressions. Workshop terms are not fully

satisfactory,for they vary with different localities,while

scientiGc terms are often misused. I have restricted the

"
word "
compression to represent a strain or change of

form, and in other ways have adhered to the following

notation :
"

Stbess. St"ain.

Pressure or Thrust Compression.

TensioD produces Extension.
Shearing Stress Shear.

My thanks are especially due to Mr. F. W. Sanderson,

M.A., Head-Master of Oundle Grammar Schools, who,

during my association with him at Dulwich College,gave

me much assistance in preparing the Examples, and who

has been good enough to read the proof-sheets and to

make many valuable suggestions,and to Professor man,

Good-

M. I. Mech. E., Assoc. M. Inst. C. E. of the Yorkshire

College,Leeds, for much helpful counsel as to the ment

arrange-
of Part. IL I am indebted also to Mr. J. H.

Wicksteed, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., for useful suggestions and

drawings, and to Messrs. Allan " Co., Lambeth; Messrs.

 PREFACE. IX

Marshall " Sons, Gainsborough; Mr. W. Allchin, Globe

Works, Northampton; The Kirkstall Forge Co.; The

Globe Engineering Co.; Messrs. SchalFer " Budenberg of

Manchester; and the Atkinson Gas Engine Co., for kindly-

supplying drawings for insertion in the text. Finally, I

have to acknowledge the assistance received from the works

of Professors Unwin and Ripper, and Mr. Henry Angel.

I shall be grateful to teachers and others who may use

the book for information as to errors which have

any may

been overlooked.

SIDNEY H. WELLS.

Batteksba Polytechnic, S.W,,

September^ 1893.

NOTE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

The Publishers note with satisfaction the popular esteem

in which this work is held. Three Editions have been

exhausted, and the opportunity has been taken of this

re-issue to add as an Appendix to Fart I. a series of

Questions set in the Board of Education Examinations,

which will be found useful in helping Students to test

their knowledge.

Jarmary, 1905.
i
 CONTENTS OF PAET I.

"KOnOH PAOB

I. "
Simple exercises, 1

II. "
Geometrical constmctions for lines and angles, 3
...

III. "
Diyision of lines and constmction of scales, .11
.

IV. "
Construction of triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, and

ellipses, 19

V. "
Circles and tangents "
^Areas "
^Miscellaneous problems, 32
.

VI. "
General problems on lod "
Linkages" Cams, 46
...

VII. "
Ellipse, parabola, hyperbola "
Cycloidal curves and volutes,
in-

64

VIII. "
Construction of curves for wheel teeth, 77
....

IX,"Solid geometry "

Points, lines, planes, inclined surfaces,

simple and inclined solids, 86

......

X. "
Additional plans and elevations "
Sections, .112
. .

XI. "
Interpenetration and developments" Sections of special
solids" Helices and screw threads, 129
. " " .

XII. "
Isometric projection, 142
" "

Appendix "
^Additional Examples.

NOTE ON EXAMPLES.

8, and A" E. =
Science and Art Department, Elementary*
8, and A, A, =
Advanced.
" ,,

8,andA,H.= Honours.
" "

F. "/. 0, =
Victoria University, Ordinary,
Y* U. H, =
Honours.
" "
 ENG-INEEEING-

DBAWING AND DESIG-N

P-A.RT I.

PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

SECTION I.

INTRODUCTION.

The following Exercises are intended for students using drawing

instruments for the first time. All lines should be drawn with
the T-square and set and all divisions made with the
squares,
dividers. lines parallel to the long edges of the board should

be drawn with the T-square, and lines at right angles with the

set squares : "

EX. 1. "
^Draw a square
of 3^" side, and divide it into small

each of ^ side.
squares

(Two adjacent sides of the square should be divided into seven equal
parts, and lines drawn through the points parallel to the sides of the

square.)

EX. 2. "
^Draw an oblong, sides V and 2^", and bisect each of

the sides. Join the middle points of the sides to form a

rhombus. Bisect the sides of this figure, and join the middle

points, to form a second oblong. Again, bisect the sides of this

oblong, and join the middle points to form a second rhombus.

Try if the similar sides of the oblongs are parallel to each other,
and also the sides of the rhombuses.

(A rhombus is a four-sided figure, having all its sides equal, but its

angles not right angles.)

2 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMBTRT.

EX. 3. "
Draw a circle of SJ" diameter. With the radins of
the circle as distance, start from any point on the .circumference,
and step off distances round the circumference. The radius
should just step round the ci/rcwmfereruie six times. Join the

points together forming an equal six-sided polygon, known as a

hexagon,
EX. 4. "
Draw a line, A B, 3 J" long. With A and B as centre,
and the length of A B as radius, draw arcs cutting in C. Join
C to A and B, then ABC will be an equilateral triangle. Find
the middle point of each of the sides, and join to the opposite
comer. These three lines will meet in a point. Show, by draw-
ing
the circles,that this point is the centre of the inscribed and
circumscribed circles of the triangle.'^

(The inscribed circle is the circle touching the three sides, the circnm-
scribed circle passes through the three comers.)

EX. 5. "
Draw a circle 3^" diameter, and divide the ference
circum-
into eight equal parts. Join the points, forming a

polygon having eight equal sides, known as an octagon.

(This is best done by drawing two diameters right angles, and
at then two
other diameters with the 45** set square, sloping right and left.)
EX. 6. "
Draw a square of 2^ side. On each side of the

square and outside it, construct an equilateral triangle. Draw

the inscribed circle of each triangle, and also the inscribed circle
of the square (find its centre by drawing the diagonals). Test
your work by seeing if a circle drawn from the centre of the

square passes through the centres of the triangles.

EX. 7. "
Oonstruct a square when the length of its diagonal
is 4i-.
(Draw a circle of this diameter and inscribe the square within it.)

EX. 8. "
Draw a hexagon inside a circle of 2^" diameter.
With each corner of the hexagon as centre, draw a circle of

radius equal to half the side of the hexagon. Test your work

by seeing if a circle drawn from the centre of the hexagon can

be made to touch and include the six small circles.

(Find the centre of the hexagon by drawing two of its longest diagonals.)
EX. Using the 45* and 60* set squares,
9. "
draw (a) a triangle,
base 3", base angles 45* and 60*; (b) an isosceles triangle, base
3i", base angles 45*; (c) a rhombus, sides 3^", acute angles 60*;
(a) a parallelogram, sides 4'' and 2^", acute angles 45^
*
This point is only the centre of both circles when the triangle is equi-
lateral.
 CONSTRUCTIONS " ^ANGLES.

SECTION IL

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS FOR LINES

AND ANGLES.

There are a large number

simple problems which of
constantly
occur in all kinds
of mechanical drawing, such as the division of
lines, arcs, and angles, the drawing of parallels and diculars,
perpen-
which can generally be worked with the usual instru-,
ments, and without adopting any geometrical construction. But
it often happens that such methods are not as convenient, or
likely to be as accurate, as certain constructive methods based

upon Euclid's Elements, of which the following are the most

useful and important. They should, therefore, be remembered
by the student, and adopted whenever special accuracy is
desired :"

PROBLEM I. (Figs. 1, 2). To bisect a line,arc,

" or angle.
Fig. 1. "
Let A B be the given line or arc. With one end, A,
as centre, and radius greater than half, A B, draw arcs on opposite

^
I

B
ET

)(?
Fig. 1.

sides of A B. With the other end, B, as centre, and the same

radius, draw arcs cutting the first arcs in C and D. Then the line

joining C D will cut A B in its middle point, E, and will fore

there-
bisect it.

(Note that only small arcs need be drawn, and that it is enough to simply
mark the line or arc in the point, E, and not draw the whole line joining
C D. It is evident that the radius of the arcs must exceed half A B, or the

arcs will not cut. )

If the line or arc is to be divided into four, eight, or a greater

number equal parts, of same the construction has simply to be

repeated,treating the equal parts A E, E B, each in the same

way as A B
 PRACTIOAL, PLAKE, AKD SOLID GEOMBTBT.

Let B 0 be any
A angle. With the meeting point or
Fig. 2.
"ertex, B, as radius,draw an arc cuttingthe lines
centre, and any
of the angle in D and K Then, as before,with D and E as centres
and radius greater than half D E, draw arcs to cut, as shown

at F. Join B F. This line will bisect the

angles,and any point
on it will be equidistantfrom B D and BE. A repetitionof
this method will divide the angle into four,or eightequal parts.

(Note that this oonstractlon is when

only applicable the requirednumber
of parte is even, and equal to some integ^ power of 2, as 2*,2^, 2^ . . . .

s 4, 8, 16, "c)

The following points should be observed

carefully in tion
connec-

with the (Uvision of lines,arcs, and angles: "

The exact point at which two lines meet is more accurately

found when the angle between them is not less than about 10*
or greater than 130''. This will be seen on reference to Fig. 3"

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
where the lines A B, 0 D give a bad meeting point,and the
lines E F, G H a good one. It will be seen that, except when
the angle is 90**,
the lines are in contact for a length greater
than their thickness ; hence they do not give a decided point of
intersection. The same remark appliesto the intersection of
arcs.

In
bisectingangles it is necessary to obtain the bisecting
point (F in Fig.2) a good distance from the vertex, B, of the
angle. If B and F are near together then the line drawn
through them will most probably not fulfil the condition that
any point in it shall be equidistantfrom the lines of the angle,
except near the vertex. A little practice will soon convince
the student of observing this and similar facts. Exactly in
the the bisection of line, by the method
same way, a just
described,is likelyto be more accurate when the radius of the
arcs is considerablygreater than half the line, than when it
only slightlyexceeds the half, as the former gives a clearly
defined intersection point, and the latter a bad one. Other
facts of this kind will be referred to in connection with later
6 PRAOTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETRT.

with the same radius,draw arcs on the other side of A B, ing

meet-
in F. The line through C F is perpendicular to A B.

{Eudid i. 8, and Def. 10, for CD = CE, and FD = FE, and CF is

oommon, therefore the anglesmade hy A B and C F are rightangles).
(c)(Fig.4c). "
When the point is in the line,and near to, or at

one end.
With the given point0 as centre, and any radius less than C A,
draw an arc as shown, cuttingC A in D. From D step off the
same radius from D to E, and " to F. With " and F as centre,
and any radius (for convenience the same as draw
before), arcs

cuttingat G. The line through C G is perpendicularto A B.

(The angleD G E = 60", also the angle E G F. But G G bisects the angle
E G F making angle AGG = 60" + 30" = 90").
(d) Fig. 4c^). "
Wlien the point is outside the line and over either
end.

Fig.4c.
Join the given point 0 to any convenient point D, near the
further end of AB. Bisect C D in E, and with E as centre draw
a semicircle passing through G and D, and cutting A B in F.
The line through 0 F is perpendicular to A B.

(The anglein a semicircle is a rightangle (Euclidiii,31), and as G F D is

an anglein a semicircle,G F is perpendicularto A B).

This construction can also be applied to Case (7,Fig. 4c,by

drawing any semicircle with centre E passingthrough the given

point C, and cutting the line A B in a point D. Then by joining

the pointsD ", and producing the line to cut the semicircle at a
second point, G, a diameter will be drawn, and G will be the
required point to join to C.
Notice that what has already been said about choosing the
radii of the arcs so as to obtain sharp points of intersection
appliesequally to these problems, and that it is only necessary
to draw part of the arcs through where the cutting point is
likely to come. Also that in such an example as Fig. 46, time

iL
 CONSTRUCTIONS " ANGLES. 7

is saved by using the same radius for the arcs, cutting at F as

for the arc described jfrom centre C, thus avoiding an alteration

of the
compasses.
EXAMPLES.

The following Examples are to be constructed geometrically: "

EX. 6. "
Construct a square of 2J" side.
EX. 7. "
Construct an oblong, sides 3* and 2".
EX. 8. "
Construct a triangle, sides 5", 4", 31", and draw
from each perpendicular to the opposite side.
corner a

EX. 9. Construct " a triangle,sides 5", Ij'', 2^", Bisect each

of its sides, and through the points draw perpendiculars to the
sides. These three lines will meet at a point. Show, by draw-
ing
the circle, that this point is the centre of the circle circum-
scribing
the triangle.
EX. 10. ^Mark any three
" points A, B, and C, not in the same
straight line, and draw the circle passing through them.
(Find the centre by joining A to B and B to C, and bisect these lines by
lines perpendicular to them ; they will meet at the centre.)
EX. 11. Draw any irregular triangle, and mark point
"

any
within it. From this point draw lines perpendicular to each of
the sides.

ParaUels to Lines" PROBLEM III. (Fig. 5)." T'o draw a

lineparallel to the given line AB at a given distance away.

Construct perpendiculars,AD,
B C, from the ends of the line, or
from any convenient points with-
in
it,and cut off a length on each
equal to the given distance. Then

through the two points draw a

line which will be parallelto A B;

""" ^*
or"

Draw perpendicular from one

a end of the line as B 0, cut off
a length equal to the given distance, as B E, and through point
E draw another perpendicular to BC, which will be parallelto AB.
As both these methods require the construction of two diculars,
perpen-
there is no reason why they should not be equally
accurate.
EXAMPLE.

EX. 12 "
Draw rhombus, sides S^*",
a acute angles 45''. Then
draw a second rhombus, parallel to and surrounding it, and V
away.
(Obtain the 45^ by bisectinga right angle.)
Copying and Addition of Angles. "
Similar straight-lined
 8 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AKD SOLID GEOMETBT.

figures are those which have their several angles equal, each to
each, and the sides about the eqnal angles proportional to each
other. Hence to draw one figure similar to another, it is neces*
sary to know how to copy an angle, or, in other words, how to

make an angle at agiven point equal to given angle. It is also

a

convenient to be able, geometrically,to add

angles together, as,
for example, an angle of 135*" can be found by adding angles of
90' and 45* ; and 75*,by adding 60* and the fourth part of 60'.
PROBLEM IV. (Fig. 6). "
On a given line to draw a tricmgU
having angles equal to those
of a given triangle.
Let A B C be the given triangle and D E the given line.

With centre B, draw an arc cutting B A, B 0, in F and G. Draw

a similar arc with the same radius, with centre D, cutting D E
in H. Measure the chord, F G, in the compasses, and with H as

centre set off the length of F

along G the arc to K. Join D K
and produce. Then the angle K D E is equal to the angle
A B G. At E, make an angle equal to the angle at 0 or A in
the same and the triangle will be complete. {Euclid vi.,4.)
way,
(Equal angles in equal circles are subtended by equal chords. "
Euclid
iii.,26 and 29.)
Note. "
If the triangles are large,accuracy will only be obtained
by drawing arcs of large radius.

PROBLEM V. (Fig. 7)." ^o add or subtract cmgles.

Let A and B be two angles.
It is required to make with
the line 0 D an angle -equal
to A and B.
With A, B, and 0 as centres,
draw arcs of the same radius,
cutting the arms of A in E F
and the of B in G
arms H,
and cutting the line CD in
K. Take the length of the arc,
E F, in the
compasses and set it up from K to L. Similarly,
 CONSTRUCTIOKS " ANGLES. 9

measure the arc G H, and set it up from L to M. Join 0 M.

Then the angle D C M is equal to the angles A and B.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 13. "

Draw any irregular four-sided figure,no side less
than l^'^,
and draw a second figure having equal angles and two
of its sides 3" and 2^".
EX. 14. "
irregulartriangle and show, by adding the
Draw any
three angles together, that the three angles of a triangletogether
equal two right a/ngles,
(Add two of the angles to the third angle, and the first and last lines
should form one straight line.)
EX. 15. "
Draw an isosceles triangle,base 3",vertical angle 46*,
(The sum of the base angles will be 180*
45** 135% .*. draw
- a line
=

and perpendicular
a to it, giving two right angles, bisect one of these right
angles, thus giving an angle of 90** + "* 135% then bisect this angle for
=

one of the base angles.)

EX 16. "
^Draw any line, A B, and mark a point, 0, outside
it. Through C draw a line parallelto A B.

(Join C by a line to any point D in A B, and from G draw a line making

the same angle with C D as C D makes with A ^. "
Euclid i., 23. )

Construction of Angles and Protractors. "

Lines may be
readily drawn at different angles a to given line, by drawing a

semicircle upon the line, and knowing that a semicircle contains

180", dividing the semicircumference to obtain the desired

angles. This setting method angles of off is much fisicilitated

by remembering that th"e radius of a circle steps round the

circumference exactly six times, and that if any two of these

points next one another are joined to the centre by lines, the
angle between the lines is 60**, for the whole angle at the centre
is four right angles, or 360**,and the con- struction

gives exactly one-sixth, or 60".

Hence a line may be quickly and accurately
drawn at 60" to any given line as follows : "

Let A B be the given line, and let a line

be required at 60" to A B, starting from the
end A. With A as centre and any radius,
draw an arc cutting A B in C, and from C
flab up the same radius to the point D, and
Fig. 8.
join AD. Then the angle BAD is 60" (Fig.8).
This construction suggests an easy method of
trisecting a
right angle ; for if in Fig. 8 the lines A B, A E at right
are

angles, then the angle E A D is one third of a right angle, and

by setting off the same radius as before from the point E to F,
 10 PBACTIOAL, PLAKE, AKD SOLID OEOMETBT.

the angle B A F is made one-third

right angle. Hence of a

the lines A D and A F trisect the rightangle.

The following angles are thus easily obtained : 30*" by "

bisecting 60' ; 76' 60' + half of 30'=

; 120* by settingoff two
60*, and 135* 90* + 45' (halfa right angle). Also 108*
- f of =

180**, a nd is therefore found by drawing any semicircle,dividing

it into five equal parts and joining the centre to the second
division point from one end ; the two angles thus formed will
be 72* and 108*. To obtain 136' which t of 180% divide the =

semicircle into four equal parts, and join to the first division
from one end. These angles are important as being those of
certain useful regularpolygons,the construction of which will be
described farther on.

Protraotors. "
An extension of this method is employed to
construct protractors, which enable angles of any degree of
measurement to be set off. A semicircle of 6' diameter is drawn
and its semicircnmference is accuratelydivided into 180 equal

"^ A^ ^ an

UO* Jiff" Jio*jMr

ITff*

-A

parts called degrees,any further subdivision into minutes and

seconds not being possible on so small a scale. The most
common protractor* is of oblong form, 6*^ long and \\" wide,
and is shown in its finished form in Fig. 9 (dividedto show
2" only),which also clearly shows the method of construction.
Notice that the divisions are marked both to allow
ways of
using from either end, and that the lines showing each 10* are
longer than the lines
the smaller showing divisions. In structing
con-
protractor,
a the semicircumference should be divided
by continual bisection as in Fig. 2, as
repeatedlyas possible,and
then the dividers used to obtain the small divisions.
*
^. protractor is made of boxwood and its divisions are not nsuallv
very rehable. A more accurate instrument is the horn protractor,which """*^"
18 generally of semicircular form.
 DIVISION OF LINES. 11

The protractor is used by placing the edge A B to coincide

with the line from which the angle is to be drawn, and the
middle point 0 against the point in the line from which the
angle is to start.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 17. "

^Draw lines meeting at the following angles : "

(a)60% (6) 75-, (c) 90% (d) 105% {e) 108% (/) 120% {g) 135%
(h) 140%
EX. 18. "
Construct a triangle base 2J% one base angle 60",
verticle angle 45".
EX. 19. "
Construct a protractor 6" x 2i% to show divisions
of6^
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

(1) Draw a line, A B, 3" long, and find three

points beyond
B through which A B would ifproduced.
pass
(2) Draw a parallelogram, base 3% diagonals 4^" and 6^^
(The base, and half of each diagonal form a triangle.)

(3) Draw a line, A B, 3 J" long, and produce it to a point C, so

that B C shall be } of A B.

(Divide AB into four by bisection, and add one piece on.)

(4) Draw two lines meeting at a point A at 135% and bisect

the angle, using only the paralleledges of a rule and pencil.
(Place one edge of rule coinciding with one arm of angle, and draw line
along other edge, do the same with other arm of an^le,the two lines drawn
will meet in a point, which when joined to vertex bisects the angle.)

(5) Draw a circle of any diameter between 4" and 6% and find
its centre (as though unknown) using only the paralleledge of a

rule, a measuring rule and a pencil

SECTION III.

DIVISION OF LINES AND CONSTRUCTION

OF SCALES.

Division of Lines. "

In the division of lines and angles by
the method of bisection
explained preceding section, itas in the

was seen that the construction only applied to obtaining division

into certain numbers of parts, and did not admit of general

application. There are, however, other methods by which lines

can be accurately divided into any desired number of equal
12 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID aSOMETBT.

parts, with which it is very necessary for the student to come

be-
"miliar.
The most common method of division in practicalmechanical
drawing is known as
" division by trial,or with dividers." Thus
to divide a given line into any number of equal parts, the
dividers are set to what the draughtsman considers to be proximate
ap-
the right distance, and then, starting from one end
this distance is stepped off along the line the required number
of times. If the last step just reaches to the line end, the
division is accurate, but if not, the dividers must be opened or

closed until the equal division is obtained. Circles, arcs, and

angles can be divided in the same since although the

way
dividers then really measure the length of chords, yet the arcs

are proportional to them {Euclid iii., 28). For accuracy in

division the use of dividers in a practised hand is more reliable
than geometrical methods. It is, however, necessary to use some

form of spring dividers, and to avoid making holes through the

paper at each step.

The following is the geometrical construction for the division
of lines into any required number of parts. It is based upon
the properties of similar triangles, and is particularly useful,
as permitting of division into fractional parts, or into parts
proportional to a given ratio, or to the divisions of a given line.

PROBLEM VI. (Fig. 10a, h).^To divide a line into any

number of eqtialparts.

Fig. 10a. Fig. 10".

Fig. 10a. Let A B be the line to be divided into five

"

equal
parts. From one end, A, draw line, A C, of
a
any length, and
at any angle to A B. Mark off upon this line "Ye equal parts,
as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
at Join 6 to the end B, and through the points
1, 2, 3, 4, draw lines parallel to B5, meeting AB shown.
as
Then A B is divided into five equal parts.
(The five trianglesthus formed, each having A for a vertex, are similar;
^^I^^^ti
(^wc/tdvi.
'T ^tf
4). The
^
"^'""'f
?^ ?^"3?^ P*^. A B is similarly
divided
equal parts set off down the line A 6 beof
may anv
convenient length, but
wEen
a little practice will show that the greatJt
accur^y
^
obta.med ihe angle BAG is smaU, as drawn, a^ th^leS^s
^
approximately equal to the fraction required of the giv^^e )
14 PRACTICAL, PLAKE, AND SOLID GBOHBTBT.

than I''. From it draw a second similar figure having its sides
one and a-half times as long (seepp. 7, 8).
EX. 11. "
Draw a line, A B, ^ long, and mark three points in
it, ODE. Then draw a second line ^^ ^o^") ^^^ divide it

proportionately to the divisions of the line A B.

Scales. "
In most mechanical drawings, the objectsrepresented
are too large to be drawn full size,and are, therefore, drawn so

that all parts are proportionately smaller. When this is done

the drawing is said to be to scale. The ratio of the drawing to
the object is decided beforehand, and generally varies with the
size and object
nature of the paper. In and the size of the
machine drawings details of complicated parts are drawn to a

larger scale than simple parts, while structures, such as roofs

and bridges, plans of fields and buildings, are drawn to a small
scale. The fraction which expresses the ratio of the drawing to
the object it represents is called the representative/rcu:tion,'* "

Thus, suppose a drawing be made where a length of l^''repre- sents

a length of 1 foot on the object. This is shown on the

drawing by writing upon it, Scale 1 J inches 1 foot" and as

"
*=

lY =* 12*, the ratio is

y^
=
g,
therefore, the representative frac-
tion

is i. Hence the drawing might be marked, " Scale ^ offuU

size" The former method is, however, generally adopted, but
the student should notice that the results are the same, and that
a scale is described when either its representative fraction is

given, or when the number of inches representing 1' is stated.

In a scale whose ratio is a fraction "
that is, one where the
drawing is made smaller than the object, the scale is said to be
"
a reducing
" scale ; but in the case of physical apparatus, clocks
and watches, and other small mechanisms, the drawing requires
to be larger than the object that is, a length of 1*" on the "

object, is shown in the drawing by a length of probably S" or 6".

Hence, in the latter case, the drawing would be marked, Scale "

12
1 foot =
2 inches,"and the ratio would be
-^
= 6, therefore the

representative fraction is a whole number, and the scale is

called an
**
increasing scale,'*
important to notice the It is
different ways of
stating an increasing or a decreasing scale.
Scales are constructed for the draughtsman's use, by dividing
the edges of boxwood or ivory strips in a machine capable of
working with great accuracy, and any ordinary scale is easily
obtained. But it is necessary to be able to construct a scale, as
a drawing has sometimes to be made to an unusual scale, or a
machine-made scale may be unobtainable.
 CONSTRUCTION OP SCALES. 15

Before constructing a scale, it is necessary to know " 1st, its

size,or representativefraction ; 2nd, the longestlength it has to

represent ; 3rd, the different units of length it must show, as feet

and inches, yards and feet,miles and furlongs.
It does not follow that in drawing a field 300' long, say to

a scale of y^, the scale must be 3' long, as that would be

absurd. Scales are generallymade 12" or 18" long,and longer
lengths are taken off by marking off successive lengths.
The method of constructing a simple or plain scale is as
follows : "

PROBLEM VII. (Fig. 11). "

To construct a scale where

l^ = V long enough for 6',to sliowfeet and inches.

Draw a straightline upon the paper of indefinite length,and

Fig. 11.

from one end, A, mark off a length,A B, equal to 1 J" x 6' = 9*,
since li" show 1' and 6' are to be shown.
Divide A B into six equal parts, then each part will represent
1',as the whole length shows 6'.
Divide the first of these divisions, A 0, into twelve equal
parts, then each part will represent 1".
Complete the scale in the manner shown in the figure. Notice
that the divisions representing feet are carried to near the top
line, that the 6" division is somewhat shorter, the 3" and 9"
divisions still shorter, the
being other inch divisions shortest.
This is done distinguishthe different divisions and to
to better
make the important ones clearlyseen. Notice also that a line
is drawn through the top of the inch divisions,and repeated in
alternate foot divisions. This is done to help in counting, a
lined division and a plain division representing 2'. The bottom
line A B is generally made dark as a finish.
Marking scale is very important, and is generallywrongly
the
done by beginners. What is desired is that the marking shall

agree with
length taken the
off the scale, and this is only
accomplished by marking as shown in the figure. The zero
point is at C where the inch and foot divisions begin,and from
that point inches are marked to the Uft^ and feet to the right.
It is a common fault to mark the point 0 as 1',this means
that a length on the scale marked 2' 3" is reallyonly 1' 3". An
equally wrong result follows when the inch divisions are

i'
 16 PRAOTIOAL, PLANS, AND SOLID QEOMBTBY.

marked from A to 0, beginning at A, then a length marked as

2' S'' is really only r 9".

It should be noticed that
necessary to farther it is not
divide
the scale. It is,therefore, waste labour to divide up the whole
of the foot divisions into equal parts, although this is sometimes
done in machine-made scales. The scale as drawn shows any
length between 1" and 6'.
The importance of accuracy in constructing a scale cannot be
too strongly insisted upon. The same length taken from dififerent
parts of the scale should agree, otherwise the drawing made with
the scales will be wrong, and all scales should be tested in this

way. In showing inch divisions for a small scale this is very

difficult,and the student will find that such small divisions can

be made quite
accurately eye, as by using dividers.
as with the
But accuracy is only obtainable with great care, and by using
good instruments and hard pencils with fine points.
In setting off the total length of the scale,do not take a distance

of say I''in the dividers and set this distance off repeatedly along
the line until the right length is obtained. This cannot be

accurate, as suppose the I'' to be taken off the rule y^" too short
or long, a very probable
too error, then the whole line in the

example given would be y^ x 9 = '09" short or long.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 12. "

A line 2*5'' long is drawn to represent a lensth of
1'. What fraction is the line of the length it represent^,
and
what length of line should be drawn to show lengths of I''and 5"^)
Divide the line to show inches and mark the divisions.
EX. 13. "
Construct scale, the representative fraction
a of
which is ^^, reading yards and feet, long enough for 3 yards.
EX. 14. "
The plan of a room, 41' long and 28' wide
outside,
is to be drawn a sheet of paper 22* x 16*, leaving about
upon
1* border all round. Construct and mark the scale that should
be used.
EX. 16. "
Construct carefully the following scales, writing
above each, its representative fraction, and marking clearly
what the divisions represent : "

(a) Scale of 1J*= 1 foot, long enough for 6 feet" showing feet

ana inches.

(b) Scale of }* = 1 foot, long enough for 8 feet,showing feet

and inches.

(c) Scale of 1' = 1 yard, long enough for 10 yards, showing

yards and feet.

(d) Scale of f
*
" 1 chain, long enough for 10 chains, showing
chains and poles.
 CONSTRUCTION OP SCALES. 17

(e) Scale of 1 cm. = 10 cms., long enough for 1 metre, showing

divisions of 10 cms. and c. metres (1 cm. =0*39'').
EX. 16. "
map On a 2*5 chains is represented by 1*5 inches.

w Draw a scale of feet for the map showing 500 feet, and divide it
to show distances of 20 feet. What is the representative frac-
tion
of the scale 1
EX. 17. "
Construct a scale of ^, long enough for 15 feet,
showing feet and inches.

Diagonal Division and Diagonal Scales. "

^The number of

equal parts into which it is possible to accurately divide a line

by the methods previously described soon reaches a limit. It
is,for example, difficult to show lengths of 1 inch on a scale
where J or " inch = 1 foot, yet much smaller divisions than
these are constantly required in scales for land measure, and on

rules designed for measuring very small fractions of an inch such

The principle of diagonal division by which such small sions

divi-

may be accurately obtained, is

Suppose we as follows: "

require lengths
to show (Fig. 12). of -^^of the line AB
At one end^ A, of the line draw a perpendicular of indefinite
length, and mark along the perpendicular any c
ten equal lengths, starting from A, and ending j
at 0. Join the last point to ", mark the points ^
1 ...
9 as shown, and through the points j
1 ...
9, draw lines parallelto A B. Then all f
the small triangles,as 0 3 F, 0 5 E, and 0 8 D "

are similar; and, therefore, since 03 is -^ of

.

0 A, so also is 3F y^ of A B, and so on with

_,.

each of the ^^'

triangles. Consequently the dis-
tance, 1 G, is 0^1 of A B, and if A B be 0*5" long, then the
length of 1 G = OOS'" or ^V-

PROBLEM VIII. (Fig.13)." ^o construct diagonalfull size

a

scale, "* long,to show inches, tenths of a/n inch, and hundredths of
an inch.
Draw the line A B G*' long, and divide it into six equal parts
to show inches, and divide the first of these divisions,A 0, into
ten equal parts to show inches.
-j^^ From the end, A, draw a pendicular,
per-
and startingfrom A, mark off any ten equal lengths to
the point E. Complete the obloug, E A B D, and through the
points 1 ...
9, draw lines parallelto A B, terminated by B D.
From each of the points marking the inch division draw lines
perpendicular to A B, and mark them l*",2" . . .
5", the division
at 0 being 0. Join the points E .
9, and draw parallelsto E 9
.

2
18 PBAGTlflAL, FLAKE, AMD SOLID GBOHETKY.

tbroiigh the pointa 0 1, 2, 3, 8, in A C. The

.
scale is now
. . .

complete and con be used to measure anj" length between 0*01'

and 6'; as, for example, the length between the two points, xy,
is i-26^,and between the points, mn, is 314'.
A scale of this construction is usually marked on one side of
the common 6* boxwood protractor, and should form a part of
student's drawing outfit, as it is the only convenient and
every
accurate method of measuring to the second place of decimals.

Fig. 13.

Diagonal scales, which are chiefly required for drawings of

land and buildings, are constructed in this way. For example,
if 1^" 1 furlong, and
"" a scale is required to show poles, ihe
construction shouid be as follows: (Fig. 13) Make AO 11* "

long, and erect an indefinite perpendicular, A E, from the

point A Now as 10 chains =
1 furlong, and i poles = 1 chain,
it will be best to divide A C into ten equal parts to show
chains and to act four equal divisions up A E, and then finish
as before.

ComparstiTe Scales. "

Comparative scales are those which
enable different standards of length to be compared. Suppose a

drawing is made in France to a scale of 2 cm. =

1 metre, or ^
of full size, then it is convenient to be able to know what
measure of yards and inches in the English standard corresponds
to any given length on the French drawing, which has been
drawn in metres and centimetres. To accomplish this a scale to

English measure should be drawn having the same "

repreten-
tativtJraction," The usual method is to draw the English scale

along one edge of the scale, and the French scale along the
other edge. The comparison and conversion is then easily
made.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 18. "

Oonstmct a fall size di(^;onalscale 6* long, showing
inches, Ar inches, and y^ inches.
EX. 19. "
A distance of 11 miles 3 furlongs is shown on a

map by 4J*. Draw a scale fi"r the map, showing furlongs by

 CONSTRUCTION OP TRIANGLES. 19

diagonal division. The scale to be long enough to measure

15 miles.
EX. 20. "
^A scale of yards and feet is drawn to a tive
representa-
fraction of -J-.Construct comparative
a scale of yards and
metres, long enough for 2 metres, showing divisions of yards and
feet, and of 10 centimetres.

SECTION lY.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES-

QUADRILATERALS" POLYGONS AND ELLIPSES.

The working of the following problems vdll present no great

difficultyto the student possessing a fair knowledge of Euclid's
Elements, as they are simply a direct application of the
principles of pure geometry. The questions on triangles and
quadrilateralsare inserted because of their frequent occurrence in
examination papers, and their general educational value, rather
than for their practical use, which is somewhat limited, except
in such work as plotting surveys of lands. The construction of
the regular polygons and of ellipses is, however, of much

importance, as polygonal and elliptical outlines are very common

in engineering construction.
PROBLEM IX. (Pig. 14). To construct a triangle,knowing "

the perimeter, base, a/nd one base

cmgle.
The
perimeter of a figure is the total length of its sides or of
its boundary. Thus the perimeter of a square
of 2" side is %", and of a circle is the length
of its circumference.
Let the perimeter be 1^, base Z", one base

angle 45". Draw the line AB 3" long to

represent the base and from the end, A,

draw an indefinite line at 45" to A B. Prom
this line cut off a part, AC, equal to the

perimeter less the base "

^that is,7J* -
3 = ^Y'
Join C to B, and from B draw the line
B cutting A C
D, in D, so that the angle
D B C angle D C = B. Then DAB is the Fig. 14.

required triangle.
(BA + AC = given perimeter and DBsDO (Ev4^ L, 6), .*. BA-I-
A D + D B = given penmeter. )
20 PBAOTIOAL. PLANS, AKD SOLID aEOMBTRT.

PROBLEM X. (Fig. 15)," Tb construct a triangle^knowing the

and
bcue, cUtittidef verUcal angle.
The altitade of a triangleis the perpendicular distance from the
vertex to the base.
Let the base be Z]fialtitade 2i% and vertical angle 40".
Draw the line A.E
long Z" to represent the base, bisect it at
C, and draw a perpendicular, 0 D. Draw a line, E F, parallelto
the base 2Y away, then the
vertex of the triangle must be
in this line.
We now use the proof of
Euclid iii, 20, which says ^Hhe
angle at the centre of a circle is
double the angle at the drcumfer-
ence on the same base," and we
'

see that we ought to be able to

draw a circle having A B for a
chord, so that all angles con-
tained

in it shall be 40** (Euclid

iii.,21), and to do this the
Fig. 15.
angle at the centre must be

Therefore, from one end, A, of the base, draw a line making an

angle with the base equal to one right angle less the required
vertical angle "
^that is,90* -
40" =
50". Let this line cut 0 D in
D. Then the angle A D C is 40", and D is the centre of the

required circle. With D as centre draw a circle passing through

A and B, and cutting the line E F in E and F. Then either
the triangle EABorFABis the required triangle.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 1. "
Construct a triangle,sides 3^",21",and 2".

EX. 2. "
^Construct an isosceles triangle, base 2^", vertical
angle 40".

(Find the measure of the base angles, knowing that the three angles equal
two right angles.)

EX. 3. "
Construct the following right angled triangles (a) "

hypotenuse 5'^ one side 2^"; (b) hypotenuse 4^", one acute

angle 35".

(The angle in a semicircle is a right angle, therefore draw a semicircle

with the hypotenuse as diameter.)
 22 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETBT.

EX. 15. "

The diagonals of a parallelogram are 2^ and 4^*'
long, they contain an angle of 61*". Construct the gram.
parallelo-

(Half of each diagonal makes the sides of a triangle of which the vertical

angle is known.)

Besalar geometrical construction

Polygons. "
of regular
^The

polygons depends upon Corollary I. of Ev^lid i.,32, which says

that the interior angles of any
"
straight lined figv/re together with

four right angles are equal to twice as many right angles as the

figure has sides,"

The most common of the regular polygons used in engineering

designs are the pentagon (five-sided), hexagon (six-sided), and

octagon (eight-sided).
Pentagon. Suppose " we require to construct a pentagon of

2^"side. All the interior angles together with four right angles
will equal 2 x 5 x 90 = 900", and, therefore, the interior angles
will equal 900 -
360 = 540", and each interior angle will be

= 108*. Hence we could draw two lines 2 J*'long, meeting

-^

at an angle of 108", and they would be two sides of the pentagon,,

and we could complete the pentagon by drawing other lines at
108" and 2^ long, until the figure closed. But this is a some
cumber-
^

method and would scarcely be accurate. The geometrical

construction is as follows : "

PROBLEM XI. (Fig.16). "

To construct a regular polygon on

a given line.
Let the polygon be a pentagon, and the given line be A B.
Produce AB, and with
A, as centre, draw a semicircle of
radius equal to the given line, A B.
Divide this semicircle into the

same number of equal parts as

the sides in the required figure,
in this case 5, and mark the

points as shown. Join the tre,

cen-

A, to the point, 2. Then

A 2 is a second side of the pen-
tagon.
For A 2 =
A B, and the

angle 2 A
f of 180" B
108", is =

and hence, by always joining to

Fig. 16. the second point, counting from
the opposite end of A B, we tain
ob-
for six divisions,f of 180" 120"*,
= the angle of a hexagon;
for nine divisions, J of 180" = 140", the angle of a nonagon.
Now a regular polygon can always be circumscribed by a
 CONSTRUCTION OP POLYGONS. 23

circle, and hence, if we draw a circle containing the two sides,

2 A and A B, it will just contain the required polygon.
Draw the circle passing through 2 A B, having its centre at C

(see Ex. 10, p. 7). With A B as distance start from B or 2, and

step round the circle,marking the points 6 and 7, and complete
the figureas shown.
It is difficult for beginners to finish these polygons accurately,
the fault generally lies in a bad division of the semicircle, where
a very small error makes a large difference in the result. This
is the reason why polygons are seldom accurate when the angle
2 A B is set off withprotractor,
a slight as a error becomes

multiplied as the polygon approaches completion.

Hexagon and Octagon. "
Since the interior angles of the

hexagon and octagon are respectively 120" and 135**,it is necessary

un-

in constructing
either of these figures to
divide the semicircle into
either 6 equal parts.
or 8
For the angleexterior

^:2AD of Fig. 16) is

i 0** for a hexagon and 45"
for octagon, it can,
an

therefore, be easily found i "-

"|m .,

in the first case by taking T +--*""-""""

"^^
the radius of the
~

semi- "IT
^^* ^
circle as distance and

marking off from the point

D to the point 2, thus

making the 2 AD angle

== 60**;and in the second
case by bisecting the right
angle, thus obtaining an
angle of 45**.
The two set squares most

commonly used are made

with angles of 60" and 45", f"-"

and this enables a hexagon I O.i

octagon to be 176.
or an very Fig
easily and accurately con-
structed,

if the set squares are true. The method of using the

set squares to draw these figuresis shown in Fig. 17a, b.
In Fig. 17a, the hexagon is to be drawn on the line A B, and
the set square is shown in position for drawing two other sides.
In Fig. I7b, the 45" set square is shown in position for obtaining
two of the sloping sides of an octagon. It is easy to see how
24 PRAOTIOALy PLAKB, AKD SOLID OEOMETBT.

the figuresmay be completed in each case, remembering that

and
the hexagon is the most common of all plane figures drawn by
the mechanical engineer, as nuts and bolt heads are hexagonal,
it is very necessary for the student to know to what extent
set squares may be used to assist in its construction.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 16. "

Draw two lines 2" long meeting at an angle of
108*",and consider them as two sides of a regular polygon.
Complete the figure.
EX. 17. "
Construct
following regular polygons: (a) pen-
tagon, the "

2" side ; (b)hexagon, 2" side ; (c)heptagon, 1 '76" side ; (d)

octagon, I'b" side; (e) nonagon, 1 '5" side.

EX. 18. "
Draw a line A B, and take a point, P, outside it,
3^" away. Construct a pentagon to have one side in A B, and
the opposite corner in P.

(Construct any pentagon, then copy this pentagon by having

parallels its

top corner in P, and mark the side opposite P, C D. Join P through C and
D to meet A B, the length they cut off on A B is the side of therequired
pentagon, then finish by drawing parallels.)

EX. 19. "

Construct the regular polygon whose perimeter is
10", and interior angles 135**.

(To do this by construction, a polygon of length of vide having

any
interior angles of 135" should be* drawn first,as will this tell the' number of
aides, then draw a similar polygon such that perimeter = 10^. ) '

The following should be drawn, using set squares : "

EX. 20. Draw a "

hexagon 2" side and an octagon If' side.
EX. 21. Draw a hexagon and
"
octagon, outside and inside
circles of 3" diameter.
EX. 22. "
The longest diagonal of a hexagon is 4-^ and of an

octagon 5". Draw the figures.

EX. 23. "
The distance between the parallelside of a hexagon
is 4^",and of an octagon 5". Draw the figures.

PROBLEM XII (Fig. 18). "

To eomtruct a regtUar polygon
inside a given circle.
Let the circle have the diameter, A B, and the
required polygon
be a heptagon. Divide the diameter of the given circle,A B, into
the same number ofequal parts as the sides in the required
polygon; for a heptagon 7, and = mark as shown. With A
and B, as centre, radius A B, describe arcs meeting in C. Join
C through the point 2 to meet the circle on the other side of the
diameter A B in the point D. Then the line A D is one side of
 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSES. 25

the heptagon, and the figurecan be completed by stepping off the

length A D around the circle.

For this construction to be

correct, in the case of a tagon,

hep-
the arc AD must

evidently be -J-of the ference

circum-
"
that is, the semicir-
cumference A B must be 3^
times A D, or D B = 2J times
D A. Now A 0 B is an lateral
equi-
triangle,therefore CA
=
0 B, and part A2 the is f of
AB the diameter.

A2C_B2D arcDB
= 2^
B2^ A2D"arcDA

The manner in ^hich set

squares may be used to draw

a hexagon or octagon inside or

outside circle will be easily

a Fig. 18.
seen.

EXAMPLES.
EX. 24. "
Construct an equilateraltriangle,ABO, base A B,
divide the base into 5 equal parts, and on the side of the base
remote from C describe istsemicircle. Draw a line from C
through
the second division point 2 counting froin A, and meeting the
semicircle in D. Measure the angles, B 2 D and A 2 D, and
the chords, B D and A D, and show that

^B2D BD B2

^A2D""AD*"A2
EX. 25. "
Construct the following polygons in circles of 4*
diameter :
" (a) pentagon, {b)hexagon, (c)heptagon, (d) octagon,
(e) nonagon.
EX. 26. "
Construct two hexagons having the same centre,
length of sides 2^^^,
the sides of one hexagon to make an angle of
30" with the sides of the other.

Construotion of Ellipses. "

^The ellipseis the most common

of a series of useful mathematical curves, often employed in

architectural and engineering construction, many of which will
be referred to in detail in Section VII. But its geometrical con-
struction

given at this stage, because of its occurrence

is in other

work, and the desirabilitythat students should obtain an early

knowledge of how it may be practicallydrawn.
 26 PRAOTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

The general method of construction

adopted with all these-
curves, is to find a number of
points through which it is knowu
the curve must pass, and then to draw, by freehand or with the-
aid of "French curves," the curve passing through these
points.
Arcs of circles cannot be used with degree of accuracy.
any
The greater the number of points found, the more accurate
the curve is likelyto be, but the student should learn to exercise-
a wise discretion as to the exact number of points in particular
cases.

As the curves are symmetrical, error in drawing is easily

any
detected.
The ellipse may be defined in many ways, but for the present
we will take the following definition :"

" An ellipse is a closed curve traced out by a point moving in

such a way, that the sum of its distances from two fixed points^
called the foci,is always the same."
Thus, in Fig. 19, if F and F' are the two fixed points or foci,
and P the moving point, then if P moves so that at all timea
P F + P F' = a constant, then path of P the is an ellipse.
Major Axis. "
The line passing through the foci,and nated
termi-

by the curve, is called the major ^* aads** (AB in Fig.

19).
Minor Axis. "
The line bisecting the major axis at right
angles to it,and terminated by the curve, is called the "
minor-

aa?w"(ODinFig. 19).
The intersection of the axes is called the centre of the ellipse-
(O in Fig. 19).
Ordinates. "
Lines parallelto the minor axis and terminated
by the curve are called " ordinates"
Since A and 0 (Fig.19) are points in the it
ellipse, follows that
AF + AF= OF + CF; butAF +
AF'= major axis, A B;^
therefore, as 0 F and C F' are equal, we have C F = half major
axis. Therefore,
The sum of the distances qfcmy point in an ellipsefrom the foci
is equal to the m^or axis.
The distance from either end of the minor axis, to either focusy
is equal to half the major oasis.
A circle may be regarded as an ellipse with its axes equal,,
and a straight line as an ellipsewith its minor axis infinitely
reduced.
There are several means of constructing an ellipsewhen the-

axes are known

(or one axis and the foci,since the other axis ia
then easilyfound), the first of which is suggested by the abov"
definition.
 CONSTRUCTION OF BLLIPSEft 27

PKOBLEM XIII. (Fig. 19)," To construct an ellipsewhen

the axes A B amd C D
given. are

Method L by arcs of circles,"

"
Find the foci,F and " F, by
taking half the major axis as distance, either end of the minor

axis as centre, and cutting the major axis in these points. Mark

any point 2 in the major axis A B, between the foci.

With A 2 as distance, F as centre, draw an arc.

With B 2 as distance, F' as centre, draw an arc, cutting the

first arc in P.
Then PF + PF = A2 + B2 = major axis; therefore P is
a point in the ellipse.
In the same way by taking
points, 1, 3, "c., additional other

points can be found, and the curve drawn through them.

The points may be taken anywhere between the focus and
centre, but are better when closest together nearest the focus.
Arcs can be drawn with the same radii on both sides of the
major axis, and with both foci as centre, thus giving four points
in the curve for each of the
points, 1, 2, 3, . . .

This is a quick and accurate way of constructing an ellipse.

It can also be applied for constructing other curves of a similar
character, such as, for instance, where 2PF + PF'sa stant.
con-

It is evident that the curve could be drawn

mechanically.
For let F P, P F' be a continuous string,its ends being fixed at
the foci Then
pencil guided by the a string, and keeping it
tight,will an describe
ellipse.
Method IL by ^Hwo circles" (Fig. 20). Draw circles with "

centre, O, having the major and minor axes for diameter.

Take any point, 3, on the major axis circle,and join to the
centre, cutting: the minor axis circle in point 4.
28 PRACTICAL, PLANS/ AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

Through the point (3) on the major axis circle,draw a line

parallelto the minor axis.

Through the point (4) on the minor axis circle, draw a line

parallelto the major axis, meeting the first line in e.

Fig. 20.

Then " is a point in the curve.

Kepeating the construction with other points will enable the

ellipseto be drawn.
Since the curve is symmetrical about its axes, points in it can

be found, when one quarter has been constructed, by drawing

ordinates from points in that quarter, and making them of equal
length on both sides of
major the Thus, axis. in the figure
ef ^fgy and similarlyby drawing lines parallel to the major
axis, so that mn gm,= the ellipse can be completed. It is
better to draw one complete half of the ellipse before adopting
this method.
Method III.
by an oblong" (Fig, 21). Draw
*'
an oblong, "

A B C D, having the axes for diameters.

Divide half the major axis, A O, into any number ; say, six
equal parts and mark from A towards O, 1',2', 5'. .
. .

Divide the distance, AE (equals half minor axis), into the

same number of equal parts, and mark from A towards E,
1, 2, 3, ...
5. Join these points to the end, C, of the minor
axis.
30 PBACTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETBT.

Place the strip in such a way that the minor point, F, is

axis

always on the major axis, and the major axis pointy G, always on
the minor axis, then the end, ", of the strip will be a point in
the curve.

The strip is shown in position for two different points.

This is a common drawing office and workshop method, and

as it readily gives any number of points, is very useful.

Tangents and Normals. "

It is necessary to be able to draw
the tangent and normal to an ellipse. A tangent to a curve is
often of use as showing the direction of the curve. In an

ellipticalarch, the ends of the stones, or the radial members,

would be normals to the curve.

" The normal to an ellipse at any point in the curve bisects the
angle between the lines joining that point to the focL (These
lines are called the focal distances.)
" The tangent at any point is at right angles to the normal at
that point."
Thus to draw a normal and tangent at any point, P (Fig. 19),
it is only necessary to join the
point to the foci and bisect the

angle FPF' between the joining lines. This bisecting line

M N is the normal, and a line at right angles, T T, is the tangent.

Or, produce FP to Q, then the tangent bisects the angle

"i P' F^, and the normal is perpendicular to it.
" If two tangents are ellipsefrom a point outside dniwn to an

the curve, and the contact points are joined to a focus, then the
angles between these lines and the line joining the focus to the
point are equal."
Thus in (Fig. 20) the angles P F G and P F H are equal.
Hence to draw a tangent from a point outside the ellipse,it is
necessary to adopt a construction making these angles equal.
This can be done as follows : "

With the point P as centre, draw

passing through a
an arc

focus, F. With the other focus, F', as centre, and the major
axis as distance, describe an arc, cutting the first arc in a
and h.
Join a and h to the focus F', cutting the curve in the points
G and H. These are the contact points of the tangents from P.
In the triangles P a F' and P 5 F' the three similar sides are

respectively equal, angles therefore are the P F' G and P F' H

"equal {Euclid i.,8), and, therefore, G and H must be the tact
con-

points of the tangents.

Parallels to an Ellipse. ^A parallelto a curve is equidistant "

from it at all points. It has not necessarily the same matical

mathe-
properties as the curve to which it is parallel.
The curve used in constructing the arches of bridges ia
 CONSTBUCTION OF ELLIPSES. 31

^equently a parallel to an ellipse,

as this gives greater vertical
-clearance near the ahutments than the true ellipse.
The parallel to an ellipse is most conveniently drawn hy
describing a large number of small radii of the required
distance from points on the curve as centre; or it can be
-obtained by drawing a number of normals to the curve of the

required length, and drawing the parallel curve through the

"nds of the normals.
The parallel curve, the curve, N N, to an ellipse,is shown

partly constructed Fig. 20. It is drawn

in small touching the
arcs, described from points on the ellipseas centre, but might
have been drawn by constructing a number of equal normals
and drawing the curve through the ends.
A convenient practicalway of finding whether a given curve
is a true ellipse,is to draw lines representing the two axes, and
mark the foci,supposing the cwrve to he an ellipse. Then measure

the focal distances of a number of points and find if the sum is

"x)nstant ; or partly construct a true ellipseabout the assumed
axes and foci, when its difference from the given curve will
"how the error of the curve.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 27. "

Construct an ellipse,major axis 7*, minor axis 4^^,
by the
following methods: " {a) "arcs of circles;" (6) "two
circles;" (c) "oblong;" (d) "trammels." In each case draw
a tangent and normal to the curve, from a point in the curve

and from a point outside the curve.

EX. 28. "

Work the following by drawing : "
(a) major axis of
an ellipseis G'^,minor axis find
2^^^, the foci ; major axis 6^% (5)
foci are l'^ from each end, find the minor axis ; (c)minor axis is

^Yi ^'^^ ^^6 ^'' fi'om the ends of the minor axis, find the major
axis.
EX. 29. "
Carefully draw an ellipseby two circles method,
major axis 1"^ minor axis 4^ Rub out all lines except the curve

and the axis, and find the foci. Then take six difierent points
in the curve and find -the sum of the distances of each point from
the foci.
EX. 30. "
Construct a axis
semi-ellipse, A:" and 2^ Then draw
a second parallel curve 2^ away, and find if this curve is a true

ellipse.
EX. 31. "
Draw the
ellipse,
an distance between the foci being
21",and the major axis 3" long. (S. " E., 1891.)
A.
EX. 32.~Two points, F and F', ^T apart, are the foci of, and
P (2" from F and \"from F') is a point on, an ellipse. Draw the
curve. (S. " A. A., 1892.)
 32 PBACTIOAL, PLAKB, AND SOLID GEOMETBT.

EX. 33. "

Draw
ellipse inscribed
an in a parallelogram the
sides of which are ^ and 5' long, and are inclined at 60*" to one
another. (V. U. Hon., 1889.)

SECTION Y.

CIRCLES AND TANGENTS" AREAS" LANEOUS

MISCEL-
PROBLEMS.

The practicaldraughtsman does not usually adopt a geometrical

construction to enable him to draw such circles and lines

tangentially to each other as are required in ordinary mechanical

drawings, since his own skill in draughtsmanship ensures cient
suffi-

accuracy. But instances often occur in solid geometry

problems, as well as in mechanical drawings, where it is very
advantageous, if not absolutely necessary, to be able to accurately
determine the contact points of lines and circles, hence the
student should render himself familiar with the chief geometrical
constructions.
PROBLEM XIY. (Pig.23)." ^o d^aw a tangent to a drcle, (a)
from a point in the drcumfer-
encBj (b) from, a 'point outeide
the circle.
A tangent to a circle is a

line which touches the circle,

without cutting it. A tangent
is at right angles to the radius
passing through the point of
contact. ^fididiiL, 18.
"

(a) Let P be the point in the

circumference of the circle.
Join P to the
0, then centre
the required tangent, ST, is
the line drawn at right angles
to the radius, P C.
(6) Let P' be the point ont-

Fig. 23. side the circle. In order to

draw the tangent correctly^
we require to find its contact point, and knowing that the

tangent is at right angles to the radius, we remember that

"' the angle in a semicircle is a right angle" Therefore join tho
 CIRCLES AND TANGENTS. 33

point P' to the centre 0, and on P'O describe a semicircle

cutting the given circle in D. Then P'D is therequired
tangent, for it touches the circle at D, and is perpendicular to
the radius, D 0.
Notice that a second tangent can be drawn from P' to touch
the circle,as shown in the figure by dotted lines. It is easy to
see that '' the two tangents are equal in length" a ^t which
should be remembered.

PROBLEM XY. (Pig. 24). "

In a given angle to inscribe a circle
of given radius^ and also to inscribe a second circle tangent to the
firstcircle and to the angle.
Let B A C be the given angle. The circle must evidentlyhave
its centre on the line bisecting
the angle, therefore first bisect
the angle BACf by the line
AD.
Draw a line
parallelto A B,
at a distance from it equal to
the radius of the required circle

cutting A D in E. (This is best ^^ 24.

done by first drawing a perpen-dicular
to A B from any point in it,and making its length equal
to the given radius.) E is the centre of the circle,and in order
to accurately draw the circle,it is best to first draw a line from E
perpendicular to A B or A 0, to obtain the point of contact, F.
Next to draw a second circle touching the first and the sides
of the angle. Draw the line G H from the point G, where the
circle cuts A D, and perpendicular to A D. Then H G and H B
will both be tangents to the required circle when it is drawn ;
therefore, if H B is made equal to H G, the point B so found
will be the contact point of the required circla A perpendicular,
B K to A B, through the point B, will cut A D in K, which will
be the centre of the required second circle.

PROBLEM XVI. (Fig. 25)." To draw three circles of given

radius in contact with each other. (The method of this construc-
tion
is useful in problems on spheres in contact.)
Let the circles be of 2", 1 j^'^,
and l'^radius.
Draw any straight line and draw any two of the circles (say
of 2" and l^'^radius) touching each other, having their centres at
A and B in the line.
Set ofi*the radius of the third circle along the line, beyond the
two circles, A and B to 0 and D, as shown. With A as centre,
draw an arc passing through 0, and with B as centre^ draw an arc

3
34 PRACTICAL, PLAKB, AKD SOLID OEOMBTBT.

passing through D, meeting the first arc in E. Then E is centre

of the third circle tangent to A and B, the contact points being
found by joining E to A and ".

Pig. 26.

PROBLEM XYII. (Fig.26)." To draw all the tangents common

to two circles of uneqtudsize,

(This problem is practicallyuseful as representing the condi-tions
of open and crossed driving belts connecting two pulleys.)
Let the circles have their centres at A and B, the larger circle
having the centre, A.
Mark the radius of the smaller circle,B, inside the larger circle,
A, as from the point 0 in the circumference to the point D

Fig. 26.

Then A D is the difference between the radii of the two circles.

Describe a circle of radius, A D, centre A, and draw a semicircle

on A B, cutting this circle in E Join A E and

produce to meet
circle A at F, and from B draw a line parallel to A F, cutting
 CIRCLES AND TANGENTS. 35

circle B at G. Then F and G are the contact points of the mon

com-

tangent to the two circles. The similar tangent, K, on H

the opposite side is easily drawn by making arc C H 0 F, and
=

arc M K = M G.
The principle of this construction is that both thecircles,A
and B, have been equally reduced in size, the smaller, B, to a
pointy and the larger,A, to the circle A D E. Then the tangent
from the
point to (tangent the circle B E not drawn) is evidently
parallel the required tangent, F G.
to

A similar construction applies for the cross tangents, except

that the larger circle.A, is to increase by an amount equal to the
radius of the smaller circle,B, while the smaller circle,B, is reduced
as before to a point. The dotted circle of radius, A P (0 P =

radius of circle B), cuts the semicircle on A B in R. Join A R,

cutting the circle in S, and draw B T parallelto it. Then S and
T are the
points contact
one of of the cross tangents, which gent
tan-

is evidently parallelto B R. The drawing of the other cross

tangent will present no difficulty.

PROBLEM XVIII. (Fig.27)." To draw a continuous curve

made up o/ circular arcs through a number of given points.

Let the points be as marked, 1 7, the curve
...
to be drawn

through the points in the order of figuring.

Fig. 27.
Draw the arc passing through the first three points, 1, 2, 3
(see Ex. 10, p. 7), the point 0 being the centre. The arc passing
through points 3 and
the 4 is to touch this arc at the point 3,
and, therefore, the line joining C 3 must pass through the centre
of the required circle. {Euclid iii.,11,12. When ttvo circles touchy
the line joining their centres parses through the point of contact.)
Draw the line, 0 3, and produce.
Next join points 3, 4, and bisect the line 3, 4 by a per-
the pendicular
line cutting the line through 0 3 in D. Then D is
the centre of the arc passing through the points 3, 4.
Proceed in the same way for the remaining arcs, taking two

points at a time. The construction for the centre of the arc

36 PRACTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

through 4 and 5 is shown, the first step being to join the points
4 and D.

PROBLEM XIX. (Fig.28). "

To inscribe a circle in a quadrv-
lateral having ttoo pairs ofeqaal sides.
Let A BOD be the

given figure, having

AB = AD and BO
= DO.
The line A 0 wUl sect
bi-
the angles BAD
and BOD, and the
centre of the required
circle will, therefore, be
upon this line.
To find the centre

Fig. 28. bisect either of the

angles, ABO, by a line

cutting A 0 in E. Then E is the centre of the circle touching the
four sides of the figure,and its radius is best found by drawing
a perpendicular, E F, from E, to either of the sides, as to B 0.

PROBLEM XX. (Fig. 29)." To describe a number of equal

circles outside a given circle^
each touching two of the
circles and the given circle.
Let the given circle have
the centre 0, and let six

equal circles be required.

Divide the circle into six

equal parts, and draw radial

lines as shown. Draw the
line 0 B, bisectingthe angle
between 0 1 and 0 2. Then
if the centres of the two
circles are on the lines 0 1
and 0
2, the line 0 B will
be tangent to both circles.
Draw through point
a line
1 perpendicular to 0 1,

meeting OB in A. Then
A 1 and A B are tangents
Kg. 29.
to the same circle, and must^
therefore, be equal. Make A B equal to A 1 and B will be the
contact point of the required circle with the line 0 B. Draw
S8 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

five equal circles, each touching two others and the original
circle. (Woods " Forest, 1885.)
EX. 14. "
Draw a line, A B, of indefinite length, and describe

a circle of y radiustouching it at A. Describe a second circle

of l'^ radius touching A B, and the first circle externally,and a
third circle of \^ radius touching A B, and the second circle

externally. All three circles to be on the same side of AB.

(Sandhurst, 1886.)
EX. 15. "
Describe a circle in
quadrant of ^Y radius.
a In
the circle describe an equilateraltriangle. (Woolwich, 1881).
EX 16. "
Describe a series of circles,diameters 1", \\'\1J%
If'', touching each other successively,and all touching a given
line. (Woolwich, 1878.)
EX. 17. "
Draw a circle 5" diameter, and in it describe four

equal circles,each touching the first circle and two others.

Areas of Plane Figures. "

The following typical examples
of practicalgeometry problems on areas are inserted because of
their educational value general usefulness.
and It is often

necessary to divide the plans of fields by fences into certain

definite parts, or to compare the areas of irregular figures,or to
construct certain figures of a required area, and as these all
admit of an and accurate solution with the help of the
easy
drawing board, it is advisable for the student to become familiar
with the methods employed.
PROBLEM XXL To construct
" an oblong equal in area to a

given triangle,
Oonstruct the oblong on the same base as the triangle,and
half the height, or on half the base and the same height. Then
the oblong will contain an area equal to that of the triangle.
(Euclid i.,41.)
PROBLEM XXIL (Fig.dO)."To construct a square equal in
area to a given oblong,

(If two lines, AG, DE,

cut one another at right
angles in a circle at a point
B, the lines being terminated
by the circumference, then
the rectangle,AB, BG, made

up of the segments of one

is equal to the rectangle,
DB, BE, made up of the
segments of the other. "

Euclid iii.,35.) But if one of the two lines, AC, passes

of the circle, then it will bisect the other
through the centre
 AREAS. 39

line, D E, and thus make the segments, D ", BE, equal to one

another, and the rectangle becomes a square on DB or BE.

Therefore, D B or B E is the side of the square equal in aresi
to the
rectangle, having equal to sides AB and BC. This
construction is adopted for the present problem, although it
is obvious that only half the circle need be drawn. Notice
that the side of the required square is the mean proportional** "

between the sides of the oblong "

that is,D B =
J A B .
B 0.
Let the oblong have the sides,A B, B C. Draw the two sides
end for end, making a continuous line, ABC, as shown. Bisect
A C, the sum of the sides in the point E, and draw a semicircle,
ADC. At B, the point where the two sides of the oblong join,
draw a B
line, D, perpendicular to A C, meeting the circle in D.
Then the line B D is the side of the square, equal in area to
the rectangle,A B, B C.
Notice that if any two of the three lines, A B, BO, or B D

are known, the third can be found ; hence, if one side of an

oblong is known and the side of its equal square, the oblong can

be constructed.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 18. "

Draw any irregular triangle,no side less than 2J%
and construct a square equal to it in area.
(First reduce to an equal oblong and afterwards to a square.)

EX. Compare 19.

the " areas of two triangles, each of 7*^
perimeter, one equilateral, the other isosceles with a base 1^'
long, by drawing lines to represent the side of a square equal in
area to each.
EX. 20. "
A
square of 3" side is equal in area to an oblong,
one side of which is 2^" long. Construct the oblong,

PROBLEM XXIIL
(Fig. 31)." 2b redtice a given irregular
figure a triangle of equal area.
to

The principle of this reduction depends upon the fact that

triangles upon the same base and between the same parallels
are equal {Euclid,L, 37), and the method consists of converting*
certain triangles, obtained from the figure, into other equal
triangles,having one side in the same line as a side of the given
figure that is,parts are cut off the figure in some
"
places while
equal parts are added on in other places.
Let A B 0 D E F be the given figure. Produce A F to be the
base of the required triangle. Then starting at the point A,
join A 0, and through B draw a parallel, B G, meeting F A in
G. Join OG. Then ABO and AGO are equal triangles,
 40 PBACTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRT.

being on the same base, A 0, and between the same parallek,

AC, BG, but the part HAG is common to both, therefore
the part " H G (taken off the figure) equal to the part
is
GHA (added to the

figure),and thus the five-

sided figure, GGDEF,
is equal to the six-sided

figure,ABaDEF. ceed
Pro-
in the same way, by
joining DF, and drawing;
parallel through E to K
and joining D K, the

figure has now only four

K p M sides. The construction

Fig. 31. is shown for the other

sides,CD, D K, but notice
that as D E F is a
'*
reentrant joining of D and F
angle" the
adds on a triangle to the original figure, the result is that
the point K falls within the point F. Then the triangle
0 G M is equal to the figure A B G D E F.

PROBLEM XXIY. (Fig. 32)." To construct a triangleequal

in area to the sum or differenceof two given triangles.
Let ABO and D E F be the two given triangles. Draw a

line, A G, in the triangle ABO perpendicular to B 0 to give

D

Fig. 32.
the altitude of the triangle. With D as centre radius, AG,
draw an arc, and draw a line, E H, from E tangent to this arc,
as shown. Through F draw a line parallel to D E, meeting the
line EH at K. Join D K. Then the triangle D E K is
equal to the triangle D E F, because it is on the same base, D E,
and between the same parallels,D E and F K, and its altitude
is equal to the radius of the arc, which was made equal to
the altitude of the triangle ABO. The triangles ABC and
D E K can, therefore, be added together. Produce E K so that
 AREAS. 41

K H =^ B 0 and join H to D, then the triangle D E H is equal

to the sum given triangles.
of the two

Similarly triangle D E M is equal to the difference

the of the
two triangles; K M being equal to B C.
Another way of working this problem is to draw the two

triangles together,forming an irregular polygon, and reducing

this to an equal triangle,as in Prob. xxiiL
It is clear from the above that the areas of different figures

can be compared either by reducing each to an oblong, and

finding the side of the square equal to each figure, or by reduc- ing
the figures to triangles, each having the same altitude,
when the bases of the triangle will represent the area of the

figures. These methods of geometrically comparing areas should

be remembered.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 21 "
^Draw an irregularfive-sided and an irregular nine-
sided figure, no side less than l^'',and reduce each figure to
a triangle of equal area

EX. 22, "

Construct triangles equal in area to the sum, and
the difference, of the areas of an isosceles triangle base 4^%
height 2", and an equilateraltriangle of 3" side.
EX. 23. "
Draw an irregular six-sided figure,no side less than
IJ",and anywhere inside it,draw an irregular four-sided figure,
no side greater than 1". Then reduce the space between the two

figuresto a equal area. triangle of

EX. 24. "
Construct
the following figures,each having a peri-
meter
of 9'': Equilateral triangle; isosceles triangle,base 2";
"

irregular triangle; square; oblong, short sides 1^'; irregular

quadrilateral; pentagon; irregular five-sided figure; hexagon;
irregular six-sided figure. Reduce each to a triangle of the
same altitude, and draw lines the length of which shall represent
the areas of the several figures.
(This exercise should show that with figures of equal perimeter, the
greatest area is contained by the figure luiving the greatest number of
"qual sides.)
EX. 25." Draw a triangle,sides,AB, 4^ B C, 3", and C A, 3J\
Then construct a second triangle,A B D, equal in area to A B C,
having one side in A B, and the angle A B D twice the angle
ABC.
EX. 26. "
Draw
equilateraltriangle 3^^ side, and construct
an

a second triangle equal to it in area, having two of its sides 2}"

and 2J\
(First draw a triangleequal to the equilateral triangle,having one side
2i", and then draw a triangleequal to this, having one side 2 J", and the '
2f
flide common.)
4S PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

Diviflion geometrical division of plane areas

of Areas. "
The

generally depends upon practical application of two of the

Euclid's Theorems, the first being that of equal trianglesalready
referred to, and the second that the areata of similar figures are **

to one another as the squares on their similar sides"(Euclidvi.,20).

PROBLEM XXV. (Fig. S3)." To divide a triangle info a

number of equal 'parts hy lines draivn through a given point in
one of its sides.
Let A " 0
triangle, be the
^
and P the
given point, and
let the triangle require divid-
ing
into three equid parts.
Divide the base, " C, into
three equal parts at the points
EF. Join F to P, and through
A draw a line A G parallelto
F P, meeting the base, B C, in
G. Join P G, then P G 0 is
one-third of the whole angle.
tri-
Hepeat the tion
construc-
for the second division.

(If A E be joined, then A E B is one-third of the triangle,but the triangles

H A E and U A P are equal, and have the part H A K common, therefore
K H ", the part added on, is equal to K A P, the part taken away.)
PROBLEM XXYI. (Kg. 34)." To given irregular
dvoide a

quadrilateral into tux" or more eqv"alparts by lines draum from

one comer.

Let A B 0 D be the given figure,and let it be required to

divide it into two equal parts by
lines drawn from A.
Join D B, and bisect it at E,
and join E A, EC. Then the
lines A E, E C divide the figure
into two equal parts, for triangle
DAE equals triangle B A E,
also triangle DOE equals angle
tri-
BCE. Join AC, and
through the point E draw E P
parallelto AC, meeting B C in F.
Join Then AF divide*
AF.^
the figure into two equal parts.
^. ",

^'^'"^ For the triangles EGA and

F C A are equal, being on same base and between same parallels,
and the part GO A is common, therefore the triangle GOF
added on is equal to the triangleG A E taken
away.
 AREAS. 43

By repeating the construction for the quadrilateral,A F 0 D,

the figure can be further divided. The triangleA F B is divided
by simply joining point the A to the division points on F B.
PROBLEM XXVII. (Fig. 35)." To divide a triangleinto ttvo
or more equal parts by lines parallel
to one side. ^.^^ """^v.
Let A B 0 be the triangleto be cl/_ _NA
divided into two equal parts by /[
yw
lines parallelto B 0. / \ X I
On either of the other sides as
/ [\ ^ J
/
A B, construct a semieircle and [\ y
I
bisect it at D. With A as the I ;
\ X I
centre, radius AD, draw an arc \ | \X_ (_
cutting the side AB in E, then \ j yk
the line E F parallelto B 0 divides \ [ /
the triangle into two equal parts. ^^

(ForDA 3 DB, and angle BDAisa Fig. 35.

right ongle, therefore square on AB
equals twice the scj^uare on AD {Euclid i., 47), but AE (which equals
A D) and A B are similar sides of similar triangles,and their areas are as

the squares on these sides" that is, the triangle AEF is half the whole
triangleABC.)
EXAMPLES.

EX. 27. "

Construct a
square of 2^ side, and through one
corner draw a line cutting off one-third of its area. (S. and
A. E., 1886.)
EX 28." Construct triangle ABC.
a AB 2r, B C If", = =

0 A = 2V, Mark a point D on the side A B, 1| from A, and

through D draw a line dividing the triangle into two equal
parts. (S. and A. E., 1891.)
EX. 29. "
^The four sides of a quadrilateral,A B 0 D, are as

follows :" A B = 4-5% B C = 3^ C D = 4^ D A = 6^ and the

diagonal AC =
6^ Draw the figure and divide it into five
equal parts by lines drawn from A. (Woolwich, 1885.)
EX. 30. "
^Describe a circle of 2" radius, and a second circle
of two-thirds its area. (Woolwich, 1884.)
(Areas of circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters.)

EX. 31. oblong, sides V and 1 J",and through

"
Construct an

the middle point of one long side di*aw lines dividing the oblong
into three parts of equal area.
EX. 32." Construct a 3*, 3 J",and divide
triangle,sides 4 J'',
it into three parts of equal area by lines parallelto the shortest
side.
EX. 33. Draw irregular six-sided figure,and divide it
"

any
into five parts of equal area by lines drawn from the top comer.
44 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

(Reduce the figareto equal triangle,vertex

an at the top comer, then
divide base of triangleinto seven equal parts, and join vertex, transfer
to
the points to the figure that falls outside it,by the principleof similar
triangles.)
Miscellaneous following problems are
Problems. serted
in- "
The
owing to their frequent occurrence in engineering drawing,
and the value of the methods employed in admitting of extension
to similar questions. It is not at all uncommon to require the

meeting points of lines which meet off the paper, or to draw an

arc of a circle when the centre is inaccessible.

PROBLEM XXVIII. (Fig.36) "

^o draw an arc of a circle
through three given points,wJien the centre is inaccessible.
Let A B 0 be the three given points. Join A C, A B, and B 0.
With A and 0 as tres,
cen-

and radius AC,

draw arcs as shown,
and produce AB and
0 B to meet the arcs

in D and E tively.
respec-
Mark a ber
num-

of small
distances,
E 1, 1 2, 2 3, "c., along
the arc, below E, and
^

ji:^ Qo equal distances, D 1',

*"
r 2', 2' 3',"c., above D.
Join A to D 2',and 0 to E by lines cutting at the point F.
2
Then F is point in a the required arc. Continue the construc-
tion
for finding other points between A and B, and for points
between B and 0 in a similar by taking equal distances
way
below D and above E.

(This methoddepends upon the fact that all angles in the same segment
of a circle
are equsd {Ettcluiiii.,21). Since E 2 and D 2' are equal arcs of
equal circles, the angles D A 2' and E C 2 are equal {Euclid iii.,27), also
the angles AG F and C G B are equal, being opposite angles {Euclid i., 15),
and, therefore, the third angle in each triangle, the angles AFC and
ABC are equal.)
EXAMPLES.

EX. 34. "

Draw a tangent to a circle from a point in the
circumference without using the centre of the circle.
EX. 35. "
Three points,ABC, are on the circumference of a

circle,and are thus situated, AB = 3-25", BC = 2-75", A 0 = 5-5".

Draw the arc of the circle passing through the points without
usincr the centre. (Woods and Forest, 1886).
EX. 36." Draw an arc of a circle of large radius, and then

find points in continuation of the arc in one direction without

46 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETRT.

Then start from other point, ", on the line P B, and draw
any
a similar triangle," C D, so that JB D
is parallel to P Q, " C to
P A, and 0 D to A Q ; thus, obtaining the point D, then the

point D is in the line joining Q to the intersection of P and B.

and the line Q D can therefore be drawn.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 39. "

Draw any two lines inclined to each other but not

meeting, and point, P, outside and a point, Q, inside the

mark a

lines. Then draw lines through P and Q to meet in the

intersection of the given lines, without using that intersection.
EX. 40. Draw any
"
two lines approaching each other but not

meeting, and mark a point, F, between them. Then draw a

circle to pass through P, and to touch the two given lines, with*

out using their meeting point.

(First draw the line bisectingthe angle, then draw any circle not ing
pass-
through P, and touching the lines ; next draw the line passing through
P, to meet at the intersection of the lines cutting the circle in A. Join A
to the centre of the circle, and through P draw a parallel to this hne,
meeting the bisectingline of the angle in a point which is the centre of the
required circle.)

SECTION VI.

OENERAL PROPLEMS ON LOCI" PATHS OF POINTS

IN LINKWORK" CONSTRUCTION OP CAMS.

This section deals perhaps the most

with what importantis

part of practical plane geometry, when regarded as a part of

engineering drawing. There are very few mechanical engineers
who do not frequently require to trace out the paths of certain

points in mechanisms, such as engine valve gears and straight

tine or parallelmotions, or to determine the form of grooved or

"curved plates called cams," such that a certain desired motion

"

may
be produced. The geometrical constructions employed
"consists of finding a number of points in the particular path, or
in the curve of the cam, and then drawing as smooth a freehand

"curve as possible through the points, and the student should

remember that the number of points found is entirely a matter
for individual decision, and should be settled by a consideration

"of each particular case. AlS a general rule, there are certain

important parts of the curves, such as where the directions

 OENEKAI, PBOBLBHS ON LOCI. 47

change, where it is advisable to find more poinU thim at other

parts. The first set of the following problems on lines and

circles deals with conditions which cannot be met by the

ordinary methods of constructive geometry, and should, there-

fore,
be regarded as important.
"
It is customary to speak of the "
loeu* of a point rather than
of the "patA" of the
point, locus being a mathematical term for
the path in vhich any given point travels; as, for example, the
locus of the centre of the crank pin of an ordinary engine is a
circle, while the locus of a point on the piston is a straight line.

PROBLEM XXXI.
(Fig. 3So)." fo draw the locua of the
centres of circles, fovching a given circle,and passing tJirough a
given point "
that is, to draw a curve, every point on which shall
be equidistant from the circmn/eretice of the given circle and from
the given point.
Let A be the given circle, and P the given point outaide ib
Join the point P to the centre of the ciri^e by a tine cutting
the circle in B, and sect
bi-
the distance, B P,
in 0. Then C is dently
evi-

one point in the

locua. Mark any point,
3, between 0 and B, and
a point, 2', between 0
andP, so that 02 =
02'.
With P as centre, and
radius, F 2, draw an arc,
and with A as centre

and radius, A 2', draw a pjg. 380.

second arc cutting the
first arc above and below the line AP at the points D and "B.
Then, as P 2 =
B 2',the points D and E are evidently points in
the required locus. Other points in the curve are found by mark-
ing
other equal distances, as C 3 and C 3',on both sides of 0,
and proceeding as before. In drawing any circle from ft ^int

in the curve touching the given circle, and passing throng the
point P, the pointshould be joined to the centre of the circle
and to P, to give the points of contact.
Notice that it is only to draw the at about
necessary arcs

where they intersect, also that it is better to take the first one

or two points very near to C,

PROBLEM XXXII. (Pig. 38i)." ^o find the centre of tA"

txrcles touching a given line and tvjo given circles "
thai is, to find o
point which shaU be egwdittant from "e line and circle^
48 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

Let the circles have the centres A and B, and ]et C D be the

given line. It is necessary first to find a curve equidistant from

the circumference of the two circles,and then a second curve

equidistant from one of the circles and the given line. These
two curves will intersect in a point, which will be equidistant
from the line and the circles,and will, therefore, be the centre of
the required circle.
First find points in the equidistant from
curve the two circles,
exactly as in the last problem, by drawing arcs centres A and B

through points on A B as shown.

the Notice that when the two
circles are of equal diameter the curve is a straightline, and that
y

when uneqtialfthe curve bends towa/rds the smaller circle, A point

is a circle of indefinitelysmall radius.

Fig. 386.

Next draw the curve equidistant from the circle B and the

given line C D. Draw a perpendicular, B C, from the centre of

the circle to the line, and bisect the distance OF in G. Then
G is evidently one point in the curve. Mark equal distances on

either side and proceed as before, noticing that the points re-
quired

are the intersections of straight lines thro jgh 1',2',3',

])arallel
to the given line, and circles through the points 1, 2, 3,
drawn from the centre of the given circle.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 1. "
Draw a straight line of indefinite length, and at any
point, C, in it draw a perpendicular, CD, li" long. Then draw

a curve, such that all points on it shall be equidistant from the

line and the point D.

(It will be seen later on that this curve is the mathematical curve known
as a Parabola.)
 GENERAL PROBLEMS ON LOOI. 49

EX. 2. "
Describe a circle of 3" diameter, and mark a point,
P, outside the circumference 1" away, and a point, Q, inside the
circumference f away. Then draw curves equidistant from
point P and the
point Q circle,and
the circle. and
EX. 3. Draw "two circles of 1 J" and }" radius, centres 3" apart,
and a line parallelto the line joining the centres of the circles
2^" away from the centre of the larger circle. Then find the
centre of the circle touching the given circles and the given line.
EX. 4. Draw any
" three circles of unequal diameters not

touching or cutting,and find the centre of the circle touciiing

all three circles externally.
EX. 5. Draw any
"
three circles of unequal diameters not

touching or cutting,and find the centre of the circle touching all

three circles and including them.

PROBLEM XXXIII.
(Fig.39)." il pmdulum of a given length
swings uniformly through
a given angle. A point A

uniformly descends the dulum

pen-
from the top to the
bottom during one complete
swing, IVace the locus of
the point.
Let A B and A C sent
repre-
the pendulum at be-

ginning and end of the-

swing. Then the travel
of the point from A
towards B is the length
A B, and of the pendulum
bob the arc, B C, both

uniformly and in the same

time. Divide both travels Jftg,39.

into the same number of

equal parts, say eight,and mark as shown. Draw the pendulum

in the different positions,A 1',A 2', . . .
A 7'. Then when the
pendulum has reached the position A 3' the point will have
travelled the distance A 3, therefore, with centre A and radius
A 3 draw an arc to meet the line A 3' in the point,P, which will
be one point in the locus of the point. Proceed in the same way
for other points and draw the curve as shown.

PROBLEM XXXIY. (Fig.40)." ^o draw the path of a point

in a linky one of end which moves in a circle while the other end
moves in a straight line-
4
50 PBAOTICAL, PLA17E, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

(This is the comfoination of crank, connecting-rod, and guide

bars, so common in steam engines.)
Let A B be the link, the end B moving in the circle of centre

0, while the end A (the piston end) moves in the straight line

through A C.
Divide the circle into any number of equal parts, and mark

1, 2, . .
12, as shown. (Twelve is the most convenient ber,
num-
.

as a quadrant can be divided into three by marking off the

radius from each end.) With the length, A B, of the link as

radius, and the points 1, 2, 12 as centres, cut the line A 0

...

in the points 1',2',3', . . ,

12', and join points 2',2 ; 3',3,
the . . .

thus drawing the link in each of the twelve positions. Then

measure off from either end of the link in each position the
distance from that end of the point, the locus of which is

Fig. 40.

required, thus obtaining the points P^, P^, . . .

through which
the curve complete path of the is drawn.
It is
interesting to note how the path of different points in
the rod changes from a straight line at the guides (the end A),
through oval curves of different degrees of convexity, until it
reaches a circle at the crank end, B. Points in an extension of
the rod beyond B, travel in oval paths, the long axes of which
are at right angles to the line A C. Notice also that the piston
end. A, does not move uniformly with an uniform movement of
the crank.
PROBLEM XXX Y. (Fig. 41)." To trace the locus of a point
in the linkwork known as Watt's Simple Parallel Motion,
This linkwork consists of two links, A B and C D, pivoted at
A and
D, and having their other ends connected to a shorter
link, B G, to a point P in which the piston-rod is attached.
The link A B is the engine beam, and the link C D the radius
bar. When the links are equal, the point P is in the middle
of the short link, B 0. This linkwork is also used on Bichard's
Engine Indicator
 GENERAL PROBLEMS ON LOCI. 51

With centres A and D, and radii A B and D 0 respectively,

draw arcs E B F and G C H. The end B must always move in
the arc E B F and the end 0 in the arc G 0 H.
In
problems of this kind it is always best to start by finding
the limiting positionsof the links. Suppose the link AB is
moving upwards, then its limiting position is AE, when DO
and C B are in one straight line. Find the point E by taking
the sum of the lengths D C and C B as radius, from centre T",
If the line A B now moves down, D C will continue to move

upwards until the end C reaches the positionG, where A B and

Fig. 41.

BC are straight line.

in one In a similar way the limiting
bottom positions F and H are found.
To find the path of P for the complete movement of the link-
work, draw the links in a convenient number of diflferent tions,
posi-
and mark position of P.
the For example, if link A B
moves to A 1, then, with length of link B C radius, and
as

point 1 as centre, cut the locus of C (the arc HOG) in 1',and

join the points 1 and T, then mark the point P as P. Notice
that it is unnecessary to draw the links A B and 0 D, and that
it is better to find a greater number of points at placeswhere
the curve changes in direction.
A very convenient method of obtaining points in the travel
of the point P is to mark off the points B P G along the straight
edge of a slipof paper, and the correct distances apart, and then if
the paper be moved so that the point B is always on the circle
E B F, and the point 0 on the circle G 0 H, the different posi-

^ I
52 PBAOTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID QEOMETBT.

tions of the point P can easilybe marked. Gare must be taken

to move the points B and G in the right direction, since they
do not both always move in the same direction. This mechanical
method may be very accurate, and admits of useful extension to
similar problems.
In the application of this linkwork to steam engines, the
travel of the point, P, does not exceed that part which mates
approxi-
to a straight line.

EXAMPLES.

EX. pendulum, 4 feet long, is moved

6. "
A from rest, and
makes one-half swing to the left and one complete swing (through
40**) to the right, while a fly travels from the top to the bottom.
If the travels are uniform trace the path of the fly. (Scale 1'
" 1 foot.)
EX. 7.connecting-rod is 3' 6" long, the crank being G''
"
(a) A
long. Trace the paths of points, 1' Z"^ from each end of the rod
during one complete revolution of the crank. (6)Mark on the
line of travel of the piston end of the connecting-rod, the
distances representing the travel of that end, while the crank
pin end travels uniformly, (c) Work the same problem when
the connecting-rod is T 6" long, and notice how the motion of
the piston is affected by the length of the connecting-rod.
(Scale 1^"=! foot.)
EX. 8. ^A parallel motion
"
consists of two arms, 4^^ long,

pivoted at their outer ends, and connected by a link T long.

In the central position the arms are parallel,and the link is
inclined to them at 60". Draw the complete path of {a) the
central point of the link, (6)a point ^ fi*om one end. (Yict. XJ.
Hon., 1891.)
'
EX. 9." Draw two lines,A P, C P, 2f and IJ' long respec- tively,
meeting at a point, P, so that angle A P fi 60**. duce
Pro- =

AP to B, and GP to D, so that AB = 4", and CD = 2".

If A B and 0 D are links pivoted at A and G respectively,and
P is a saddle which can travel along C D at two-fifths the speed
it can move along AB, trace the locus of P. What is this
curve 1 (S. "A. A, 1888.)
EX. 10. "
Draw a rhombus ABOD, sides If" long, acute

angles at B and D = 45", and mark point, P,

a in B G ^" from G.
Draw a circle of l^'' diameter passing through G, such that the
centre is on A G produced and beyond it. If the rhombus is a

linkwork pivoted at A, trace the locus of the point P, when the

joint,G, moves in the circumference of the circle. (S. " A. A,
1887.)
Ea. 11. "
^A point O is If from the centre of a circle of f*
54 PRACTICAL^ PLANS, AND SOLID QBOMETRT.

linkage applied to the "Grasshopper" type of side lever engine.

A B is a link pivoted at A, and connected at B to the centre of
the link P C, so that AB = BP = BC. Hence, B is the centre
of a circle passing through P A 0^
having P C for a diameter, fore
there-
point C move
if the in the
line A C, the point P will move in
the line P A perpendicular to A C"
since the angle P A 0 must always
be a right angle (Euclid iii., 31).
In actual practice it is more venient
con-

to attach C to the end of a

radius bar, 0 D, pivoted at D, as

with a small movement paths the

of 0 and P are sufficientlyin
straight lines for all practical pur-
poses.
Fig. 44. The dotted lines show the
travel of the radius bar.
EX. 14. "
Draw the linkwork of Scott-Russell's parallelmotion
(Fig. 44) as follows :" A B =
1 J", C D = 2\ angle A B P 45% =

and trace out the path of P, while P moves in a line equal in

length to twice P A,
Peaucellier's Straight Line Motion (Fig. 45). "
This was

invented by a French military officer in 1801, and consists of

eight* links, so arranged that a certain point moves in a perfect

Fig. 45.

straight line for all possible positions of the linkwork. The

links A B and A 0 are equal, and are pivoted together A, at
their other ends are attached to two corners of an equal four-link
frame, B D 0 P, of which the corner, D, is attached to one end

* In
counting the number of links in any linkage,the fixed link, as A E
hi Fig. 45, is counted.
 GENERAL PROBLEMS ON LOOI. 55

of a short link, D E, having its end, E, pivoted in the line A P,

and such that A E = E D. Under these conditions the point
P moves straight line, but if the distance A E is made
in a

greater or less than the length of the link E D, then the point
P draws the arc of a circle having its centre to the right or the
left of P respectively,the radius of which depends upon the
ratioof AE toED.
EX. 15. "
Draw the linkwork of Peaucellier's straight line
motion (Fig. 45) as follows :" A B = AC = 4i\AE = ED =

If", DB =
DO =
CP = PB - If, and trace out the path of
the point P for all possiblepositionsof the links.

(Notice that the limitiDg positions are reached when the links E D, D B
and E D, D 0 become a straight line.)

EX, 16. "

Draw the linkwork of Peaucellier's straight line
motion as in Pig. 45, but making A E = 1" in the first case, and

2^" in the second case, and trace the path of P for each case.
Parallel Motions for Engine Indicators. "
These comprise
some important applicationsof straight line linkages,and afford
very useful examples in drawing.
Thompson's Indicator (Fig.
46)." The end. A, of the link A
B is attached to the piston of
the indicator by a ball and socket

joint,so that A moves in the ver-

tical

straight line shown dotted.

C D and E E are swinging links
pivoted to the indicator at D and .

F respectively. The pencil is I

fixed at P, and moves four times |
the distance of the
piston travel, i

which is usually |". The pencil I

link P B horizontal, and the
C is Fig. 46.
link C D vertical,when the piston
is at mid-stroke ; and the points PAD are in one straight line
for all positionsof the movement.
EX. 17. "
Draw the linkwork of Thompson's indicator in tion
posi-
at bottom-stroke 1-81", PC 3 15"
as follows :" PE = = =

4 times B C, B A 1-34", C D 1-77", E F

= 0-98", pivot D is = =

0-78" to right of dotted line of piston travel, and pivot F is 1-45"

to left of same line ; the pencil point P is 2-24'' to the left of the
line and a distance equal to half the travel of the pencil below
the pivot F. Find at least 6 points in the path of P for a travel
of the point A of f". Scale twice full size.
Croaby Indicator (Fig. 47). "
The piston-rod is shown by
66 PSAtTTlOAL, PLANK, AND SOLID OEOUBTRT.

A B, and moTea in a vertical etmight line. A Btiort link, B E,

conneota the piston-rod to the pencil link, F E F, and is con-

neoted at the point G to one end of a short swinging link, D C,

tavoted at D to the indicator.

The end, F, of the pencil link

is attached to one end of a

swinging link, F G, pivoted at

G to the instrument, and the

pencil fixed at P. is The

pistoQ-stroke is ^", and ia

multiplied six times.
EX. 18. "
Draw the link

Fig. 47. work of Crosby's indicator

(Fig, 47) in position at half-

stroke. Pencil link horizontal, fixed point O is |' from piston-
rod centre, fixed point D JJ" from piston-rod centre and 1 Ar'

above G. B E f, B C -f, G F If", D C= ^', P P = =

= 3j' six= times FE. Then draw path of P for a travel of

the piston rod A B off*. Scale twice fall size.
Tabor Indioator (Fig. 48). In this instrument the short
"

link 0 D or E F of the Thompson or Grosby indicator (Figs. 46

and 47) is dispensed with and
replaced by a small pin, which
is made to move in a curved
slot cut in a small pUte fixed
to tbe instrument, the shape
of which causes the pencil to

move in a straight lina The

piston-rod is shown by A B
and is connected at B by a

short link B G to a point C in

the pencil-rod E, the end " P
of the pencil-rud is attached
to the end of a swinging link

48.
EF, pivoted at F. The slotted
Fig.
plate iashownat G,thepinD
moving in the slot. The stroke of the piston I", and is mul- is
tiplied
five times. The points F B P are in the same straight
line at all parts of the stroke.
EX. 19. "
Draw the link work of the Tahor indicator as in

Fig. 48, when at bottom of stroke

being hori-
zontal ; the line F B P

Length 3|' of E P GD"=EC,

- EF=
five times EC,
=
1^ and F is fixed ^' "om centre of piston-rod. Links B G
and E F are parallel. Trace out shape of curve in plate G, while
P moves in a vertical straight line for 3|'. Scale twice full size.
 GENERAL PROBLEMS ON LOCI. 67

Link Work for Atkinsons' Differential Gas Engine (Fig.

49). "
The object of this very ingenious arrangement of links to

give two forward and two backward strokes of different lengths

to the piston of the gas engine while the crank makes one

complete revolution, thus giving one explosion per revolution.

The crank shaft is shown at A, A B being the crank, the end
B is connected by a link, B C E, afc the point 0 to the end 0
of swinging arm,
a OD, longer than the crank, and which,
therefore, swings twice through a arc crank certain while the
makes one revolution. The piston-rod, P E, is connected by a
working joint to the piston at P, the opposite end being attached
to a point E in the link B G E. As a result of this arrangement

Fig. 49.

the piston moves in a horizontal line as follows, supposing it

to start from the back stroke the crank A B being at about the

position B' : "

(1) Outwards for a short stroke wbUe the crank moves through
59 the link D 0 moving downwards, the charging stroke ;
,

(2) Inwards for a shorter stroke, the while crank moves

through 76**, the link D 0 moving upwards, the com^ession

stroke ;

(3) Outwards longer stroke, while the crank moves

for a much

through 92", the link D 0 moving upwards, the explosion stroke;

(4) Inwards for a stroke of the same length as (3),while the
crank moves through 133", the link D 0 moving downwards, the

exhaust stroke ; the crank having thus made one complete revolu-
tion.
The connecting-rod, E,P is inclined at 21" to the centre

line of the movement of the piston,when at the limiting top and

68 PRACnOAL, PLA17E, AND SOLID OBOMETRY.

bottom positions. These limiting positions are when the link

B C and the crank A B are in the same straightline.
EX. 20. "
Show the travel of the piston in an Atkinson's
differential gas engine for an arrangement of links, as in Fig.
49. Take at least twelve different positions of the crank.

Oonnecting-rod, P E = 3', radius link, D C 6^ 12|'^ =

1' crank

long, 0 B 2' 2f " C E = r, angle B C E 95*. Scale, 3'= 1'. =

,

Joy's Valve Qesx (Fig. 50). This arrangement

"
affords a

very useful paths of points in linkwork, and is

example of the
besides ofgreat service in leading up to the drawing of valvo
diagrams. The slide valve is worked through a system of rods^
which derive motion from a point in the connecting-rod,thua
dispensingwith the usual eccentrics and link motion. In Fig.
50 is shown the arrangement for a large vertical marine engine.
P C is the piston-rod,C B
the connecting-rod,and B A
the ci*ank. A link, D E, i"
attached at one end to a

point D in the connecting-

rod, and at the other end to
the end E of
swinging link a

or radius-rod, E F, pivoted
at the top end, F. From

a point G in the link D E,

a long link, G L, is carried
to the front of the engine,
and is connected at its end,.

L, through the link L M

to the slide-rod M N, which
moves in a parallelvertical
line to the piston. A point,.
H, in this link is connected
to one end of a radius rod,
H K, the upper end of

Fig. 60. pivoted at K. Be- which is

versing by ing
attach- is effected
the link H K to a moving frame, which can swing about a
pivot below K, so that H K can be moved through a sufficient
arc to move the linkwork for reversing. The locus of the points
E and H are, of course, circular arcs, and in drawing the link-
work it is usual to trace the complete paths of the points D, G,
and L.
EX. 21." Draw the linkwork of Joy's valve as in Fig.
gear,
50. Oonnecting-rod, 0 B = 7' 2", C D =
3' r ; crank, A B =

1' link F E 4' SJ"; link D E 2' 6"; D G 8" ; Unk

8J"; = = =
 GENERAL PROBLEMS ON LOCL 59

GL- 6' 2"; LH= 1' V; link L M =

4' 3"; link HK"
3' 5'. Trace out the complete paths of the points D, G, and
L for one revolution of the crank. Scale, 1" = 1'.

Ordinary Link Motion. " An example of the common form

of link motion as used on locomotives, to enable the engine to
be reversed and the travel of the slide valve to be altered while
the parts are in motion, is illustrated in Fig. 506.
A is the shaft centre, and A " the crank when at one of the
dead centres. A 0 and A D are the centre lines of the two

eci^ntricsheaves, and have connected to them in the usual way

the eccentric-rods D E and OF. The ends, " F, of these roda

are attached to the top and F,

bottom of the curved link, E G
which is capable of sliding up and down through guides at G,
which guides form part of the slide valve rod, G H. This rod,
GH, can only move to and fro along the line H G A, and receives
the motion of the curved link at G. The link, therefore, swings
about the point G as a centre, although it will be understood

Fig. 506.

that it can De so mo/ed

relativelyto the valve-rod, as that any
part of it can be brought opposite the rod. position
In the centre
shown, the rod H G will not receive any movement from the
link, but if the link be moved down so as to make the points
E and G coincide, then all the motion of the eccentric EDA
will be transmitted to the valve-rod, and similarlyfor the eccen-
tric,

F C A, when the points F and G coincide. The movement

of the link is effected by the rod G J fixed to the link at its
centre point G, by a connection independent of that which affixes
the link to the valve-rod, the end J, of this rod being connected
to one end of the bellcrank lever J K L, which turns about the
fixed point K as a centre. LM is the reversing rod which
works the lever J K L, and C W is a counter-balance weight,
but these are not material for the purposes of the drawing
required. The eccentrics AD and AC are to be regarded
 60 PRACTICAL, PLANB, AND SOLID OBOMETRY.

simply as cranks, to which they are in every sense identical so

far as the motion they transmit to the rods is concerned.

EX. 22. Draw the link motion in outline as shown in Fig.
506. Scale 1^ = 1'. Lengths as follows :" A B = 1',A D =

A0 = 3i^ ^BAO = ^BAD =

US'* CF = DE =
5'

d^\ radius 3^,of link, E lengthG F = 5' E F = 1' 6' (thisis of

linejoining 1", J K 1'
E 3 J". Trace
F), G out J
the paths
= 1' =

of the ends E and F of the link, when in the central position

shown, for one complete revolution of the crank, taking at least
10 points.
Cams. "
A cam is usually either a plate with a curved edge,
or containing a curved
groove, the shape of which is arranged
to impart a reciprocating linear movement to a given piece,
while the cam itself receives uniform circular motion. Such

pieces of mechanism are very common in general machinery,

especiallyin sewing, weaving, printing machines, and it is, and
therefore, very desirable
engineering draughtsman for
to the
understand the principles of their design. The motion mitted
trans-

by a cam, although always linear, may be either form

uni-

or variable, depending upon the shape of the cam; for

example, a common form of lever punching machine is fitted
with a cam, which gives to the punch an upward movement,
a period of rest, and a downward movement, during each revolu-
tion
of the driving shaft. It is important to remember that,
cams almost always receive a uniform circular motion, for on

this fact the construction depends.

It was pointed out in connection with Prob. xxxiv. (Fig.
40) and Ex. 7, p. 52, that the combination of a crank and necting-rod,
con-

one end of which moves in a straight line, does not

give a uniform linear movement^ for a uniform circular ment

move-

of the gives a
crank, but motion which varies with the
ratio of the connecting-rod length length. Hence
to the crank

any piece attached to this end, such as the piston, does not
receive uniform linear motion. It is,however, easy to shape a
cam which shall transmit a uniform linear motion, and it
happens that the outline of such a cam coincides with a curve

known in mathematics as the Archimedean Spiral,and we shall,

therefore, first show how to construct such a spiral.
Spiral. "
^A spiral may be defined as a curve which approaches
to, or recedes from, a certain fixed point called
the Pole." Each "

complete revolution of the curve is called a convolution," and '*

hence a spiralmay make any number of convolutions before reach-

ing
the pole. The line joining any point on the curve to tiie pole
is called a ''radius vector,"
In an Archimedean Spiral the curve approaches the pole
62 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETRY.

OA -
00
the constant of the curve is CL Draw the circle
1-67
O M of radius equal to a, then M N a tangent to the circle is
a normal to the curve, and a line, S T, at right angles is a
tangent.
It is evident from the construction, that a cam shaped to the
curve of the spiralwould impart linear motion to a point uniform
with the circular motion of the cam. Oams are, therefore, made
to this curve whenever such a motion is desired. Such a cam is
shown in
Fig. 52, and is known as the Heart Shape. It consists
of equal parts
two of an Archimedean Spiral reversed to each

other, and symmetrical about the diameter, A OB, and thus

gives a uniform rise and fall,through a distance equal to A O -

B 0 that is,equal to the greatest radius, minus

"
the least radius,
technically called the travel" If a semicircle
"
be drawn with
the pole O as centre, tangent
to the curves of the cam, and
replacing the lower half of
the spirals as shown in Fig.
52, then it is evident that
the point moved by the cam

will remain at rest, while the

circular part of the cam ODE
is in contact with it,and will
rise and fall uniformly when
in contact with the curved

parts OA and AE. This

form of cam is the one already
referred to as being used in
punching machines, giving,
as will be seen, a uniform

Fig. 52. rise for aquarter revolution

of the shaft, a uniform fall
for a quarter revolution of the shaft, and a period of rest for a

half revolution of the shaft.

So far,cams have been
impart motion
designed to a "pointy** to
but it is obvious such a condition is impossible in practice. Oams
invariably transmit their motion by making contact with a roller

of convenient diameter, thus giving very smooth working. But

the use of a roller necessitates an alteration in the shape of the
cam from that already designed, the desire being that the centre
of the roller shall move in the path of the cam as traced in Fig.
52. To ensure this, a curve must be drawn parallel to the
original curve, inside it,at a distance away equal to the raditia
x"f the roller. This is best done, as in drawing the parallelto an
 CONSTRUCTION OF CAMS. 63

ellipse(Fig.20),by describing a large number of small arcs, with

points on the original curve as centre, and with radius equal to
the radius of the roller,and then drawing a smooth freehand

";urye, touching the arcs, as shown dotted in Fig. 52. Such a

curve is called a parallelto the original curve, and is not sarily

neces-

a similar curve. The necessity for drawing this parallel

curve can be seen in another way by referring to the figure.
Let B and B' be two positions of the roller,for we may suppose
the cam fixed, and the roller to be moved around the cam. Then
the travel of the roller is the vertical distance, B F, between the
";entres of B and B'. But if the rollers were points G andthe
H, the travel would be the distance G K, which is not equal to
B F, as the normals G B and H B' are not parallel.
In designing cams for practicaluse it is necessary to know the
diameter of the shaft or rod on which the cam is fixed, the travel,
ajid conditions of movement, the least amount of material beyond
the shaft, and the radius of the roller. When these are known,
the least radius of the original curve will be equal to the shaft
radius + metal beyond shaft + roller radius, and the greatest
radius will be equal to the least radius + the travel. Care must
be taken that the curves of the cam do not rise or fall too sud-
"denly,or the roller will jamb. Two or more cams can be fixed
together, and be made to work rods so jointed,that a given point
in the rods shall trace out almost any desired path, such, for ex-
ample,

as the outline of letters.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 23. "

^Draw the
Spiral of two curve of an Archimedean
convolutions, greatest by examples that radius 5^ Show three
the length of the radii at different points vary with ^e angle
passed through by the radius from the initial position.
EX. 24." -Work parts b and c of EX. 7, p. 52, then draw the
curve of a cam to give an uniform rise and fall of 3^^ to a roller
F diameter, during each revolution of the cam ; least radius 2^".
EX. 25. "
Draw the shape of a cam to give the following
motion to a point :
"
first quarter of revolution, point raised
a

uniformly 3^"; second quarter, point falls uniformly 31",

remainder of a revolution point remains at rest.
EX. 26. "
Draw a cam which has to raise a valve at a uniform
rate G'' in two-fifth revolution, and lower it the same distance
in one-fifth revolution. The valve remains at rest in the upper
position for one-tenth revolution, and in the lower position for
the rest of the revolution. Diameter of shafb 4". Least metal
around shaft T Scale half full size. (Yic. B. So. Hon., 1889).
64 PRACTICAL, PLANS, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

EX. 27. "

Draw a cam to give the following motions. It
revolves uniformly at a rate of two revolutions per minute, a
tappet is to be raised ^ at a uniform rate in 5 seconds, and
allowed to remain in that position for 5 seconds ; then allowed
to drop 1' and remain there another 5 seconds, again raised to
^ for 10 seconds, and then allowed to drop suddenly to its

original position,and remain there until again required to be

raised. Diameter of shaft Z^y of roller on end of tappet IJ",
least metal around shaft 2^^. Scale half full size.
EX. 28. "
Draw a line C A 3^^ long, and from end A draw a

line A B so that angle C A B =: 160', make A B 5" = and

A D = 2^"^. 0 is the centre of a shaft l^'^diameter, and A the
centre of a roller IJ* diameter in its lowest position. The
roller is moved by a cam on the shaft along the line A B as

follows :"
One-third of a revolution raised from A to D uniformly,
one-sixth of revolution remains at rest, one-fourth of revolution
raised uniformly from D to B, one-fourth of revolution falls back
from B to A Scale half size. (S. k A. H., 1887.)

SECTION VII.

CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA, BOLA,

HYPER-

CYCLOIDAL CURVES AND INVOLUTES.

It is very important for the draughtsman to understand the

construction, and some of the more useful properties of certain
well-known mathematical curves, such as are frequently made
use of in practicalwork.
These curves include the
hyperbola^ ellipse,parahola, and
known as the conicconsequence sections, in being of their
derived from three different plane sections of a cone (see
Figs. 86a, h) and used for the curves of arches, bridges, and
roofs; the cycloidal cwrvea used in constructing the teeth of
wheels ; and the involute of a circle used for the same purpose,
and for the blades and guides of turbines.
These curves, as in the case of spirals and paths of points
(Section vi.) can only be geometrically constructed by finding
a number of points through which it is known the curve must

pass, and then drawing the curve through these points by

freehand or with the aid of French curves. Arcs of circles
 CONSTRUCTION OP PLANE CUEVES. 66

cannot be
employed with any degree of accuracy ; and as pointed
out in previous examples, the greater the number of points
found, the more accurate the curve, although for ordinary
purposes it is usually sufficient to find the points not nearer than
from Y to 1^ apart.
Ellipse, Parabola, and Hyperbola.* Given a fixed straight "

line,and a fixed point, it is possible for another given point to

move in three different ways with regard to its position from
the fixed line and point. It can move, firstly, so that its dis-
tance
from the line is always greater, in a constant ratio, than
its distance from the point; secondly, so that its distance from
the line shall be always equal to its distance from the point;
and thirdly,so that its distance from the line is always less, in
a constant ratio,than its distance from the point.
The three curves traced out under these different conditions
are pardboUiy and
respectively,the ellipse, h/perbola.
Hence we have for definitions of these curves "

Ellipse. "
An by a point moving in
ellipseis a curve traced oat
such a way that
a straight line is always
its distance from fixed
greater than its distance from a fixed point, in a constant ratio.
Parabola." A parabola is a curve traced out by a point moving
in such a way that its distance from a fixed straight line is always
equal to its distance from a fixed point.
Hyperbola." An hyperbola is a curve traced out by a point
moving in such a way tiiat its distance from a fixed straight line
is always less than its distance from a fixed point,in a constant

ratio.
The fixed straight Une is called thedirectrix,the fixed point
the focus, and the line passing through liiefocus at right angles
to the directrix,the axis. Lines at right angles to the axis minated
ter-
by the curve, are ordinates. The vertex of the curve is
the point where the curve cuts the axis.
The ellipse is a closed curve, and has two directrices and
two focL The parabola is an open curve having one directrix
and one focus. The hyperbola is an open double curve, having
two directrices and foci.
These three curves can be constructed by an almost identical

process, so that one example will sufi^ce.

PROBLEM XXXVIL (Fig. 53a)." To construct an ellipse
when a directrix and a focus are given, also the vertex and axis.
Let X Y be the directrix, F the focus, A the vertex, and the
line through OAF the axis. What is required is to find a

* For the common geometrical constructions of an ellipsesee Section iv.,

iTigs.
19, 20, 21, 22.
5
66 PBACriOAL, FLAITB, AND flOLID GEOMBTBT.

nnuiber erf points, P, 80 that-wm-'^'XTl*''^'^^^'^ tiie dutance

of P from the focna, and P T its distance from the directrLz.

This is conTenieatly done by making A O the hypotenose and
A F the base of a right angled triangle, ABO, where 0 B = A F
and angle A B 0 is a right angla produce Then B, the line O
mark off points as 1 S 3 A along the from
axis,
any . . ,

and draw lines through each point parallel to A B meeting 0 B

in the points 1' 2' 3' I"raw lines through each of the
, . .

points in the axis perpendicular to the axis, from F as centre, with

distanoe 0 1' out the line through point 1 in the points 6 and 7,
also from F with distance O 2' cot uie linethrough point 2 in the
points 8 and 9, and so on for each succeeding link Then the

points 6.7.8.9 are in the curve of the required,ellipse,for

= ^^^'^ ^"^ ^'^ ^"^ ^"^ '^* distances

-a-,p-" om AO^rAO
of points 6 and 8 from the directrix.
Oontinue this method until the curve is completed.
If the ratio of the distances from the focus and directrix is
ffiven (say ^, so that AF =
2 and AO = 3), it is unnecessary to
draw the triangles. Any three equal distances can be marked

along the axis from O, ^ to 0 3 and two of these distances

taken as radius from F to out the line drawn through 3 parallel
to the directrix, and so on for each point. Elxactly the some
 CONSTRUCTION OF PLANE CURVES. 67

method is followed for the construction of the parabola and

hyberbola.
The parabola is, however, more easily constructed by the
method shown in Problem xxxi. (Fig. 38a) for drawing a curve

equidistant from a point and a line, as we now know that curve

to be a parabola. The curve which is equidistant from astraight

line and the circumference of a circle (Fig.38a) is also a parabola.
The curve equidistant from the circumferences of two unequal
circles is a hyperbola.
After completing the ellipseits second focus, F', and its second

directrix, X' Y', can be found. In the right hand of Fig. 53a are
shown a parabola, the curve P, and a hyperbola, the curve H,
which are constructed together with the ellipseabout the focus,

F', and the directrix, X' Y'.

Tangents and HSrormals. "
The usual methods of constructing
tangents to an ellipsefrom points in the curve or outside it,have
already been given in Section rule which iv. (Figs.19, 20). The
applies most conveniently to all three curves when constructed

by the method just described, is the following : " If the tangent "

to an ellipse,parabola, or hyperbola be produced to meet the

directrix,and the meeting point be joined to the focus, the angle

made by this line,with the line joining the focus to the point of
contact, is a right angle." Thus, in Fig. 53a, to draw a tangent
at the point N, join N to the focus F, draw a line from the focus
towards the directrix at right angles to the line N F, meeting
the directrix in M, then the line N M is a tangent to the curve.
Normals. The normal to a curve
"
at any point is at right
angles to the tangent at that point. Thus, in Fig. 53a, N R is a
normal at N, being at right angles to the tangent N M.

EXAMPLES. ^

EX. 1. "
A fixed point,F, is T from a fixed straight line X Y.
Find eight points in the path of a point P moving as follows : "

(a) distance of P from fixed point to its distance from the fixed
line to be as 3 to 4 j (6)point P to be equidistant frt"m fixed

point and fixed line ; (c) distance of P from fixed point to its
distance from the fixed line to be as 4 to 3. Draw the curves

and name them.

EX. 2." The focus F of an ellipseis \\" from the directrix X Y,
and the vertex of the curve is ^" from the focus. Draw the

ellipse,and draw a tangent and normal at any point in the

curve.

EX. 3. "
Construct a parabola (finding,at least,twelve points
in the curve) when the distance of the focus from the directrix
is I'',and draw a tangent and normal at any point in the curve.
 68 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

EX. 4 "
^Construct a hyperbola (findingat least twelve points
in the curve), when the focus is 1 J" from the directrix, and the
vertex I'' from the focus. Draw a tangent and normal at any
point in the curve.

Construotion of a Bectangular Hyperbola. "

^A special case
of hyperbola is one in which
a the point moves in such a way
that the product of its distance from two fixed lines at right
angles is a constant. Such a curve is a rectangular hyperbola
and is exceedingly useful, because it represents graphically the
relation between the pressure and volume of a gas which expands
according to Boyle's law (pressure x volume a constant),a =

condition often met with in steam diagrams. A simple construc-

tion
of such a curve is as follows :"

"Fig,536. Let O V and O P be two lines at right angles, and

such that distances along 0 V represent volume, while distances
along O P represent and let A be a point in the curve.
pressure,

Fig. 636.

which for
ordinary practicalproblems will generally be the point
from which the curve is required to start. Through A draw
lines A B and A 0 parallelto O V and O P respectively,the line
A 0 being produced as far as necessary since there is no limit to
the curve. Mark any distances, equal or unequal, as 1, 2, 3
. .
along B P, and draw ordinates
.
through each point,parallel
to A B, to meet the line A C in the points T, 2',3' Join each . . .

of the top points T, 2', 3' .to the point O, and mark.
the

points where these lines cut the line A B, 1",2",3* Through . . .

each of these points draw lines parallel to O P to meet the

ordinate through the corresponding top point, thus 1* meets
ordinate IT, 3* meets ordinate 3 3',"c., these points are points
in the required curve. If this curve satisfies the condition

required,then OB x BA =
02x2"]?=04 x and
4e, "fec., this
we see is true, for Y O 2 2' is a parallelogram,of which the figures
70 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

The fixed point is called the generating point

The fixed line or circle is called the directing line or circle.
Evolutes and Involutes. "
An evolute is the curve formed by
,

the intersection of normals to a curve. An involtUe is the curve

formed by drawing tangents to a the length of each gent

tan-
curve,
being equal to the arc of the original curve from its point
of contact to its intersection with the curve. It is the curve

traced out by the end of a flexible thread unwrapped from the

original curve. Tangents to an evolute are normals to an lute.
invo-
Thus, in Fig. 54, a number of normals are drawn to the

cycloid P S Q and the curves F B, B Q are drawn tangent to the

normals ; these curves are evolutes. Also, the cycloid F S Q is
an involviSjfor, as will be seen later, it passes through the ends
of tangents to the curves F B., R Q, each of which fulfils the
condition that, if F be the intersection of the involute with the

original curve, F' a point in the involute, and E' the contact

point of the tangent with the originalcurve, then F' E' length =

of arc F E'.
The vertex of the cycloid is at the point S ; the points P and Q
are called cusps.
PBOBLEM XXXVIII.
(Fig. 54)." ^o conaPruct a cycloid
when the size of the generating circle is given.
Let A B be the directing line, and F the generating point.

In one revolution of the circle F will reach a point, Q, on A B,

so that the distance F Q equals the circumference of the circle
22
=s[d y, te or d X "
where d = diameter).
C D is the locus or path of the centre of the circle for this revolu-
tion.

Divide C D into any number of equal parts, and mark as shown

C, C^, 0^, .
C^, "c., draw
. .
lines from these points to A B.
While 0 is moving to D, the point P moves round the ference
circum-
of the circle,therefore divide the circumference into the
same number equal parts, and mark
of the points 1, 2, 3, 7. . . .

To find the position of the generating point, at any position

of the generating circle,proceed as follows : If the generating "

circle move to the position C\ the point F will have moved in

the same time through the arc F 1. Draw the generating
circle with centre C\ and mark its contact point with the

directing line E ; from E mark off the distance F 1 along the

circle to the point V\ then F^ is a point in the cycloid. Proceed
in the same way for the other points until the curve is completedr
Notice that only parts of the circles need be drawn.
Another way of finding the points is to draw lines parallelto
the directing line through the division points 1, 2, 3, of . " ,
 CONSTRUCTION OF CYCLOIDAL CUBYES. 71

the generating circle in its first position, to meet the sponding

corre-

generating circle drawn from the centres 0\ C*, C, . . .

This is shown in the figure.

Tangents and rolling curves
ISTormals." the normal at In all

any point passes through the corresponding point of contact of the

generating curcle with the directing line or circle. The tangent
i" at right angles to the normal.
To draw a tangent and normal at any point, 0, in the curve
(Fig. 54). With the point O as centre and the radius of the

generating circle as distance, describe an arc cutting the line /

0 D in N, and draw N M perpendicular to the directing line,
/
meeting it in M. Then N is the centre of the generating circle

Fig. 64.

corresponding to the position O of the generating point, and M

is its point of contact with the directing line ; therefore the line
through M O is a normal, and the line T B. at right angles
a tangent.
Evolutes of Cyoloid. "
Draw normals through each of the

points found in constructing the curve, and produce them below

the directing line. Then draw the curves Q R, R P tangent to
the normals as shown. These curves are the evolutes.
The evolutes of a cycloid together make an equal cycloid.
Thus the curves R Q and S Q are identical. This can be proved

by cutting out the curve R Q in paper or card and applying to

the curve S Q.
If a piece of thread be fixed at R, and wound round the curve

of one of the evolutes as R P, so that the other end of the thread

 72 PRAOTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

reaches to F, and then be slowly unwound from the curve, the

end P, if the thread be kept tight, will trace out the cycloid
P S Q. Hence the reason for this curve being called an
** involtUe/* This arrangement forms what is known as an chronous
iso-
or equal timed pendulum, the pendulum bob being
at one end of the thread P, the other end being fixed at B.,
curved guides being fixed in place of the evolutes. The time
taken by the pendulum to swing through different arcs is then
always the same, whatever be the length of the arc.

The cycloid has an important property in mechanics in that

the evolutes B P or K Q are the curves of quickest descent from
R to P or Q.
Troohoids. "
The method of constructing the inferior and
superior trochoids differs but little from the above, and should
present no difficulty. Having found the new position ot point
P on the generating circles,having centres 0|,0^,0^ draw " "
,,
the radius through P in each casa
Then for the superior trochoid these radii must be produced
the given distance, and their ends then represent points in the
curve.

For the inferior trochoid points in the curve are obtained by

marking along each radius from the centre the given distance.
These two curves are shown on the right hand of Fig. 64, the
full-looped curve, S T, being the "superior trochoid" and the
dotted curve, I T, the "
inferiortrochoid"
Tangents normals and to trochoids are drawn in a similar

way as to cycloids,and the necessary construction will present

no difficulty.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 7. "
Describe
cycloid and its evolutes when a the diameter
of the-generating 5", and draw acircle is
normal and tangent at
any point in the cycloid, not being one of the points found in
constructing it. Then work the following: (a) Show by cutting "

out a paper pattern that the curve of the e volute is a similar and

equal cycloid ; (b)show that the length of the normals from the

directing line to the cycloid is equal to the length from the

directing line to the evolute (note how this suggests an accurate

way of finding points where the evolutes touch the normals) ;

(c) measure the length of the cycloid, and show that it is eight
times the radius of the
generating circle ; (d) find area between
cycloid and directing line,and show that it is three times the area

of generating circle ; (e)find area between evolutes and directing

line, and show that it is equal to the area of the generating
circle.
 CONSTRUCTION OP CYCLOIDAL CURVBS. 73

/.
EX. 8. "
superior and inferior trochoids, when
Draw the the
diameter of the generating circle is 4", the point for the superior
curve being J" beyond the circumference and for the inferior

curve Y within. Draw a normal and tangent to each curve at

points not found in the construction.

Epicycloids. "
PROBLEM XXXIX. (Fig. 55). "
To draw

an epicycloidand its evolutes,given the directingand generating

circles.
Let the
directing and genei*atiDgcircles have centres A and B

respectively,P being the generating point. The construction

is identical in principle with that of the cycloid,allowing only
for the change from a directing line to a directing circle. But

Fig. 65.

it is necessary to first find position Q

the of the point P after

one revolution of the generating circle. This is done by

knowing that
arc P Q angle P A Q
circ. of directing circle 360*
74 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETBT.

and as the arc F Q equals the circumference of the generating^

circle,this becomes
^^^ ^ "^ ^^ generating circle
1 P A A
"
rad. of directing circle
Set off this
angla Draw the arc B C which is the locus of
the centre of the generating circle,and, as before, divide it and
the circle into the same number of equaj parts, and then proceed
as with the cycloid. The construction is clearly shown in the

figure.
USTormals and Tangents are drawn exactly as to a cycloid.
Thus in the figure, N is the centre of the generating circle
corresponding to the position O in the curve of the generating^

point, and M is the contact point of the rolling and directing

circles. Then M O is a normal, and T B at right angles a
tangent.
The evolutes are the curves P B, B Q, drawn tangent to the
normals of the curve as before. They are similar curves to the
original curve, Q, are, therefore, P S are notand epicycloids,but
equal to the original curve. The hypocycloid and its evolutes
are drawn in precisely the same way as the epicycloid,and do-
not, therefore, need separate explanation. In Fig. 55 the curve
P'S'Q' is the hypocycloid, the evolutes not being shown for
want of space. They are, however, drawn touching the normals
to the curve as before. E F is a tangent, and H K a normal.
The generating circle rolls in the direction from P' towards Q'.
Notice that both the epi- and hypocycloids are traced by the
end of a thread unwound from the evolutes, as with a cycloid.
No difficultyshould be experienced drawing in the epi-and
hypotrochoids, as the construction is exactly similar.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 9. "
Draw epicycloid and
an its evolutes when the
diameters of the directing and generating circles are 10" and
^ respectively,and draw a tangent and normal at point
any
in the curve not found in the construction. Show that the
evolute epicycloid traced by a point on a circle of diameter
is an

equal to B G (Fig.55) rollingon a circle of radius, A B

EX. 10. Draw a hypocycloid and
"
its evolutes when the
diameters of the directing and generating circles are 10* and y
respectively, and draw a tangent and normal at any point in the
curve not found in the construction.
EX. 11. "
Show that when the diameter of the directing circle
is twice the diameter of the generating circle,the hypocycloid
is a straight line.
 OONSTBUCTION OF INVOLUTE. 75

EX. 12. "

Draw a hypotrochoid when the diameter of the

directing circle is twice the diameter of the generating circle,

and show that half the curve is a quadrant of an ellipse.

Involute of a Circle. "

The involute of a circle is the curve

traced by the end of a piece of thread

out unwound from the

circle,the thread being kept tight. The circle is then the evolute
to this curve.

PROBLEM XL. (Fig. 66)." ^o draw the involute of a

circle.
Let the circle have the centre 0, and let P be the starting
point of the curve or end of the
supposed thread.
Let the thread be partly unwound, bo that it assumes the

position P 3.
It is evident P'd must be a tangent to the circle, and be,
therefore, at right angles to the radius C 3. Also P* 3 must

equal the length of the arc P3. Then P* is a point in the

involute.
If the arc P3 be divided into a number of small parts, and the

Fig. 66.

same number of parts be marked off from 3 to P', then the length
P* 3 may be assumed equal to the chord P 3 and P* be a point in
the curve. But it is better to divide the circumference of the
circle into, say, twelve equal parts, in which case the length of the

tangent P* 3 would be one-quarter of the circumference (which

 76 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOHETBT.

can be easily calculated), and each succeeding tangent would

increase by one-twelfbh of the circumference^ if the circle is

equally divided.
This construction is conveniently effected by drawing the

tangent P, F^^, equal in length to the circumference of the circle,

and dividing it into the same number of equal parts as the circle.

The length of each tangent can then be taken from it, as, for

example, Pi 1 =
P 1, F 2 =
P 2, "c.

NormalB and Tangents. "

Normals to the involute are gents
tan-

to the evolute, as in the cycloidal curves. Therefore,

to draw a normal at any point O, it is only necessary to draw

from that point a tangent to the circle. This is done by the

method of Fig. 23, the point O is joined to C, and a semicircle

is drawn upon it cutting the circle in the point N. Then the

line N O is a normal, and the line S T at right angles through
O is a tangent.
If in Fig. 56 we regard P, P" as a straight line having one end

touching the circle at P, then the involute is evidently the path

of the end P", as the line rolls around the circle in an clockwise
anti-
direction. But as a line may be regarded as a circle
of infinite an evidently an
radius, involute is epicycloid having a

rolling generating circle of infinite

or radius. The involute has
also the properties of an archimedean spiral,and if used as a cam

would impart linear motion to a point uniform with the circular

movement of the cam.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 13. "

Draw the involute of a circle 2^ diameter, and draw

a normal and tangent at

any point in the curve not found when

constructing it. Show that the radius at any point in the curve is

proportional in length to the angle passed through by the radius

from the starting point of the curve.
EX. 14. Draw the curve
"
traced out by the end of a straight
line 3" long as it rolls round the circumference of a circle iT

diameter. (The curve is an involute.)

EX. 15. "
Draw two circles of 5' diameter in contact at a point
P. From P draw part of an involute to each circle (about 2^

long), the curves for the two circles to be in opposite directions.

EX. 16. "
Draw the curve traced by a point on a straight line
which rolls on a semicircle of 3"^ diameter. (Yict. Hon., 1892.)
78 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETBT.

tooth and the centre of the next tooth, measuring along the
circumference of the pitchcircle or the pitch lincybeing called the
pitch of the teeth. It is easy to see that if any two of the three
sizes,radius of pitch circle,pitch of teeth, and number of teeth
are known, the third can be found. Also that the velocityratio
of the wheels equals
radius of driver number of teeth in driver
radius of follower number of teeth in follower

i. .
revolutions of follower ^,
1 xi_ ^ -xr . 1 1 -
and that either of these is equal to A*
^
^r-r- f-,-; "

revolutions of driver
is shown in text-books on mechanics that the conditions of
constant velocityratio for toothed wheels, as specifiedabove, is
only obtained when the normal to the two teeth at the point of
contact is common to both, and that this condition is met by
shaping the teeth to cycloidalor involute curves. It is also sary
neces-

that the teeth should roll smoothly when in contact, and not
rub or grind, a condition which is also satisfied by using these

rvf

Fig. 67.

curves, for suppose a pinion (which is the given to a small

name

toothed wheel) is gearing with a rack as Eig. 58, then we

in

may suppose the rack to be fixed and the pinion to roll al^ongit,
and we see at once that a point on the piniom will describe a

"ycloidalpath, so that- if we wish to make the pinion leave the

/
 CONSTRUCTION OP WHEEL TEETH. 79

rack smoothly the teeth of the rack should be

shaped to a
cycloid which is
exactly what is done in practice. A similar
reasoning applies to the use of epi- and hypocycloids for the
teeth of spur wheels.
In Fig. 57 part of two wheels are shown in gear, and sizes
Are marked on giving the proportions usual teeth, as taken of the
from Professor TJn win's Designy and which
Machine should be
adhered to by students in working the examples of this section.
They may be stated as follows : ^Thickness of tooth along pitch
"

circle 0*48 p, height outside pitch circle 0*3 p, depth inside pitch
circle 0'4 p ; where p pitch of teeth,
= this gives a clearance tween
be-
the teeth of 0'52 p. The pitch circles are marked Q P R
And S P T, P being the pitch point. The face of the tooth is the

part marked B A outside the pitch circle, and the flank of the
tooth is the part marked B C inside the pitch circle. It is impor-
tant
to remember this distinction, as in working the^ace^ of one
wheel make contact with the flanks of the other wheel, and the
^mrvea of Ihe faces amd flanks must he described with roUing circles
of the same radius.
The size of rollingcircles used in drawing the curves for wheel
teeth do not bear
any fixed ratio to the size of the wheels, and
vary with different makers. The size adopted in any particular
case does not change the conditions of velocity ratio or smooth
rolling,but only affects the thickness of tooth above and below
the pitch circles. The first of the examples at the end of this
section is intended to show the effect on the shape of the teeth
of rolling circles of different diameters.
Back and Pinion." PROBLEM XLI. (Fig. 58)." 7b draw
the teeth of a rack pinion in
amd geo/r, knowing sizes of pitch and
roUing circles and pitch of teeth.
Draw the straight line Q P R to represent the pitch line of
the rack, and from centre C draw the pitch circle S P T of the
pinion, touching the pitch line of the rack in the point P, called
the pitch point,^'
"

The faces of the rack teeth gear with the flanks of the pinidn
teeth, and these had better be considered first. If we decide to
have radial flanks for the pinion, a usual construction, we know
that they will be obtained by using a rolling circle of a diameter
equal to the radius of the pinion, as this gives a hypocycloid
which is a straight line. Therefore, draw a circle with centre
A, and diameter equal to 0 P, and this will be the rollingcircle
for the faces of the rack teeth, which we know cycloids.
are to be
Then draw part of a cycloid,starting from the
pitch point P,
taking the pitch line Q P R of the rack for the directing line^
and rolling the circle towards the right hand. Th" most oon"
80 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOHETBY.

venient way of doing this, geometrically,since the complete

curve is not
required, is as follows :" Draw the locus of the
rollingcircle A 6',and mark off four or five equal parts of short
length,as 1',2', 6',and . .
with each of these points as centre
draw of the rollingcircle shown. Mark the contact
arcs as points
of the rollingcircles with the pitch line of the
rack, as at 1, 2, 3,
4, 5. Then take the distance of the equal parts A T
,
T 2' (equal
of course to PI, 12, "c.) in the and mark off
compasses,
distances along each of the circles just drawn, from the
points
1" 2, 3, 4f 5 to the left
"
that is,from 1 mark one distance,from

Pig. 68.

2 two distances,and so on, thus findinga sufficient number of

points in the cycloid,through which the curve from P can be

drawn. The radial line from P to A is the flank of the pinion
tooth, in contact with the rack tooth at P.
Next consider the flanks of the rack teeth and the faces of the
teeth. Following a usual construction will also make
pinion we

the rack teeth flanks radial "

that is,they must be drawn pendicular
per-
to the rack regarded as the
pitch line,as that may be

arc of a circle of infinite radius; the line PN, therefore,gives the

flank of the rack tooth. But this line may be regarded as part of a

cycloid traced by a generating or rolling circle of infinite radius,

and we know, therefore,that we must take the rollingcircle for
the faces of the pinion teeth of infinite radius that is,it must "

be a straightline. But the epicycloidtraced by a line rolling

round a circle is an involute of the circle,therefore the faces of the

,""
u

CONSTRUCTION OF WHEEL TEETH. 81

pinion teeth must be involutes of its pitch circle,S P T. Start

from the point P and draw the part of an involute exactly as
explained in Problem xl. (Fig. 66),and as seen in the figure,
which shows the finding of three points by the tangents from
the points 1" 2" 3". This completes the curves of one side of the
teeth of the pinion and rack in contact at P.
To finish the teeth as in the figure, set off the height of the
tooth (0*3 p) above the pitch line of the rack, and outside the
pitch circle of the pinion,also the depth of the tooth (0-4p) below
and inside the pitch line and circle respectively, and draw lines
and circles to give the points and roots of the teeth, as shown
by dotted lines. Next set off the thickness of the tooth (0*48p)
along the pitch line and circles,as at P 4 and P 1", draw the
centre lines of the teeth, mark off the pitch of the teeth along
the pitch lines and circle, and draw the centre lines of the
remaining teeth. The teeth are best completed by marking off
distances on both sides of the centre lines at different positions,

as, for example, KL CD, MN GH.

= =

The flanks of the teeth should be slightlyrounded at their

junction with the roots.

Notice that the line Q P R is a common normal to the curves

of the teeth in contact at the point P.

Setting off Fitch of Teeth. "
It is important to be able to
set off the pitch of the teeth correctly around the pitch circle,
this "an be done in one of three ways, as follows ; "
(a) Divide the
pitch into a number of equal small parts, and set off the required
number of parts from the centre of one tooth along the pitch
circle to the centre of the other, If
(ft) N be the number of
teeth in the wheel, then the angle at the centre made by the

radii of two adjacent teeth =

-to^"
that is,in Fig. 58, if a; is the

centre of one tooth, then by setting off the angle aOy =

-^

gives the centre y of the next tooth, (c)In Fig 58, let w n be
a tangent to the pitch circle at w, make mn =
pitch of teeth,
and mark a point o so that mo J of m
=
w, then with o as centre
radius, o n, describe an arc cutting the circle in p, then arc m p
= mw = pitch.
Mechanical Method of Drawing Teeth. "
A very venient
con-

and, if carefullydone, an accurate method of obtaining

points in the cycloidalteeth
curves of is as follows :"
Draw upon
a piece of transparent tracing paper a circleequal to the pitch
circle,and draw a diameter as G A P (Fig. 58). To the right
and left of P set off along the circumference a number of equal
6
82 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AKD SOLID OEOHETBT.

parts, and mark 1, 2, 3, . .

.
Set off the same parts from P

along the pitch line towards

R, as and mark before 1, 2, 3, . . .

Draw lines through each point perpendicular to the pitch line,

then place the tracing paper over each line, so that the diameter
CAP coincides with the line, and the point P with the point,
and prick through the correspondingly marked point on the
circle to the left. Thus if the tracing paper be placed so that
the diameter CAP covers the line c' 4' 4, P coinciding with 4,
then the point in the cycloid is at the point marked 4 on the
circumference of the circle which is shown dotted. Repeat the
process until sufficient points have been found.
This method may be equally well applied for epicycloidaland
hypocycloidal teeth, and should be practisedby the student.
Spur Wheels. In drawing the teeth
"
of spur wheels, the faces
are made to epicycloidaland the flanks to hypocycloidal curves.
Two spur wheels are shown in gear in Pig. 67, the pitch circles
l)eing Q P R and S P T, touching at P, and for convenience the
rollingcircles M and N are taken the same size. Start by rolling
the circle M to the right outside the circle Q P K, and trace the
curve for the face of tooth P, then roll the circle N to the left
inside the same eirde for the flank of the tooth. Similarly for
the tooth on other
wheel, roll the circle N to the left outside
the
the circle S P T for the face, and the circle M to the right inside

the circle Q P R for the flank. Then complete the teeth as in the
example of the rack and pinion.
Involute Teeth. "
Wheels with involute teeth
possess certain
practicaladvantages as compared with cycloidalteeth due to the
fact that the path of the points of contact of the teeth is a

straight line, and not as with

a changing the latter curve. This
results in the angle which the direction of the pressure between
the teeth {called the angle of obliquity) m akes with the common

normal at the point of contact being constant and not variable,

as with cycloidal teeth. In consequence of these facts, wheels
with involute teeth will work smoothly and regularly even if the
distance between the centres be slightly altered, and they also
exert a more uniform pressure on the axle bearings. Another
advantage is that all involute teeth of the same pitch will gear
together.
Turning to Fig. 57, the path of the points of contact tween
be-
the teeth as the wheels revolve is that portion of the
two rollingcircles drawn in dark lines and marked D P F, and
the angle between the tangent to this curve and the common

tangent T' T'' is called the angle of obliquity,which alters with

diflerent points of contact. In Fig. 59 are shown some involute
teeth in gear, and here the path of contact is the straight line
 CONSTRUfTTIOH OF WHEEL TEETH. 83

D P F, the aDgle of obliquity being tlie angle between this line

of contftot and the common nonnal T T', this angle remaining
constant for all poaitions of coatact. The line of contact ifl a
normal to the two curves at their point of contact.
The angle of obliquity for involute teeth can be decided before

drawing the teeth, and is generally made equal to 15".

PBOBLEM XLII. (Fig. 59)." ^o draw involute teeth /or two

gpar wheels, Jcnowing pitch the ctrcfea and the angle of obliquity.
Draw the pitch circles touching at the point P, and the line
T T' through P at right angles to the line joining the centres.

Nest draw a line DPP through the point P making an angle

of 15", the given angle of

obliquity with the line T T'.

With the centres of the pitch
circles draw circles (shown
dotted in figure and marked
B C) tangent to thU line D PF.
These are called "hate drdes,"
and are the circles of which
involutes must be drawn for
the shape of the teeth, in order
that the path of contact may
be in the line D P F, and the

angle of obliquity 15".

To draw the teeth of wheel
A we see that D P ia a tangent
to the circle, and, therefore, if

S be the starting point of the

curve, BO that it passes through
P, then the arc D S must equal
D P. Therefore, from D, the

contact point of the circle B 0

with the line of contact D P F, -

w na
^'
set off D S =
D P by either
method (a) or (c) of setting off the pitch (p. 81). Then start

from 3, and draw the involute as before. To draw the tooth of

wheel B, so that it shall be in contact at P, we see that F F ia

a tangent to B, and thus as before we make arc F O =

F P,
and start the involute from the point 0. Since contact does

not take place at any point of the teeth within the base circles,
the flanks of the teeth from within the base circles are made
radial "
that is, the points where the curves start from the base
cii^sles joined to the
are centres of the circles as shown, thus

giving straight teeth from the base circle to the root circle.
 84 PBACTIOAL, PLAKE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

The teeth are completed as in previous examples.

If the point circle for the tops of the teeth of wheel B cuts
the line of contact D F in D, and the point circle of the teeth of
wheel A cuts it in E, then D F is the length of the line of contact.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 1. "
Draw an arc of a circle of 8* radius and consider it
as part of the pitch circle of a toothed wheel. Then draw

completely as : a, b, cfour teeth

epicycloidal follows "
and to have
faces and
hypocycloidal flanks, rolling circles, (a) 4:" diameter,
(6) 2^" diameter, (c) d^ diameter, (d) involute teeth radius of
base circle 7*7^ To get sizes of teeth assume them as of
2" pitch. (The object of this example is to show the effect of

using rolling circles of different sizes,hence the teeth had better

be drawn separate from each other, say about 3" centres.)
* EX. 2. ^Draw rack four teeth each
" a and pinion showing on

as follows: "
Pitch of teeth 2", number of teeth in pinion twenty;
pinion teeth to have involute faces and radial flanks, rack teeth
to have cycloidal faces and radial or straight flanks.
* EX. 3. "
Draw two equal spur wheels in gear showing five
teeth in each. Pitch of teeth 2^", number of teeth ten. Faces
of teeth epicycloids, flanks hypocycloids. Rolling circles If*
radius.
* EX. 4. "
Draw two
spur wheels A and B in gear, showing five
teeth in each. Involute teeth 2" pitch, twelve teeth in wheel

A, seventeen in wheel B, angle of obliquity 15*.

EX. 5. "
^The diameters of two spur wheels are 2V and 36*,
the pitch 2^"y and the path of contact a straight line at 75*" to
the line of centres. Draw a pair of teeth in contact of such
length that two pairs of teeth may always be in contact. (Yict.
Hon., 1891).

(Length of path of contact must oe twice

pitch, the normalnormal
pitch
is distance from face of one tooth to face of next
along line of contact; make
a right angled triangle with hypotenuse equal to pitch, and base angle
equal angle of obliquity "
^then base is normal pitch.)
*
After drawing accurately three or four teeth on each wheel of Exs. 2^
3, 4, the student would do well to work as follows :" Cut the paper fully
care-

roimd the teeth, leaving enough for the whole wheel, thus making a

pattern of the wheels ; and

fix the wheels the right distance apart by sticking
pins through their centres. Then place a sheet of paper beneath the teeth,
and move the wheels as in actual working ; prick through at the point of -

contact of the teeth upon the paper below, thus obtaining the path of the
points of contacty compare the results with Figs. 57 and 59. Also draw the
normals to the teeth at one or two different points of contact, and see if the
normal at the point of contact of any two teeth is common to the curves of
both teeth.
M PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

Flan, Elevation^ FrojeotionBy Planes of Projection, Pro-

jectopfl." The view of the table, and therefore of any solid, as

seen from above is called
plant and the view as seen
its from the
end its elevation. The views of objects drawn on the principles
of solid geometry are called its prajectionSy the imaginary planes
on which they are drawn are called the planes of projection^ and
the lines from the object to the planes are called projectors. We
have seen that only two projections are necessary one on the "

floor,a horizontal plane, the other on the wall, a vertical plane,

and as these two planes are always required for the plan and
elevation of a solid, they are termed the horizontal plane of pro-
jection,
usually denoted by the capitalletters HP, and the vertical

plane of projection^ usually abbreviated to V P. Evidently the

two planes of projection intersect in a line, which, owing to the
horizontal plane being supposed the plane of the ground, is called
the ground line,and is generally denoted by the capital letters
XY.
All this will be clearlyunderstood by reference to the following
example. "
In Fig. 60a is shown a representation of a simple

Fig. 60a.

solid, an equal armed cross made wood, with the hori-

of squarezontal
and vertical planes of projection,having its plan and tion
eleva-
drawn them Lines perpendicular to the HP are
upon
 PRINCIPLES OF SOLID GEOMETRY. 87

drawn through each corner of the solid,meeting the H P in the

points marked a, b, Cy d ,
and similarly lines perpendicular to
,
,,

the V P are drawn through each corner, meeting the Y P in the

points marked
a',b',(/,d' , , .
To join these points in the right
order we look at the solid, and see that A joins B, and that B

joins 0, and C joins D, and so on, and, therefore, by joining a

to 6, and a to b',"c., we obtain on the H P and Y P a plan and
an elevation of the solid. Notice that the plan really represents
two faces of the cross, the upper and lower, which are similar,
and, therefore, that each point plan in the shows at least two

corners of the cross, and similarly with the elevation.

On the right hand of the
point P with its cross is shown a

plan j9, and its elevation being its projector to jo',

the line T p
the H P, and the line Tp' its projector to the Y P. The plan
and elevation of these projectorsare drawn "t po and p' o, and
it should be speciallynoticed that they make two lines, meeting
on the ground line, each being perpendicular to it. The student
should suppose that the plan and elevation of the projectors
of the cross are drawn in this way, although in the figure they
are omitted for the sake of clearness.
Now, imagine the Y P to be turned upon the ground line as

a hinge, away from the solid, as shown by the arrow^ until it

becomes horizontal and forms a

continuation of the H P. We
shall then have the tion
representa-
of Fig. 606, which is the
usual solid geometry projection //
^
or drawing, showing a plan
and elevation upon a single flat
sheet of paper. With the aid of n
y^
these two figures the student
should now verify the following X

statements, all of which are

important and should be membered

re-

: "
-?'*

(a) The plan is below the

groond line, and the elevation
above it.

(5) The
plan and elevation of fro ea.

the same point are exactly one Fig. eo".

under the other, in a line perpen-
dicular
to the ground line, therefore the plan of a solid should be
directly under ^e elevation.
(c) Heights above the H P are shown in the elevation.
(c()Distances in front of the V P are shown in the plan.
 88 PBACTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOHETBT.

"

(e) The
projectors are shown by lines,joining points in the plan
ana elevation, and perpendicular to the ground line.
(/) The elevation of a point in the H P, and the plan of a point
in the V P, are shown by a point on the ground line,for if p and p'
be these points, their elevation and plan are botli shown by the
point 0 (Fig. 605). From this it follows that when a solid has
one face or edge in the ground plane or H P, its elevation will
begin from the ground line,and similarly if it has a face or edge
in the V P its plan will also begin from the ground line.
We see from Fig. 605 that the plan and elevation are separated
from one another, and that the distance between them depends
only on the height of the solid above the H F and its distance
in front of the V P.
'

In examples of solid geometry these distances may be given

of any desired length, or may be left to the will of the student,
in, which case it is convenient to assume solid, as standing
the
on the H P and in front of the V P, as this
gives an elevation
starting from the ground line and a plan removed from it,thus
separating the two drawings and adding to their clearness.
Marking Plans and Elevations. "
It will have been noticed
in Fig. 60a that each point in the solid is denoted by a capital
letter,as A, ", 0, while its plan is marked by the same letter in
small type, as a, 5, c, and its elevation by a similar letter with
the addition of a dash, as a',b\ c\ This is a convenient notation,
usually adopted in solid geometry, and will be adhered to in all
following examples.
A solid by surfaces, a surface by lines,and a line
is bounded
by points, and we shall, therefore, lead up to the projection
of solids by examples dealing with points, lines, and faces.
sur-

In
commencing solid geometry it will
helpful be found very
to make up a rough model of the planes projection, and of of
the objects to be drawn. A book or instrument box opened at
right angles very well represents the H P and V P, a drawing

pin may represent a point, a pencil a line, and a set square or

piece of card a surface or plane, while models of simple solids

can be easily made. It is only in this way that the beginner
can hope to gain an intelligent and useful knowledge of the
subject, and be able to proceed with confidence to advanced

problems and to machine drawing, where the objects to be

drawn exist only as a mental picture, and where their positions
relative to, and their projections upon, the planes of projection
have to be vividly imagined before they can be represented upon
the paper. All engineering draughtsmen use the results of the

principles of solid geometry, although, as the student will see in

 PROJECTION OF POINTS. 89

due they appear

course, to dispense with the actual use of

projectors,ground line, planes, "c.

It will be seen from Pig. 61a that the H P and V P are

carried on so as to extend on both sides of the ground line X Y.

This is evidently correct, plane has no limit of either length
as a

or breadth. When thus regarded, the planes of projection are

said to form four dihedral angles (angles formed by surfaces),
and point may be
a regarded as being in either one of the angles;
as, for example, a point may be below the H P and behind the
Y P, and the position of its plan and elevation relative to the
ground line are affected accordingly ; but as this is a matter of
theoretical rather than of practicalimportance, it will not be
further considered, and reference will be made to the first
dihedral angle only.
As the
position of points, lines,and solids can only be stated
as distances from the planes of projection,which, as we have

seen, resolves itself into distances below and above the ground
line, it is evident that m aU examples we must commence by draw-
ing
the ground line. It should be noticed that when this is done
the paper above the XY represents the VP, and the paper
below it the H P, and that if the paper be bent about the X Y,
as a hinge, bringing the Y P into a vertical plane, it will sent
repre-
a model planes of projection.
of the
The following points should be particularlyobserved :"

All constmction lines, such as projectors,should be drawn as

fine light lines,and the projections or plans and elevations of the

line,figure,or solid being drawn, shonld be shown by dark lines.
Lines to represent the edges of a solid,not actually seen, owing
to some part of the solid being between them and the eye of the
observer, should be shown by dark dotted lines.

Projeotion of Points. "

To show the projections of a point
given its distance above the H P and in front of the Y P, first
draw the XY, then
through any point in it draw a dicular
perpen-
line to represent the projectorsof the point, mark a point

in this line above the X Y, equal to the height of the point

above the H P, and a point in the line below the X Y, equal to
the distance of the point in front of the Y P. If the point is
denoted by the letter P, its plan should be marked p and its
elevation p\ When the distances are given in the question, it
is better that they should be marked on the drawing, using dimen-
sion
lines with arrow heads as in Fig. 50. The student should
also aim at writing above the drawing a brief description of
what the drawing represents (not a mere copy of the question),
whether of a point, Ime, surface, or solid,and its specialposition
90 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETBT.

relative to planes of projection,as it is just as important ta

the
know exactly what position is indicated by a given drawing as-
to be able to make the drawing of a solid in a given position.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 1." Draw the projections of the following points dis*

tinguishing the plan and elevation of each : "

fa) Point A in both planes.

6) Point B in H P, If in front of VP.

fcjPoint 0 in V P, If above H P.

) D,
Point I'S' from both planes.
(e) Point E, 2-6" above P, l-?" in front of V
H P.

(/) "Point F, 2-r below H P, l-S" behind V P.

") Point G, r above H P, 1-9' behind V P.

(A) Point H, 2V below H P, l-Q" in front of V P.

Frojection of lanes. "

lines may be parallelto, perpendicular
to, or inclined to either the HP or Y P, and in some cases to

both. Lines also be contained by, or may lie in, either

may

Fig. 61a.

or both of the planes. As the ends of a line are points,a line-

is spoken of as the line A B or CD, one letter being marked at

each end, its plan is then marked ah or cd, and its elevation
a'h'orc'd\ A line is fixed by stating its position relative to
 PROJECTION OP LINES. 91

the planes of projection^both with regard to its inclination to

them, and its distance from them, hence these conditions must
be known before the projectionsof the line can be drawn.
Three lines,A B, C D, E F, each
differentlyplaced with regard
to the planes of projection,together with their projectors,and
their plans and elevations upon the H P and Y P are represented
in Fig. 61a in such a way as to show the principle of projection.
In Fig. 616 the two planes are shown with the V P thrown down,
thus forming one zontal
hori-
sheet, and showing d
y^
the plans and elevations
of the lines exactly as they
shouldappear when drawn

upon the paper. The

positions of the lines are

^C"
as follows :"

A B is perpendicular to
the HP and above it,
parallelto the V P and in
front of it. Fig. 616.
CD is parallel to the
H P an"3 above it,inclined to the V P and in front of it.
" F is inclined to both planes, and removed from both.
With help the of these figures and of a model of the planes
and a pencil to represent a line, the student should carefully
verify the following statements :"

(a) When a line is parallel to, or is contained by, the H P its

plan is equal in length to the line itself.

(6) When parallel to, or is contained

a line is by, the V P its
elevation is equal in length to the line itself.
(c) When a line is pandlel to both planes its plan and elevation
are equal in length to the line itself.
Therefore, when a line is parallel to, or is contained by, a plane,
its projection upon that plane is a line equal in length to the line
itself.

{d) When a line is inclined to the H P its plan is shorter than

the une itself.

{e)When a line is inclined to the V P its elevation is shorter

than the line itself.
(/) When a line is inclined to both the HP and V P its plan
and elevation are both shorter than the line itself.
Therefore, when a line is inclined to a plane its projection upon
that plane is a line,the length of which is less than the lengtiiof
the line itself.

ig) When a line is perpendicular to the H P its plan is a point.

92 PBAOTIOAL, PLANS, AND 80LID OEOHETBT.

(h) When a line is perpendicular to the VP its elevation is a

point.
Therefore, when a line is perpendicular to a plane its projection
upon that plane is a point.
(i) When a line is contained by both the HP and V P its plan
ana elevation coincide in the ground line.

(j) When a line is inclined to the HP and parallelto the V P

its inclination is shown in the elevatioa
(k) When a line is inclined to the VP and parallelto the H P
its inclination is shown in the plan.
Therefore, when a line is inclined to one of the planes of projec-
tion
and parallelto the
other, its inclination is shown upon the
plane to which it is parallel. It will be seen later that when a line
is inclined to both planes its inclination is not shown either in the
plan or elevation.
The projections of a line
difficulty if it is
should present no

remembered that of the the

lines are ends
points, whose tions
projec-
can be found as already described. For if the plan and
elevation of the points be joined, the joining lines will be the
plan and elevation of the line having the points for its ends.
Notice also, that when a line is inclined to one of the planes, its
projectionupon the other plane must be draum first,

EXAMPLES.

EX. 2. "
^Draw the projections of a line 3^" long, in the ing
follow-

positions,mark each end of the line in plan and elevation

with letters,and mark the
lengths of the lines.
and inclination
Write above each its position with regard to the H P and V P.
a) Parallel to both planes and in both.
b) Parallel to both planes and 1*6" from each.
c) Parallel to both planes, l" above H P, 2-3" in front of V P.
d) Parallel to both planes, 2" above H P, IT in front of V P.
e) IncHned 60** to H P, one end in H P ; parallelto V P, l-S''
in front.
(/) Inclined 46* to H P, one end I'V above HP; parallelto
VP, IJ'^infront.
(g) Inclined 60** to V P, one end in V P ; parallelto H P, l-S''
above.

(h) Inclined 45* to V P, one end 1* in front of V P j parallel

to H P and in H P.

(i) Parallel to V P and V in front, its ends l*' and 2^" above
H P. Show angle of inclination to H P.

0') Parallel to H P and If above, its ends l-S'' and 2T in

front of V P. Show angle of inclination to V P.
94 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

solid geometry, the student is advised to study closelythe struction

con-

Fig. 62a represents the H P and V P in

employed.
B inclined both, and its plan and
position,with a line A to

elevation a b, a* V, the traces of the line being shown at H T

and V T. If we fix our attention on A B, the line itself,and

on a b, its plan, we
suppose that A B can
is held in position by

the projectorsA a and B5, which pass from the ends of the line

itself to the ends of its plan,perpendictdarto the plan. Suppose,

further, that the line, its
plan, and its projectors
to the HP form a stiff

frame, which can be turned

about plan of
the the line

as a hinge, until it falls

into the H P, as shown
at A' a and B' b, then we

have the true length of

the line A B shown upon
the H P at A' B', and we

see at once that this true

length by is found ing

draw-

perpendiculars from
each end of the plan of
the line, and making
Fig. 62a. them equal in length to
the distance of that end
above the HP. reasoning applies to the line and its
A similar
elevation a' 6',together with its projectorsto the V P, for if these
be turned about the elevation a' 5' as a hinge, until they fall into
the V P, we shall have the true length of the line shown in the
elevation exactly as in the plan. The figure also shows that if the
true length of the line in plan be produced, it will meet the H T,
jand similarlyin the elevation (Fig.626),for by this construction
we have produced the line to meet the two planes of projection,and
we know the meeting points are the traces. The figure further
shows that the real inclination of the line to the H P is the angle
between the line itself,A B, and its plan a b, produced to meet
at the H T, and that this is equal to the angle between the true

length of the line A'B' and the plan a 5" that is, the angle
marked tf (theta);*and similarly the real inclination of the luie
to the V P is the angle between the line A B, and its elevation a' V

produced to meet at the Y T, and that this is equal to the angle

marked p (phi),between the lines A" B" and a' 6' (see Fig. 626).

*
The constmctioD for the true length of the line in the elevation is
omitted in Fig. 62a for the sake of clearness.
 PBOJECTIOK Of LIHBS. 99

PROBLEM XLIII. (Fig. Q2b)." Given the plan and elevation

of a line to find its real length,its traces, and its incli/nation to the
HP and VP.
Let ah a'V be the given plan and elevation. From each end
of the plan draw dicular
perpen-
lines equal in length
to the height of the end above
the H P, thus a A' equals
height of end A, and h'B'

equals height of end B. Then

A'B' is the true length of
the line, and its inclination
to the H P is shown by ducing
pro-
A' B' aad a 6 to meet
in the H T, thus making the

angle marked ". Proceed in

the same way from the tion
eleva- H.T.

a b\ obtaining the true Fig. 62".

length A" B", the inclination

to the Y P shown by the angle f and the V T. As a test of

accuracy see that the real lengths in plan and elevation are the
same.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 7. "
Draw the projections of a line A B, as in Ex. 6, and
find its real length and its inclination to the H P and Y P.
EX. 8." A is a point in the Y P, l^" above the HP. B is a

point in the H P, 1}" from the Y P. The real distance from A

to B is 3^ plan and elevation
Draw the
of the line joining A
and B. (S. "feA. Elem., 1887.)
EX. 9. A point 1 -5" fi"om both planes of projection is distant
"

3'2b" from another point, 2*25'' from both planes of projection.

Obtain the projectionsof the two points. (S. " A. E., 1888.)
EX. 10." Three equal Hues 1 J" long, A O, B O, C O, meet at

a point O at equal angles with each other. Draw the plan of the
lines when neither of them is parallelto the Y P, and consider
them as the plan of three equal rods, 3^" long, forming a tripod
stand standing in the H P, then draw the elevation of the rods,
and find their inclination to the H P.

PROBLEM XLIY. (Fig. 63)." To draw the projectionsof a

line of given length inclined to both the M P and VP.

Let the line be A B, and its inclination to the H P and Y P
be respectively.
tfand p
From
any point. A, in the XY draw a line A 6' equal in

length to the given line AB, and making an angle with the
96 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OEOMETRT.

X Y equal to the inclination of the line to the H P. Then A h*

is the elevation and A h the plan of the line, supposing it to be
in the V P. Let the end h' remain in the V P and the end A
be moved away from it, then so long as the end A moves in the
H F its path most be in the semicircle, having b for centre and
h A for radius, while the further it moves away from the V P
the greater inclination will it have to the Y P, and the shorter
will its elevation become. If, then, we can determine what
length its elevation be, when
will its inclination to the Y P is f
,

we can draw its elevation, knowing that the position of the end
h' has not altered. The last problem enables us to do this for
we saw then that when a line is inclined to the Y P and has
one end in the plane, its elevation, its real length, and the
perpendicular from the end
**j^' not in the plane, make a

right angled triangle, of

which the acute angle at
the base is the angle of in- clination
to the Y P. In
the present case we know
the hypotenuse of the angle,
tri-
the true length A 6',
and the acute base angle,
the inclination 9, and we

can, therefore, find the

length of the elevation of
the line. This is shown at
h' A', the angle A 6' A
Fig. 63. being made equal to 9 and
angle at A' a right the

angle (see therefore,

Prob. xliii.) Make,
h' a' equal to h' A!
and this will be the elevation of the line, its plan can be found
by making the projector a' a equal to A A', for this we know is
the distance of the end A in front of the Y P, or by dropping
a projector from a' to meet the semicircle in a, then a 6 is the
plan of the line.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 11. "

Draw the plan and elevation of a line A B ZV long,
inclined (a) 50' to the H P and SO** to the Y P, (h) 25" to H P
and 55" to Y P.
EX. 12. "
Draw the projections of a line 0 D S"' long, inclined
60" to the H P and 30** to the Y P.

Frojeotion of Plane Figures and Surfaces " Planes and

 PBOJECTIOK OF PLANES. 97.

Traces of plane figures and

Planes. "
Since
surfaces only
possess dimensions, length
two and breadth, it is only possibfe
to draw their projections according to the principles of solid
geometry, by supposing them to be contained by planes, the
position of which relativelyto the H P and V P of projection,
coincides with the position of the figure. But in order that this

principlemay be appreciated,it is necessary to understand how

planes are represented, since they are simply flat surfaces
indefinite in extent, without thickness.
Planes. If the student
"
will take a model of the planes of

projection,such as a book open at right angles, and a set square

to represent a plane, he will see that the plane can be placed in

many difierent
positionsrelative to the HP and Y P. It can,
for example, be placed so that its surfstce is perpendicular to
both planes and touching both, or touching one and removed
from the other ; or the plane may be inclined to either the H P
or Y P, and have its surface at the same time perpendicular to
the other, or the set square can be so placed as that its surface
is inclined to both planes. It does not follow that the set square,
or the supposed plane, will necessarilymeet the H P and Y P in
the position in which it is placed ; but since a plane is indefinite
in extent, it is evident that if produced far enough it will some- where

intersect the H P and Y P, unless parallel them, and

to
that the intersections will be lines,making certain angles with
the ground line,depending upon the positionof the plane. These
lines of intersections are called the traces of the plane" that is,
*^
the trace of a plane is its Una of intersection with an/other plane/*
The line where a plane intersects the H P plane of projection is
termed its ''
horizontal tracsy' H T, and the line where it inter-
sects
the Y
P, its " vertical traoe^^ Y T. Notice the distinction,
that the trace of a line is a point, and the trace of a plane a line.
From these considerations, as well as from the results of the
little experiments first mentioned square, with the book and set

we learnthat a plane can only be shovm hy its traces.

Fig. 64 represents the traces of four planes in the only way in

which they can be shown upon a fiat sheet of paper, and with
the help of a model the student should verify the following
positionsfor the planes as shown : "

Plane A." Perpendicular to both the H P and Y P,

Plane B. Perpendicular to H P, inclined to Y P.
"

Plane 0. Inclined" to H P, perpendicular to V P.

Plane D." Inclined to both H P and Y P.
It will be seen that the traces are produced beyond the X Y ;
this is the usual practice,and serves to show tluit the plane is
not limited by the H P and Y P.
r
98 PRAOTIOAI^ FLAKE, AND SOLID QEOMETBT.

With the help of Fig. 64, and of a model of the H P and V P,

together with pieces of cardboard or set squares, to represent
planes, the student should yerify the following : "

(a) A plane parallelto the H P or V P has no H T or V T

respectively ; therefore, when plane
a is parallelto another
plane,
it has no trace upon
l^at plane. Also, a plane parallelto one oi
the planes of projectionis perpendicular to the otiier plane.

Fig. 64.

(6) When plane is perpendicular to the H P its V T is a line

a

perpendicular to the ground line ; and when it is perpendicular to

the V P, its H T is a Une perpendicular to the ground hne.

(c) When a plane is mdined to the H P, and perpendicular to

the V P, its inclination is shown by the angle which its V T makes
with the ground line ; and similarlywhen a plane is inclined to the
V P, and perpendicular to the H P, its inclination is shown by the
angle which its H T makes with the ground line.

{(T)When a plane is perpendicular to both the H P and V P, its

traces form one straight line,perpendicular to the ground line.

(e) When a plane is incUned to both the H P and V P, its

traces make angles with the ground line,which are not equal to
the angles of inclination of the plane to the H P and V P.

(/) The H T and V T of a plane intersect in the ground line,

whenever the plane has two traces,except in the case where the
plane is inclined to both the H P and V P, so that the sum of its
inclination equals 90'', when its traces are parallel to the ground
line.
(g) Parallel planes have parallel traces.
i,
It should be noticed that number of a planes may be arranged
relativelyto the HP and VP in such a way as to intersect each
other. In such cases the lines of intersection are represented by
their plans and elevations.
r

LINES AND PLANES. 99

EXAMPLES.

EX. 13." Show the followingplanesby their traces,and mark

the traces as in Fig. 64 : "

(a) Plane perpendicularto both H P and V P.

(bj Plane inclined 45' to H P, perpendicularto V P.
[c)Plane perpendicularto H P, inclined 30" to V P.
(d) Plane
perpendicularto H P, parallelo V P 1" in front.
t
i;
[") Plane
parallel to H P IJ''above, perpendicular to V P.
(/) Plane inclined at any angle to both planes. (The method
of drawing a plane inclined at given anglesto the H P and Y P
is too advanced for insertion here.)
EX 14. Represent by their traces (a) two planes at right
"

angles to each other and to the Y P, one of them inclined at lO""

to the H P. (6)Two parallel planesnot at rightanglesto either
plane of projection.(S." A. K, 1886.)

Tlie Projection of lanes contained by Planes. " Before

proceedingto the projectionof inclined
plane figuresor solids,
it is necessary to understand
principlesby which lines the
contained by given planes are projected. The student should
first verify the followingstatements by using a pencil;a set
square, or a piece of card to represent plane,and a model of the
a

planes: "

(a)When a line is contained by a plane its inclination cannot be

greaterthan the inclination of the plane.
(6)When a line contained by a plane has the same inclination
as plane,it is perpendicular
the to the trace of the
plane, hence
tJie plan of a line lying in a plane inclined to the H P, and having
the same inclination to the HP as the plane is perpendicularto
the H T of the plane,and the
similarly elevation of a line lying in
a plane inclined to the V P, and having the same inclination to the
V P as the plane is perpendicular to the V T of the plane.
(c) Horizontal lines lying in a plane have their plans parallel
to the H T of the plane.
(d) Parallel lines lyingin the same planes have parallelprojec-
tions.

(e)Aline may be contained by a plane and may be inclined at

any angle between zero and the inclination of the plane.

PROBLEM XLY.
(Fig. 65).^Given the traces of a singly
inclined pkme the projections
to of a line of given length
draw
contained by the plane,and having an inclination less than the
angle of the plane.
Let H T and Y T be the traces of the given plane inclined at
IQO PBAOnCAL, PLAKE, AND SOLID OEOHETRT.

an angle 0 to the angle of the required line

H P, and let the
A B be a, and be less than tf. At any point S in the V T draw
a line S T making an angle a with X Y equal to its given inclina-
tion
to the HP. If S T is longer than the required length A B,
make S W equal to
AB, and through
W draw a line

parallelto the V T,
meeting the X Y
in B', and from B'
draw a line B'a'

parallelto S T meet-
ing
the V T in the

point a'. Then a' B'

is the elevation of a

line of the
required
length, having and
the required incli-
nation
a to the H P,
and a B is its plan,
supposing the line
to be in the VP.
But the line aB

Fig. 65. has one end A as

at a' in the plane,

since that end is in the Y T of the plane, and we know the

length of its plan a B will not be altered so long as we do not

alter its inclination to the H P.

Therefore, with the point a as centre, and the plan length a B

as radius, draw an arc cutting the H T in the point b and join b
to a, then 5 a is the plan of the line lying in the plane and b' a'
its elevation, because as the line has one end B in the H T and
the other end A in the Y P the line must lie wholly in the plane.
If now the plane be turned into the H P about its H T as a

hinge, the point a' will travel in the arc a' A drawn from 5 as a

centre, and the line A b will be the true length of A B, and will^
therefore, of course, be equal to a' B'.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 16. "

plan and elevation
Draw the
of a line A B S'^ long
inclined 30" to the H P lying in a plane inclined 45' to the H P.
EX. 16. Draw the
" projections of two lines of any length
meeting in a point and lying in a plane inclined GO"",one line
being inclined 30^ and the other 40''. Show also the real angle
between the two lines.
103 PBiCTTOAL, PLAn, AITD SOLID aKOKITBT.

the given angle t to the HP and perpendicular to the TP.

Draw the X Y
equal to the
anj line, a (, making an angle p with
angle of one tide of the hexagon with the V P, aud anywhere
on this line constmot the hexagon 0 D E F G H. Find the
elevfttioa of the hexagon (itwill come upon the X T as marked
0', D', . . .
H'). With oentre 8 (where the traces cat the ground
line), throw up these points on the plane by drawing arcs

through each meeting the VT in the points c', if, e',/*,y',A,'then

this is the elevation
hexagon when inclined.
of the The points
in the plan mnet evidently be directly underneath, and will also
be in Imea psrallel to the X Y drawn through each of the points
CD,. H of the original hexagon. Mark these points,
o,d, . .
.h, and join them in the right order, thus obtaining the
plan of the hexagon when inclined.
N.B. "
The required plan and elevation should be made darker
than the plan and elevation 0, D, H ; C, D', . . .
H' as first
. . .

drawn. The student will not probably find it neceHsary to mark

all the points, except in beginning, and for difficult problems.

PROBLEM XLVII. (Fig. 67)." ITo draw the projectiimt "if a

circle when tto plana U inclined
to the V P and perjtendioular to
the HP.
This problem is identical in

principle with the lost, but

presents the additional difficulty

that the circle hns no corners

which we can project as points,

and thus obtain the boundary
lines of the figure. We can,
however, suppose it to have

comers, or rather we can mark

any
definite points upon it^ and
treat these exactly as we treated

the comer points of the hexagon.

For convenience the points are

taken at equal distances apart "

that is, the circle ia divided into

a convenient number, eight or

twelve equal parts. The pro

CT. blem will then represent no

Hg.
difficulty and can easily be
fblloTod irom the figure. The elevation of the inclined circle

is of course an ellipse,and must be drawn by freehand.

 INOLIKED PLANE FIGURES. 103

EXAMPLES.

EX. 18. ^A
hexagon of 1 V
"
side is inclined at 40* to the H P,
one side being perpendicular to the Y P. Draw its plan and
elevation.
EX. 19. " A circle 3^^ diameter has its plane inclined at 60* to
the Y P, its centre being 2^ above the H P. Draw its plan
and elevation.
EX. 20. "
Draw the traces of a plane inclined at 30* to the
H P and
perpendicular to the Y P, at any point a and in the
H T draw
a line ab l^" loug, inclined at 20** to the H T. Con-
sider a 5 as the plan of one side of an equilateraltriangle lying
in the plane, and draw its complete plan and elevation. (S." A.
K, 1886.)
(Find the plan of a h; when in the H P itslength will be side of triangle.
Draw the triangle,and transfer it to the plane.)
EX. 21. Draw the plan of a hexagon of 1^* side in
"

any
position,such that its plane is neither horizontal' nor vertical
{S. "feA. K, 1886.)
EX. 22. The plan of a pair of compasses
" are two lines, each
3*^ long, meeting at a point A, and including an angle of 30". If
the compass legs are actually 5^^ long, determine the height of
the joint above the H P.
EX 23. "
A regular hexagon of 1*25'' side has one side in the
H P. The plane of the hexagon is vertical, and inclined at 43*
to the Y P. Draw the elevation of the hexagon. (S. "feA. E.,
1891.)
EX. 24. "
Draw the traces ot a plane inclined 35* to the H P
and perpendicular to the Y P, and draw the plan of an octagon
of l^'^side, lying in the given plane, and having one side in each

plane of projection. (S. "feA. E., 1892.)

EX. 25. Draw two
"
circles having the same centre of radii, j''
and li", and circumscribe the larger circle by a hexagon. Then
draw an elevation of the figure when its plane is vertical and
inclined at 40* to the YP, two sides of the hexagon to be
vertical.

(This will represent the projection of one face of a hexdgbnal nut when
its axis is inclined, which is a very common condition in machine drawing. )
Projection of Simple Solids. "
Having already considered
the projection of points, lines, and plane figures,which together
make a solid, we are now able to consider the drawing of
up
solids themselves. Any difficultyattendant upon such tion
projec-
is much simplifiedif the student will remember that almost
all problems resolve themselves into, firstly,the projection of
104 PBACnCAL, PLAKB, AND SOLID QEOMBTBT,

certain points ^ secondly^ obtaining the projections of lines by

joining the points ; and thirdly^obtaining the projectionof plane
figures by joining the lines/ thus giving the projections of a
solid.
The simple solids are the Cube, Prism, Pyramid, Sphere,
Cylinder, and Cone, which be defined as follows :
may "

Cube. "
^A cube is a solid having six faces all equal squares
(Fig. 68).
Prism. "
^A right prism is a solid
having two equal and simi-
lar
bases, and a number of equal oblong "ces perpendicularto

Fig. 68. Fig. 69.

them. Prisms distinguished according to the shape of their

are

bases. Fig. 69 represents a heocagoncdprism.

Pyramid. A right pyramid is a solid having one
" base, and a
number of equal triangular faces meeting in a point over the
centre of the base. This point is called the apex. Pyramids

.-K.

Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72.

are dintinguished according to the shape of their bases. Fig. 70

represents a sqmire pyramid.
Spheres, cylinders,and cones are called solids of revolution,
because they are generated by the revolution of certain plane
figures about a fixed line, as an axis.
Spheres. A sphere is a solid generated by the
" revolution of
a semicircle about its diameter, as an axis. All points in the
 SIMPLE SOLIDS. lOS

surface are equidistant from a point within the sphere, called

the centre. AH plane sections of a sphere are circles.
Cylinder. "
A cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution
of an oblong about one of its sides,as an axis. It has two equal
circular bases, and may be regarded as a right prism having an

infinite number of feces (Fig 71).

Cone. "
^A cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a

right angled triangle about its perpendicular, as an axis. It has

a circular base, and may be regarded as a pyramid having an

infinite number of faces. The vertex of the triangle forms the

apex of the cone (Fig.72).

Axis. "
The axis of a solid may be regarded as its central line.
In a cube, the line joining the centre of any face to the centre
of the opposite fa^ce,and in a sphere, any diameter may be called
the axis. In a prism and cylinder the axis is the line joining
the centres of the two bases, and in a pyramid and cone it is the
line joining the apex to the centre of the base. The axis is
shown by a dotted line in the figures.
A cube and sphere can be drawn if we know the length of
side and the diameter respectively. In drawing the other four
solids,we require to know the length of the axis, and the shape
and size of the base.
The drawing of these solids may be rendered much easier and
of much greater value to the student if he uses small models,
which can be placed in different positions relative to the
planes
of projection. In this way a very complete conception of the
solids may be acquired, which will prove of immense benefit in

more advanced problems and especially in machine design, where

the shape of so many common parts are identical with the simple
solids just defined.
Yery satisfactorymodels of these solids,except the sphere, can
be made of stout paper, by first developing the surfia.ces of the
solid then cutting the pattern to the pattern of the figure thus
drawn, and afterwards folding upon the lines representing the

edges of the solid, and gumming together.

Development of Surfaces. "
By the development of a surface
is understood the drawing upon a flat plane, such as a sheet of
paper, the true shape of the complete surface, such that when
the paper is cut to the figure thus obtained it would completely
cover the solid of which it is the development. In practical
engineering work, such as the construction of boilers, fannels,
and in other iron and tin plate work, it is necessary to develop
the surfaces of the structures before the plates of which they are
made can be marked ofi*, hence development is a very important
part of engineering drawing.
106 PBACTIOAL, PLAin, AND SOLID GEOUBTRT.

Cube. "
The development of a cube is a figure made ap of six

equal squarea, and caaTenieutl; drawn as in Fig. 73, where tJia

Pig. 73. Fig. 74.

squares 1 and 3 fonn the top and bottom, when square 3 is the

base, and squares 2, 4, 6, 6 the sides.

Parte are shown b^ dotted lines as extensions of squares 3, 4,
aud 6. Tiiese are merely strips to enable the sides to be joined
together "
that is, the slip on 3 is gummed to the top edge of 5,
and the slips on i and 6 to the edges of square 3. Further strips
may be added on the other
sides if desired. Theatudent
should arrange to allow for
similar strips in the velopment
de-
of the other

Prism. "
The develop-
ment
of a prism is a figure
made up of a number of

equal oblongs and two

equal figures representing

the bases. Fig, 74 shows
a convenient arrangement
of the
development of a

hezt^onal prism.
Pyramid. "
Th e de velop-
ment of a pyramid is a
nfr75.
figure made np of a namber
of equal triangles, and of one regular figure to represent
the base. Fig. 75 shows the development of a hexagonal
follows Draw the base of the solid and
pyramid, obtained as : "

a diagonal of the base, and then draw a right-angled triangle

 DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDS. 107

axis of the solid a' V perpendicular,and half the

having the as a

of the solid a' c' base, then the tenuse

hypo-
diagonal of the base as a

With the solid.

length of the sloping edges of
6' c' is the
the length of the sloping edges as radius, draw an arc of a circle

from centre as at 0, mark off along this arc (as chords of the
any
arc) the length of the sides of the base of the solid as a ", 6 c, c d,
d e, and join a to 6, 6 to c, and c as shown. This is the develop-*

ment of the faces of the pyramid. Draw the hexagon of the base
of the lines ^de for a side,and the development will be
on any
complete.
Cylinder. development of a cylinder is made
"
The up of an
is equal to the circumference of the
oblong, the length of which
is equal to the axis, and of two
base, and the height of which
circles equal in diameter to the bases. It is shown in Fig. 76.

Cone. The development of a cone

"
is made up of a segment
of a circle,the radius of which is the hypotenuse of a right-

Fig. 76. Fig. 77.

angled triangle,having the axis of the cone as a perpendicular,

and the radius of the base, as a base, and the arc of which is

equal to the circumference of the cone base ; and of a circle,of

diameter equal to the base. It is shown in Fig. 77. To obtain
the radius of the arc draw a right-angled triangle, having the
radius of the cone base a' c' as a base, and the axis of the cone

a'h' as a perpendicular ; then the hypotenuse 1/ c* is the radius

required. To set off the correct length around the arc (seep. 73).

EXAMPLES.

"py. 26. "

Draw the
development of the surfaces of the follow-
ing
solids :
" (a) a cube, 2^" edge \ (6)hexagonal prism, \Y edge
of base, axis 3 ; (c) square pyramid. If edge of base, axis 3"^;
 lOS PBACmOAL, FLAMB, ASD SOLID OBOHETBY.

(d) cyliader bue, Ih' diameter, axis 31*; (e) cone base, 1^' dift-
meter, axis 3^\ Uake mod^ of the solids.

Flan and Elevations of Simple projectiona

Solids. "
The
of the solids just developed, in simple positions, relative to the
H P and Y F, are shown in Fig. 78. The student should follow
the by
drawings plaoing the solids represented in the given
positions, using a model of the
planes as before.

Fig. 78 (a). A "

cube having one edga in HP, onafaea indinad at
80" to HP, tmd one face parallel toiheV P 0-75" in front
The elevation must be drawn firstsas that shows the tion
inclina-
and a true shape of one fiice.

("} WW

^-^

Fig. 78.

Fig. 78 (J). "

A hexsagonal priem, having one base in S P, one

faee inclined at 20' to V P, nearest edge ^" in front.

First draw the lines a t, and the hexagon having one side 6 o

in the line. Then draw a second X Y J" from the edge c.

Pig. 78 (c). "

A
square pyramid with base in H P, one edga at
20* to VP and touching Y P.
Fig. 78 id)." A cylinder vjith one base in HP.
Draw the plan first, and the diameter aft parallel to X Y, to

give the correct points for the projection to the elevation.

Fig. 78 (e)."A eone with one base in H P, aaiie 2' in front of VP.
Draw the plan first having its centre on the line ab parallel
totheXY. It is shown dotted in Fig. 78 (d). The projections
of a sphere need no description, they are circles eqnal in diameter

to the diameter of the sphere in all positions.

110 PBACTICAL, PLANS, AND SOLID GEOHETRT.

PROBLEM XLVIII. (Fig.79)." To draw the plan and devaHon

of a hexagonal priemy when one base ia inclined ground.
to the

Suppose the base to lie on a plane having given inclination

the
i to the H P. Draw the H T and Y T of the plane, and obtain
the plan and eleva-

i^ tion of a hexagon
equal to the baae of
the prism, when
lying on this plane
exactly as in Pro- blem
xlvL Draw
the plan in light
lines,as it will dently
evi-
not be seen

full. Complete the

elevation of the
prism by drawing a
line perpendicular to
the V T of the plane,
and therefore, per-
pendicular
to the

plane itself,through
each point in the
elevation of the base.
All the long edges
of the prism are
parallelto the Y P,
since the base is in a

plane perpendicular
Pig. 79. to the Y P, therefore
parallel draw lines
to the through each point in the plan of the base, and
XY,
of indefinite length. Then having the elevation of the top
base, g\ h\ t',/, A^, Z', its plan is obtained by drawing pro-jectors
from each point in the elevation to meet the line in the

plan corresponding to the long edge, meeting at that point, as

for example, the projectorfrom h\ where the long edge a'h' meets
this base, must be drawn to meet the plan of that edge, which is
the line through the point a.

PROBLEM XLIX. (Pig.80)." TV) draw the plan and elevation

of a cylinderwhen its aona is inclined to the V P.

If the axis is inclined at an angle ^, then the base will be clined
in-
at an angle of
90'-p ; therefore, draw the traces H T and
Y T of a plane perpendicular to the H P, and inclined at an angle
 INCLINED SOLIDS. Ill

of90'-p to the Y P. Then proceed exactly as in Problem xlvii,

Fig. 66, to obtain the plan and elevation of a circle equal to the
base of the solid when lying in the plane. Draw lines through
each point in the plan (only make
the two outside lines dark), of
length equal to the axis of the
cylinder, and complete the plan.
Draw lines paraUel to the XY
through each point, 1, 2, 3, . . .

in the elevation of the base, and

from each of the points a, 6, c, d,

...
in the
plan of the front bEuse
of the cylinder draw projectors,
to meet the elevation of the line
in the plan which meets in that

point, as, for example, through

the point c where the line 3 c

meets the plan of the front base

of the solid, draw a projector to
meet the elevation of the line in
the point c' thus
obtaining a point
in the required elevation of the
front base. By this construction
we have really treated the lines
3 c, 5 6, as though they were
. . .

the long edges of a prism, a method Fig. 80.

that is always adopted for all
circular and curved surfaces. It is convenient to speak of these

imaginary edges or lines as

""
stripeaJ'
The student should now be able to proceed to the following
examples, which have been specially as selected
representing
conditions that commonly occur in practical engineering draw-
ings
: "

EXAMPLES.

EX. 33. "

Draw the
plan and elevation of a hexagonal prism,
edge of base height 3*, when
l^'', its axis is inclined 60' to the

ground, and two of its faces are perpendicular to the Y P.

(The hexagon must be drawn with two sides perpendicular to X Y.)

EX. 34. "

Draw the plan and elevation of a cylinder, base

2Y diameter, 3^" high, when one base is inclined at 45"* to

the V P.
EX 35. "
^A hexagonal prism, base \\" edge, axis stands
l^'^,
centrally upon a circular block 3^^ diameter and \" thick, both
112 PBAOnCALy PLANE, AND SOLID OSOMKTBT.

solids being pierced with a hole of 1^'^diameter. Draw a plan

and elevation of the solids when the plane of the circular block
is inclined at 35"* to the ground, two faces of the hexagonal
prism being parallelto the Y P.

(This may be oompared to an ioclined hexagonal nnt and washer.)

EX. 36." An oblong block is 4^ long, 2* wide, and V thick.

Two cylinders, 1^*^diameter, hi^, are fixed to the l'^ upper large
face centrally,each Y ^^ the edge. Draw a plan of the solids
when the plane of the lower face is inclined at iV to the Y P^
the sides of the block being vertical.

(This represents the cap and bolt heads for a connecting-rod end. ) , .

EX. 37. "

A square bar, 2*^ square, 5' long, is pushed through
the centre of a cylindricalblock l^''thick, 3}''diameter, so that
the bar comes equally through the block on each side. Draw

plan and elevation of the solid, when axis of bar is inclined

30'' to H P and is parallel to Y P, the sides of bar being at 45**
to HP.

SECTION X.

THE PROJECTION OP ADDITIONAL PLANS

AND ELBYATIONS" SECTIONS.

TJp to the present stage we have only been concerned with tho

projection of plan and elevation

the of solids upon the horizontal
and vertical plans of projection that is,we have obtained only "

one plan and one elevation of any given solid. But when solidiE^
become more complex in shape, as in the case of engine and
machine parts, and most of the parts of practical engineering
construction, it is not possible to show all the details of the
parts in these two views, and it, therefore, becomes necessary
to obtain other and additional views.
The manner of obtaining these views will be understood
by^
the following illustration : "
Suppose we stand looking straight
upon the front end of a locomotive, we shall then see a view of
the locomotive which shows us its height and width, but gives
no idea of its length, but if we now walk round to the front or

side of the locomotive we shall then see a view of it^ which,

shows its height and length gives but no idea of its width, and
again we could move to a position from which we looked on the"
comer of the locomotive, and we should .then see a view whidv
 ADDITIONAL PLANS AND BLEYATIONS. 113

showed the height^ length, and width, but without giving a

correct idea of the real dimensions of the length or width, owing
to their being inclined to the line of sight. If we supposed
vertical planes to be placed behind the locomotive, and the views
we see to be drawn
upon them, we should thus obtain three
different elevations, all of which it is important to notice have
been found without altering the position of the solid, butby
simply altering our position of observation with regard to it.
The first view of the locomotive which we obtained by looking
upon its end is called cm end elevation,and the last view, that
looking the front, a front elevation. We could of course
upon
have obtained a second end elevation by looking upon the back
end of the locomotive, and for complex machine parts this is

Fig. 80a.

usually done, although in most cases it is sufficient to draw one

end elevation only.

It will be seen that, in order to measure the distance of a point
or line from the ground line, it is necessary to look upon an end
of the planes of projection,and to obtain an end elevation of
them. This end
elevation, so fisiras the
planes of
projection are
concerned, will simply consist of two lines mutually perpendicular,
meeting in a point which is the end elevation of the ground line.
The end elevation of the point or line can then be drawn and its
distance from the
ground line readily obtained
The principle of obtaining these additional elevations will be
8
114 PBACTIOAL, PLAKE, AND SOLID GBOHBTRT.

uaderstood by reference Fig. 80o, b, vhioh

to represent the

planes of projection in position with a solid standing in the II F

of which we require to draw a {rout elevation and two end

elevations. The projection of the front elevation P " needs no

esplanatioD. To obtain the elevation of end A, we suppose a

vertical plane, M, ptacMl on the other side of the solid, either

touching the end B or removed from it, perpendicular to the
lines of sight,and, therefore, in this case perpendicular to the
y P. The view looking on
the end A is then projected on this

plane in the usual way, after which the plane is supposed to be

turned its vertical trace, T T, as a hinge in the directioc
upon
of the arrow from the solid until it coineides with the Y F,
away
and the view from end A becomes projected upon the ordinary
Y P of prelection on the right-hand side of the front elevation,
as at A. For the elevation looking on end B a vertical plane, N,
ia placed on the further side of the solid, and then projected as
before into the Y P giving ths view from end B the left-
upon
hand side of the front elevation. Kotice that in each oaae all

^
Fig. 806.

having the Y T
points in the projection travel in arcs of circles
of the planes as centre aa the planes turn from their original
position into the Y P.
elevations thus found shown in Fig.
The plan and thr^e are

806 as they would be drawn upon the paper, and by the help of
Fig. 80a should present no difficulty. With these two drawings
before him the student should very carefully verify the following
statements ; "

The end elevation loaking the right-hand end of the

(a) upon
flohd is shown npon the left hand of the front eleration.
looking the left-hand end of the
(b) The end elevation upon
Bohd is shown the right hand of the frost elevation.
apon
 ADDITIONAL PLANS AND ELEVATIONS. 115

(c) In end
elevation, that part of the drawing nearest to the
an

front elevation represents the back portion of the solid,and that

part of the drawing ftirthest from the front elevation represents
the front portion of the solid.
These three conditions should be adhered to in all kinds of
mechanical drawing whatsoever. It is remarkable what different
customs prevail with regard to the position of the end elevation;
many draughtsmen use either position without any regard to
uniform methods, and as a result considerable confusion prevails.
At a later stage the student may find it apparently most venient
con-

to put an end elevation next the end which it represents,

rather than at the opposite end
certainly not accurate. ; but it is
The front elevation shows only height and length; the end
elevation only height and toidth, and the plan only length and
width. Hence we see that the three dimensions of a solid are

shown in any two of the three views, and that if any two views
are given the third can be obtained from them. For example,
in Fig. SOby lines are drawn from the front elevation to the end

elevation, to give its dimensions in a vertical direction, while its

dimensions in the other directions, as a' h' and c d\ are obtained
from the plan, and are equal respectively to the sizes marked
a h and c d. The
drawing of a view from others is a very impor- tant
part of practicalprojection,and the student should notice

that, although it may be desirable to work one or two problems

by drawing the arcs marked 1, 2, 3, 4 in order to obtain an end
elevation, it is better and quicker to adopt the method of taking
the distance with the dividers direct from the plan.
Since the drawing of additional elevations requires the use of
other vertical planes of projection, we see that other ground
lines will be obtained where these planes intersect the H P.
But this simply amounts to drawing a new ground line, and
then obtaining a new elevation above this XY in the usual

way, knowing that the heights above the ground line are the
same as in the first elevation. This method is often re/erredto as
an alteration of the ground line. By exactly similar methods we

may obtain additional plans from the first elevation, for we may
suppose other horizontal planes to be placed in different tions
posi-
relatively to the first elevation making new ground lines
with the YP. In order to distinguish the different ground
lines, they are marked as X^ Y^, X^ Y^, X* Y*, "c.

PBOBLEM L. (Fig. 81). "

Given a plan and elevation of a

solid to obtain a second elevation on a given ground line X^ T^ and

a second pkm on a given ground line X^ Y^,
The plan and elevation of a simple solid are shown at P and ",
116 PBAOnOAL. PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

it is required to draw a second elevation on X^ T^ and a second

plan on X^ Y*.
To obtain an elevation on X^ Y^ draw projectors through each

point in the plan perpendicular to X^ Y^, and mark

P off dis-
tances

along each from X^ Y^ equal to the height of the point

above the H P "
^that is, equal to the distance of the point above
X Y in the first elevation E. The construction for one end is
shown figure,the
in the distance e^ d^ being equal to e^ d\ and

f^ a^ equal to/^ a\ and so on for each point.

Some of the lines in this elevation will be dotted, and as thi"

generallyfollows in the projection of inclined solids, it is venient
con-

to always draw the parts of the solid shown by full linea

before those parts shown by dotted lines "
that is, first draw
those parts nearest the point of observation, or furthest from
the X Y.
To obtain a plcm on X^ Y*, draw projectorsperpendicular to
X^ Y^ through point of the first elevation E, and make
each the
distance of each point in front of X^ Y^ equal to its distance in

front of X Y, as, for example, the distance n d^ equals the tance

dis-
6^ dy and nh^ =" e^h.

The construction of the

problem shows how the projection last
of solids in difficult positions may be simplified,for they can
first be drawn in a simple position,and then by a suitable altera-
tion
of the ground line, they can be projected as required.
For example, if we required an elevation of the block in the

last problem, with its long edges inclined at 30* to the V P, we

should first draw a plan and elevation, as at P and E, and then
obtain a second elevation on a ground line X' Y', drawn at an
118 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID QEOKBTKT.

line, and a distance apart equal to the distance A 0 in the first

view drawn, or what is better still for general application,make

the distance of a and o on

either side of the plan of the

axis, equal to the diatance

^ A.OT "' C The other points
' in the plan of the sqnare
prism can be obtained in the

same way. To obtain the

plan of the circular block, 'we

must first stripe it as in

Problem xlix., Fig. 80,

therefore divide the circle

centre "' into a convenient

number of equal parts, and

mark as shown 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 8. Draw the tion
eleva-
...

of the stripes on the

elevation of the block, and

mark. Then to obtain the

plan, draw projectors

through the elevation of the

Kg. 82. points, as 2' 4', and, as

before, mark off a distance

the from the point where it cats the axis plan

along projector
the distance t 2 " 4 in the first view drawn that
equal to or "

iB, 2 and 4 equal t 2 or " 4. The completion of the plan

f p
ne^s no further description.

EXAMPLEa

EX, 1, "
Draw the trace of plane parallel to and
a 2^* above

the H P, and determine the projections of a point in this plane

3J" from the ground line. (S. " A. E., 1886.)
EX. 2. "
Two points o 6 on the ground line are 2 J' apart. A

P is 2i' from and 28' from h, and 1 J' from the V P.

point a,

Obtain its projections. {S. b, A. Adv., 18S6.)

Draw prism, height 2?', side (rf
EX. 3. "
the plan of a square
base 1^', a diagonal being vertical. (S. k A. Adv., 1891.)

f tbe tolid ; first

draw in a eimple

e with a diagonal
 sKcnoNS. 119

EX. 5. "
^Draw the projections of a pentagonal pyramid, axis
3^^,edge of base li'',
with its base in H P, and one edge of base
perpendicular to Y P. Then draw a second elevation when one

sloping edge of the solid lies in the H P, and a second plan when
a sloping edge of the solid is vertical.
EX. 6. Draw "
the projections of a hexagonal prism, axis 31*,

edge of base IJ" pierced with a central hole IJ*' diameter when

standing with a base in the H P, and a face parallel to Y P.

Then draw a second plan of the solid upon X Y, making an

angle of 45*" with the elevation of the axis.

EX. 7. "
A circular block is 3^^ diameter and I'' thick, and is

pierced by a central square hole of l^'^sida Draw a plan and

elevation of the solid when the base is inclined 30" to the ground.
EX. 8." An ellipticalblock is 3^''x 2' and V thick, draw its
elevation when the plane of a base is inclined at 45"* to the Y P,
the longest axis of the ellipsebeing vertical.
,

Sections. "
^Up to the present stage we have dealt only with
solids,the form of which could be clearly seen by one or more

views obtained
by looking upon solid from the outside of the
differentpositions. But it very frequently happens in practical
engineering drawings that the parts to be drawn are hollow,
and of a complex shape, which would not be clearly shown by
dotted lines. In such cases we suppose a cut to be made pletely
com-

or partly through the object,and that part of it between

the eye of the observer and the plane of cutting to be taken

away, the view of the remaining part thus showing the details
of internal construction. The cut is termed a section,and the
cutting plane a, section plcme, so that we speak of drawing sec-

turned views or sections. In order to show what parts of the

solid have been cut by the section plane, we the parts cross-line

by a number of lines near together, conveniently drawn with

the 45'' or GO"" set square, this cross-liningis called sectioning,
and whenever a solid is made up of several parts, each part cut
by a section is sectioned in a different direction to the part with
which it is in contact, thus distinguishing the separate parts.
Examples of sectioning will be seen in the second part of this
book, although in machine drawings the sectioned parts are
generally coloured, and not cross-lined.
In problems on solid geometry, a section plane is shown by
its trace upon the HP or Y P, and is usuaUy marked by the
letters S T, meaning trace of section pla/ne. The following
examples will illustrate the method of obtaining the projection
of sectional views: "

PEOBLEM UI. (Fig. S3)." A sqtta/re block stands centrally

 120 PBAOtlOAL, PLANS, AXO SOLID SEOKKTBT.

upon a eireular block, bolA tolidi bting pierced by ttyUndncat

a

holt. To Mhow thi stctiont made by a vertical j^na pasting

through the axis of the eoUdi, and by a horiseontal platu patnng
through the centre of the wpper block.
Let S T be the LorizoDtal trace of the Terticsl Beotioa plane,
and S' T' the vertical trace of the horizontal section plane.
The outline of the plan and elevation is not altered in any
waj by the "ot of the two views being in Bection, and we,

therefore, draw the outline of the plan and elevation in the

ordinary manner. Dealing first with the vertical section, we see

that ita plan will simply be

that part of the horizontaJ trace,
8 T, of the section plane between
the boundary of the plan "
that

is, the line a b; also that the two

lines in the elevation which present

re-

the hole will be full

lines, because the bole ia fully

revealed by the section, for in
obtaining the elevation of the

section, we are looking from

the position of the arrow F,

with the part of the solid tween
be-
the arrow and the section

plane removed. This is the

only alteration in the elevation

required by its being a section ;

but it should be noticed that,
if the solids had formed one

block, there would be no full

line fi-om c' to d" in the tion,

eleva-
Pj" gg_
since the edge e d has been

removed, we could, however, show a dotted line joining c' d' as

representing the back

edge ef. All the parts of the solids cut

by the section plane are section-lined in the elevation, the top

block by lines sloping to the right, and the bottom block by
lines sloping to the left.

The elevation of the horizontal section is the line g' h' and ita

plan, the sectioned plan of the square block, which should be

fined in the same direction as the upper block in the eleva-

In practical engineering orawmg the draughtsman does not

concern himself with showing section planes, or with both the

and elevation of section. The elevation of Fig, would 83

plan a

be termed a sectional elevation on the line 8 T, or simply "a

 TRITB 8HAPZ OF BEOTIONB. 131

aeetion on 8 T," and the plan, a sectional plan on the line 8' f,

or simply "
a sfctwn on
S'T'."
PROBLEM LIII. (Fig.Bi).-~To draw the plan and deeaUm of
the aections of a hexagonal pyramid, and to fnd the trv^ shape f^f
thesectiom.
LetSTbetheHTofa vertical section plane, snd S' T' the
Y T of a section plane inclined to the ground and perpeudionlar
to the V P.
Mark the vertex of the solid v and the comers of the base

a, b, c, d,e,f in both plan and

elevation. Then to draw the
vertical section made hj the
plane 8 T, draw projectors
from each point 1, 2, 3, 4 of
the section in plan to meet

the elevation of the edges in

the elevation, as, for example,
the section plane cuts the
sloping edge vi at the point
2, and, therefore, it must cut

the elevation v' b' of the same

edge at point 2', found

the by
drawing a projector from -2 to
cut v' b'. Proceeding in this
way, we find the points I', 2',
3', i' in the elevation, and by
joining in the right order we

obtain the elevation of the

section, which should be tion-lined

sec-

as shown.
For the
plan of the section on Fig. 84.
S'T' we adopt the same method,
as, for example, the section plane cuts the elevation t/ 6' of the
sloping edge v 6 at the point 6', and, therefore, the plan of this
point must be at the point 6, in the plan v " of the edge, found

by drawing a projector through the point 6'. The plan of the

section when completed is the irregular bezt^n 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
and should be section-lined as shown.

True Shape of Bectioc "

We know from previous examples
that the plan 6, 6, . . .
10 of the section on the line S'T' cannot

be the true shape of the section, because it is the plan of an

inclined figure. We also know that

plane figure is only shown
a

its trtie shape when it is projected upon a plane parallel to its

own plane that is, it must be looked at in a direction
"
dicular
perpen-
to ita own plane. The vertical section 1',2', 3', 1' is the
122 fBACrlCAL, rLAKE, AJm HOLID OEOMETRY.

true nhftpe of the section, as the T P of projection ia parallelto

the section plane S T. To draw the true Bhape of the eection
made b; the iucliDod plane, we ma; regard the trace of the

plane ST* as a new X Y, and the line 5' 8' ae the elevation . . .

of the plane figure marked in plan 5, 6, 10, of which we . . .

require a new plan on S' T as a ground line. We then proceed

a" in the last series of examples, and draw projectors firom each

Fig. BS.

point 6' . . .
10' perpendicular to S' T', and set off along each

its distance in front of the V P ; thus B* 6* is equal to "' 5 and

8''8^ to pS, and so on. This is exactly the same supposing
as

the section plane to he turned into the T P of projection about

its trace S'T' as a hinge, taking with it the outline of the section,
and the projectors from each comer of the outline to the vertical

plane.
It will be seen that a sectional view of a solid is of no service
for the practical purpose of showing its construction and form,
unless it shows the
shape true of the section; hence, we do not

find that engineering drawings generally contain either plans or

elevations of inclined sections, but only the projections of their

 TRUE SHAPE OF SECTIONS. 123

true shapes. Thedraughtsman chooses the projection of the tions

sec-

in the positions most likely to add to the clearness of the

drawing, and as a rule most sections oa engineering drawings are

either horizontal or vertical ones. But it often ocours that a tion

sec-

is taken
through an inclined part, in which case the true shape
of the section is required, and must be obtained on the principle of
the last problem. It will be found that the true shape can often
be drawn without first obtaining the plan or elevation of the
section, but in many cases it is necessary to have either a part or

the whole of the plan or elevation. The following are additional

examples of plans, elevations, and true shapes of sections

obtained in similar ways, of some simple solids which are of

common application in practical construction :"

Cylinder (Fig. 85). "

A is the plan and B the true shape of a
section of the cylinder made by the inclined section plane S'T",
and D the true shape of a section
made by the vertical section plane
ST. The view, D, might be
termed a sectional end elevation.
The cylinder must be striped as

shown.
Cone (Figs.86a, B)." Fig. 860,
A is the plan and B the true

shape of a section of the cone

made by the inclined section

plane ST. In Fig. 86ft, 0 is

the plan and D the true shape
of a section made by the plane
S^ TS and E is the plan and F
the true shape of a section made

by the plane 8" T^. The true

shapes, B, D, and F, are the

three conic sections "
the ellipse,
parabola, and hyperbola. The
section of a cane by a plane, such
as 3 T, which tions
posi-cuts all the
of the
generating line of
the oone, is an ellipse, and is
p; "* 0=^
shown at B (Fig. 860); the sec-
tion by a plane, such as S^ T^, parallel to any one position of the
generating line, is a parabola, and is shown at T) (Fig. 86");

while the section by a plane, such as S^ T', parallel to the axis of

the cone, is a hyperbola, and is shown at F (Fig. 866).
The methods of obtaining the sections of a oone are as follows,
and should be carefully mastered i^-
124 PBAOTICAL, FLAKE, AND SOLID OBOKETRT. .

Sectdonfl of Oone (Fig. 86a). Divide

by Stripes the plan "

of the hase into a number of equa] parte, and join each point to the

Imagine these lines to be stripes drawn down

plan of the vertex.
the cone, and draw their elevation. The lines representing the
elevation of the stripes will cut the V T of the section pluie in
in the elevation of the section ; therefore, the
points, which are

its elevation, and

plan of each point is directly underneath upon
whose elevation cuts the elevation of the
the plan of the stripe
section plane. Thns, in the figure,the dotted lines va,vb,ve,vd,
the plans of 4 stripes, and v' a', v' b' (which "11 in tiie same
are

Fig. 886.

^d, tf^ (which also fall in the line) their

line),and same are

elevations. The stripe t'o' cuts the lineof the section inJroiUtA
"',and at the back at/'; therefore, a projector from "'_/'meets the

plan of the stripes va and vb ine and /, which are two points
in the plan of the section. The same reasoning applies to the

stripes ve and vd, which give two other points, ff and A, in

the plans. Thns, by taking a sufficient number of stripes the

plan of the section can be drawn, and it" true shape fonnd as in
Problem liil But the method evidently fails for the stripes vm
 126 PBAOTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID QBOMETBY..

EXAMPLES.

EX. 9. "
Draw a plan and two elevations of your drawing-
instrument box, with the lid open, at an angle of 45"* with the
box, the end elevation to be in section. Scale, 6" ^
V.
EX. 10. "
A hexagonal right pyramid, side of base l^",height
31", stands on the H P. Draw the plan and make a section by
a plane, the H T
vertical of which is a line through one corner of
the base, passing f" irom the plan of the vertex. (S. "fe A. E.,
1888.)
EX. 11." A letter A is made of material l" thick, it is S"

high and 3*^ wide at the base, the width of the material being f '',
and it stands in the H P parallelto the V P. Draw its plan
and make an elevation on a line parallel to adiagonal of the
rectangle at the top, and a
sectional elevation on a line through
the plan of a top comer and making 35"* with the plan of the
front face.
EX. 12. "
A cone, 3" high, where base is 2" in diameter, has
its axis horizontal. Draw an elevation on plane inclined
a at

60"* to the base, and a section of itby a horizontal plane ^ above

the axis. (Vict. Univ. Hon., 1890.)
EX. 13. A hollow block, 2' outside edge, I'' inside
"
square
edge, 3^^ long, stands with one base in H P and a vertical face
at SO"* to Y P. Draw a plan and true shape of the section made
by a plane inclined at 45** to the ground passing through the
centre of the axis of the block.
EX. 14. hexagonal pyramid, S" axis, 1 J" edge of base, lies
"
^A
with one triangular ftice in the H P, its axis being parallelto the
V P. Draw its plan, and the plan and true shape of a section
made by a plane inclined at 20** to the ground passing through
the centre of the elevation of the axis.
EX. cylinder, 2" high, 21" diameter
15. "
A of base, stands
with one base in the HP. Draw plan and true shape of a
section made by a plane inclined 30** degrees to the ground
passing through the elevation of the axis at a point If' from
the base.
EX. 16. "
A cylinder,3' high, 2 J''
diameter of base, lies in the
H P with a base at 60** to the Y P. Draw its elevation, and the
elevation of a section made by a vertical plane parallelto the
V P cutting the plan of the axis J" from one base.
EX. 17. "
Draw the plans and true shapes of the three sections
of a cone made by cutting planes, as in Fig. 86a, b. The cone

to be drawn in each case 5" high and 3^^ diameter of base.

EX. 18. "
Draw the elevation and true shape of the section
of a sphere of 3^^^diameter made by a vertical plane inclined 45*
 9 or BBVOLUTIOir. 127

to the Y T, Mid paeeing through the plan of the sphere ^* in

front of its centre.
py 19. A 4' diameter the H F, and the
"
sphere of reeta on

top quarter of the sphere is completely removed. Draw a plan

"f the remainder.
EX. 20. "
A conical Teeeel open at the top is 4^' high, 3J'
diameter outside at the bottom and 3' diameter outside at the

top, the thickness of the shell being I-". Draw its plan and

elevation, the elevation to be in section, and the plan to show

a horizontal section midway the vessel.

up
Frojeotion of Solids generated by the Bevolation of Sur-
faces."
It has been pointed out that cylinders, cones, and spheres

Fig. 83.
are examples of solids generated bj the revolution of certain
surfaces about a fixed axis. But the number of such solids of
revolution infinite, isas previous and constructions do not

apply except to simple cases, it is desirable to consider a more

-general ezampla
PROBLEM LIV. (Fig. 88)." To draw th" prqjectiona and mo-

lion of a given solid o/rmolulum.

 128 PBAOTIOAL, PLAJTB, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

Let uv be the plan and u* v' the elevation of an axis, and a'V

^^be the elevation of a surface revolving about v! v\ It

" . .

is required to draw the plan of the solid as generated, and of the

section made by a
horizontal plane whose vertical trace is S' T'.

The revolution of the points 6', c', "',/' will generate circles

lying in planes perpendicular to the axis uV, and, therefore,

their plans can
be drawn, as shown, exactly as in Problem xlvii.

Find the points h! d! m\ so that d! shall be at the point of the

curve furthest from the axis, and K m! at points in the curve

nearest to the axis, then these points will also generate circles of

radii equal to c2' 1, A' 2, and m! 3 respectively, the plans of which

can be found. The complete plan of the solid, so far as its line
out-

is concerned, is then shown by the figure 6, ^ a. To

a, c, "^ ^,
obtain points in the plan of the section, we must proceed by
taking cross-sections of the solid perpendicular to the axis, and

then project these cross-sections the H P. For example,

upon
the true shape of the cross-section through d' 1 is shown in the

figure marked A by the circle rst^ the section plane cutting this

circle in the points 6', 1\ the plan of these points is 6, 7, and give
two points in the plan of the section. Other points are found in

the thus completing the sectional plan as shown. It is

same way,
to take cross-sf"ctions at all points where the direction
necessary
of the curve changes.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 21. "

^A semi-ellipse axes ^Y and 2^" revolves about its

major axis as an axis. The axis is inclined at 45" to H P and is

parallel to Y P. Draw the plan of the solid generated by the

revolution of the semi-ellipse, and the plan of a section made by

a
horizontal plane passing through the centre of the axis.

EX. 22." A line is parallel to the H P and inclined 35** to VP.

A surface similar to that of Fig. 88 revolves about this line as

an axis. Draw the elevation of the solid thus generated, and

the elevation of the section made by a vertical plane parallel to

the Y P passing through the centre of the axis. J

 nVTBRPBNBTKATIOK AND DEVELOPMENT. 129

SECTION XI.

INTERPBNETRATION AND DEVELOPMENTS OF

SURFACES AND SOLIDS" SECTIONS OF SPECIAL

SOLIDS" HELICES AND SCREW THREADS.

Thebb are a number of problems of frequent occurrence in

practicaldraughtsmanship which are best by cation

appli-solved the
of methods usually regarded as a part of solid geometry.
Among such problems may be mentioned the drawing of an
ordinary steam dome upon a cylindricalboiler, or of the semi-
sphericalends of egg-ended boilers,and the finding of the true
shape of the plates for such parts ; the drawing of the contact
lines of the cylindricalbranches of cocks and valves with the
main casing (seeFig. 166), and the drawing of the correct line
out-
of such parts as at the junction of the crank-web and crank-
shaft,
or the meeting of other flat and curved sur"u^es, as in
connecting-rod ends and other similar parts.
These problems may generally be regarded as specialcases of
the interpenetrationand development of surfaces and solids,as,
for example, the steam and boiler may be treated as a case^ of
the interpenetration of two cylinders, and the cock with its
inlets and outlets as the interpenetration of a cylinder with a

cone.

It will be understood that in the case of the steam dome and

boiler,and of many similar examples, it is necessary to develop
the true shape of surfaces in order that the plates may be so
cut when flat,so that they shall join up correctlywhen bent to
their required form.

PROBLEM LV. (Fig. 89)." To draw the

prqfectionsof the
interpenetroHonqfa horizontal and vertical cylinderand the develop^
ment of their contact su/rfaces.
Let A be the
plan, B the end elevation, and C the side eleva- tion
of the
cylinders.
The line of interpenetration is evidently shown in plan by
the circle 1, 7, and in the end elevation B by the arc d' V, In
order to find its side elevation on C, we imagine the vertical
cylinder to have a number of stripes drawn it,and we then
upon
find the real length of each stripe from the top base of the
cylinder to the point where it enters the horizontal cylinder.
This is done as follows: Divide the plan"
of the vertical cylinder,
the circle on A, into a convenient number of equal parts, say 12}
9
130 PBACTIOAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETBT.

and mark as shown, 1, 2, ...

12. Draw the elevatioii of the
stripes in each of the elevations B and C, and mark the stripes
1', 2', 12' on B, and 1", 2", .
12" on 0. Care must be
. . . . .

taken not to confuse the marking stripesin the

of the two tions,
eleva-
notice that the outside stripes 1' and 7', on the end
elevation B, are the centre stripes on the side elevation C, while
the centre stripes4' and 10', on the end elevation, are the side
out-

stripes on the side elevation. The

stripes are correctly
obtained on the end elevation B, by projecting from the plan.

]"jL^r l(firi2' f 2' ST

Fig. 89.

and, on the side elevation 0, by drawing and dividing the circle

semi-
on the line 97" n as shown.
The real length of the stripes are shown in the end elevation
B, therefore mark off on each stripe in the elevation 0 its real
length as obtained from the end elevation, thus Y p^V d! or
 INTERPENETBATION AND DEVELOPMENT. 131

7' r, and ^ n and 10" m = 4' A', and so on for each stripe. The
curve mfn drawn through the end of each
stripe as thus found
is the side elevation of the intei*penetration. It will be noticed
that it also represents the back half of the interpenetration.
To develop the surface of the vertical cylinder draw the oblong
R S T V, the length of which R V equals the circumference of
the cylinder base, and the height of which R S equals the length
of the longest stripe on the cylinder, V d! or T l\ Divide the

oblong into the same number of equal parts as stripes on the

vertical cylinder,and draw lines through each point. Mark the
lines 1,2,. .
12, 1, as shown.
.
These lines are the development
of the stripes,the two end lines coinciding to form the stripe 1
when the oblong is bent to form the cylinder. Mark off the real
length of each stripeas found from either of the elevations B or C,
down the lines representing the stripesfrom the line R V as
4 a? =4' A', and draw the curve S W T as shown through the
points thus, found. The complete figure, R S W T V, is then
the development of the vertical cylinder,supposing it simply to
rest upon the horizontal cylinder,and is the shape to which a

piece of paper must be cut, so that when it is bent to bring the

edges R S and T V together, it shall exactly fit the horizontal

cylinder.
We will now suppose the vertical cylinder to penetrate the
horizontal one for a short distance and find the true shape of the
hole of penetration in the surface of the horizontal cylinder. To
do this we must stripe that part of the horizontal cylinder
containing the hole, and then develop it with the stripes,the
length of which between the extremities of the hole will enable
us to find the true shape of the hole. Divide the arc d' V in the
end elevation B into eight equal parts at the points d\ 6,'/', .../'.
Consider these points as the elevation of the stripes, and draw
th^ir plan across the hole in the plan A as shown by the dotted
lines 2, tf,/, . .
Z. Develop a part of the surface of the cylinder
.

containing the hole, as in the Figure D, where the line d" V is

equal to the real length of the arc d! Vy and is found as shown on

p. 73. Divide the line d" V into eight equal parts, and draw
the lines marked ^^f^ ^^ T through each
. . .
as shown dotted,
these lines are the development of the horizontal stripescrossing
the hole. The real lengths of each stripebetween the extremities
of the hole are shown by the length of the dotted lines crossing
the hole in the plan A, thus g" h" or g" c" gh and gcy or
=

measuring from the front of the cylinder a"!)" =^ah and a^ c" ^ac
The closed curve drawn through the points thus found is the
true shape of the hole.
The conditions of this problem are similar to the practical
132 PBACTICAL, PLANS, Ain" SOLID GEOMffTRT.

example of a steam boiler and dome, for the horizontal cylinder

represents the boiler, and the vertical cylinder the dome. Then
the development, R S W T Y, is the shape for the plates of the
dome before bending, neglecting the flange,and the development
D shows the shape which the hole should be cut in the plates,
BO that when bent it shall be a circle.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 1. "
Draw the
interpenetration of two cylinders
curves of
each 3' diameter and ^ high. Axis of one horizontal, of the
other vertical ; both axes parallelto the Y P.
EX. 2. A horizontal"
cylinder, ^ diameter, 6' long, is inter- penetrated

by an oblong block ^Y ^id^* ^^ thick, the sides of

which are vertical. Draw the correct lines of interpenetration
in the side elevation, and draw a development of the sur"oe
of the oblong block and of the hole in the cylinder. Height of
block immaterial.
EX 3. "
A cylindrical boiler is 6' in diameter and has a

cylindricalsteam dome 2' %" in diameter and 2'high. Draw

three views of the arrangement and show the development of
the plates of the steam dome and of the hole in the boiler shelL
Scale r = 1'. (See Problem Iv.)
EX. 4. "
cylinder of 2}^ diameter
A right circular penetrates
another of 3' diameter, the axes being f\t right angles and passing
Y from each other. Draw the projection of the curves of inter-
section

on a plane parallel to the axes of the cylinders. (Yict.

B. Sc. Hon., 1889.)
EX. 5. ^Develop the surface of the cylinders in Ex. 4, the
"

larger cylinder development to show the holes for the small

cylinder. Out out the figuresand make a model of the cylinders

in the given position.

Interpenetration of Cone and Cylinder. "

^PROBLEM
LYI. (Fig. 90). "
To show the cwrve of intersection of a vertical
cone cmd a horizontal cylinder in plan cmd elevcUion a/nd to

develop the surface of the cone.

The cone figurehaving its vertex

is shown marked v and
in the
v' in the plan and elevation respectively. The cylinder has the
axis a 6, and its diametei is such that it does not cut completely
through the cone that is,the diameter of the
" cylinder is less
than the diameter of the section of the cone a' b\ which contains
the axis of the cylinder. In order to save drawing only one-half
of the cylinder is shown.
To obtain points in the intersection we take a number of
134 PRACfriOA.L, PLANE, AND SOLID GBOMBTRT.

g*h\ which is found by projecting from the plan of the points

to the elevation of the line of section. The plan of the section
of the cylinder is found
by drawing end its elevation as shown
by the circle, having the centre p*ythus fe in the plan equals
the distance ^/^e'in the end elevation. By proceedingin this

way for a number of horizontal sections sufficient points can be

found through which to draw the curve showing the plan of the
intersection, the lower half of the curve is of course dotted, the
points mn, at which the dotted part begins, being found by
taking a horizontal section through the axis of the cylinder.

Development. "
Only one-half of the cone is developed in the

figure to save drawing. Draw the sector v'a' p, centre v\ and

making the arc length radius v* a' p equal to half the ference
circum-
of the cone base, as shown on p. 73. To develop the
hole, we draw a number of stripesdown the cone, over that part
of it which contains the hole, then draw thestripeson the develop*
ment xfa'p, and mark off on each the length contained between
the extremities of the hole. Draw the lines v\ v^ in. the plan,
jtassingthrough the extremities of the curve of intersection, and
divide the arc 1,9 into any number "
say, eight equal parts,
draw the elevation of the stripes,and mark as shown. Then

taking the stripe v' 2',we see that it crosses the hole at the

points 10, 11, but the length 10 to 11 is not the true length of
the line, because the whole stripe v* 2' is not parallelto the Y P.
To obtain the true length,draw lines parallelto the base, through
the points to meet the line v'5' in the points 12 and 13, then, as
V 5' is the real length of v' 2',so the distance 12 to 13 is the real

length of the part 10, 1 1 of the stripeinterceptedbetween the hole.

Now draw the development of the cone
stripesupon thesurface,
and figure each stripe ; this is best done by drawing the middle
line V 5 and marking off the other stripes on each side of it.
Then an arc drawn through the point 13, with centre v' to cut
the stripest/ 2 and w' 8, will give two points,r s, in the develop-
ment
of the hole, and an arc drawn through the point 12, to cut
the same stripes,give two other points, t and v. By proceeding
in this way the remaining points can be found, and the true

shape of the hole drawn, as shown.

1 1 is
very instructive to develop the whole of the cone surface
and then to make paper models of the solids, which will be
found of great assistance in drawing the solids in more cult
diffi-

positions,such as when the axis of the cylinder is inclined

to the V P.
The above problem represents the condition ot the casing and
branches of ordinary steam- or water-cocks, as shown in Fig. 166,
with the slight difference that only a frustrum of the cone is
 CA8E8 OF IHTBR8ECTI0K, 1S5

dealt with. To stripe the irustrum of a coue tbe ctrclea of its

top and bottom laces must be divided into the same number of

equal parts.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 6. " 3^' diameter

A cone of base, axis it' long, stands on

tbe H F, and is completely penetrated by a cylinder 2" diameter

and 4^" long. The axis of tiis cylinder is horizontal, parallel to
the V P, and passes through the axis of the cone IJ from the
base. Draw the plan and elevation of both curves of interseo-

tion and the development of the cone surface. Make a paper

model of the solids.
EX. 7. "
Draw the plan and elevation of the solids in Ex. 6,
when the cylinder is 3" diameter, and ia inclined 30" to the V P,
showing the curves of both intersections.
EX. 8. "
A. cone frustrum ia 5' high, Sf diameter at the tom,
bot-
and 4J* diameter at the top, it is completely penetrated by

a horizontal cylinder 3' diameter, 5" long, the axis of which

bisects the axis of the frustrum. Draw the plan and elevation
of the solids, showing the curves of intersection.

Special Cases of InteTSeotion. "

The following examples
illustrate problems of frequent occurrence in practical draughts-

Fig. 91.

manship, and which shonld be mastered by all students proceed-

ing
to machine design : "
We will suppose Pig. 91, A and B, to
represent two elevations of a conoecting-rod end of large size,
although equally it represents well part of a crank shaft and
crank web
(see Fig. 196). A. is a front elevation and B an end
(ileviition, the conditions being that a round rod Joins an oblong
136 PBAOnOALy PLAHS, AND SOLID GBOMBTRr.

block, the rod increasing in diameter as it approaches the block,

forming what is technicallycalled a
" and
fillet," shown clearly
in the view A. But as the width of the block is not as great as

the la/rgestdiameter of the rod, the junction of the two solids

produces a curve of the form shown in the front elevation, and
it is to obtain this curve that the following geometrical construc-
tion
is needed. Make a vertical section of the solids at the line
ef^ and draw the end view of the section on B^ this end view
will be figuretff^ g'h\
the up two e'f
made of the parallellines
and g'h\ and
the incomplete circle. The points e'f*are evidentlj
points on the surface of the oblong block, and by projecting across
to the side elevation, give two points 1, 2 on line e/ in the
required curve. By taking other sections of the rod a sufficient

Fij^.92L

number of points are found through which to draw the curve.

To obtain the point v, the vertex of the curve, the section should
be taken at the line vab, so that v a is equal to the width of the
block, while the limitin*^points 3, 4 are found by taking a tion
sec-

through the line e d, the greatest diameter of the rod. If

the width of the block is equal to the smallest diameter of the
rod, the curve will form a point at v.

A second
example is shown Fig. 92, which
in represents a
connecting-rod end such as used on the engine of Fig. 178. A
is a front elevation and B a part end elevation, the problem
being to find the inner curve on view A. We are at present
only concerned with the geometry of the problem, so we may
regard the solid as made up of a round rod or cylinder meeting
with an increasing curve, a forked piece,the sides of which are

flat surfaces, the top and bottom faces being turned cylindricaL
 PEYELOPMKNT. 137

In the end view B, n, o, p is a section at the line 8 ^ and as

m,
we know m " is part of a circle struck from to as centre, we

obtain hj projector through m the point x in the curve.

a To
obtain other points proceed exactly as in the last example, the

same reading and letteringholding good for both.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 9." -Work the problem of Fig. 91 when the rod is T

diameter, the block 2}^ wide and 1^^ thick, the radius of the
fillet between the rod and block being f ^
EX. 10. "
Work problem of Fig. 92 to find the inner curve

when sizes are as given in figure. Bod I'' diameter.

EX. 11. "
A solid is made up of a cylinder l^'^diameter, 3*

long, which joins a sphere of 2^^^^ diameter, by a fiUefc of j^" radius.

Draw plan the
of a horizontal section of the solid made by a
plane parallelto the axis of the cylinder and |^ above.

Deyelopment of Spherical Surfaces. "

A common type of
steam boiler, known egg-ended,''is constructed
as
^'
as a circular

shell with spherical ends. Before bending the plates of which

the ends are made they require to be cut to such a shape as that
when bent they shall forni part of the spherical end. The end
is generally made up of four or six segments called "^ore"," the

overlap of each required for rivetting together being flowed for

in the development. In the following example the problem is
treated as consistingsimply of a cylinder with a spherical end,
the semisphere being divided into six segments, and we shall
"
show how to find the projection of the dividing or contour "

lines upon the front elevation of the solid, and the development
of one segment or gore.
Fig. 9o, A and B, represents part of the cylinder with a
spherical end, A being the front elevation and B the end eleva-tion.
The semisphere is divided into six segments, as shown by
the radial lines meeting at the centre cf of the end elevation.
To draw the side elevation of the division lines c*a\ c' h\ we take
a number of vertical sections of the semisphere by planes at
right angles to the axis of the solid. The end elevations of such
sections are circles,and each one gives by its intersection with
the lines ca^ cbt two points which can be projected across to the
line of the section giving two points in the required curve.
Thus a vertical section through the line de gives for its end
elevation a circle equal in diameter tode^ of which a part only, the

arc d' e\ is shown drawn. This arc cuts the lines ca, cb in the
points marked y^', and by drawing horizontal projectors through
138 PBACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY.

these two points to meet the section line de^ the two points /and
Oj which are points in the required curve, are obtained. It is
better for the purposes of the development to take the sections,
so that they equally divide the arc c n and c m "
that is,so that
the parts e A, hj^ dbc, are equal.
rrv

Fig. 93.

To develop one segment draw a line o'm!' in the

figure 0
equal in length to the half circumference of the semisphere "

that is, equal to the arc cm or en, and divide the length c' m"
into the same number of equal parts as the divisions on cm or

on. Through each part draw arcs of circles with centre 0"^for
it is evident that the development of the arcs a' b* f g* (Fig.B)
will be arcs of circles,since c' a* =
c' 6',and c'f = d g\ and so on

for all similar contour lines. Make the length of each arc in
Fig. 0 equal to the real length of the corresponding arcFig. in
B, thus a" h" =
a' b\ and j" g" /' g\ = This is best done by stepping
off the distance as a number of short chords, except for the
outside arc a" 6", which can easily be calculated. The
figure
d' a* y is then the development of one-sixth of the semispherical
surface.
 HELICES AND SCREW THREADS. 139

EXAMPLES.

EX. 12.^-A cylinder, 4* diameter, ^ long, has a spherical

end which is divided into six segments. Draw a side and end
elevation, and
development a of one segment.
EX. 1 3. Draw
eight contour
"
lines on a sphere of 4" diameter,
EX. 14. A sphere 31" diameter
"
is penetrated by a square
prism 2" edge of base and 6" long. The axis of the prism
coincides with an axis of the sphere, the centre of the sphere
being at the centre of the prisms. Draw a plan and elevation
of the solids showing the curves of intersection when the axis of
the prism is horizontal and parallel to the vertical plane, the
sides of the prism being equally inclined to the paper. Develop
one of the holes made in the surface of the sphere, and the
surface of one part of the prism up to its contact with the sphere.

Projection of Helices and Screw Thread. "

^A helix may
be defined as the carve traced oat by a point moving roand a

cylindrical sarface in sach a way that its movement in the

direction of the length of the cyhnder shall be aniform with its
movement aroand the sarface of the cylinder. So that if a point
starts from the base of a cylinder and moves in an upward
direction and at the same time moving round the cylinder,sc
that when it has moved up, say V^ it shall have moved one-fourth
the V I'' up it shall
way round, and when it has moved up and
have moved half round and wholly round, the path of the point
would be a helix. The distance moved in the direction of the

length of the cylinder during the complete revolution is called

the pitch of the helix. Spiral staircases,spiralsprings, and screw
threads are generated by helices, but the latter example onl;^
will be explained in consideration of the great practicalvalue of

screw threads.
PROBLEM LVII. (Fig. 94). "
To draw a helix upon a given
cylinder having a given pitch.
Let a',6',c',d* be the elevation of the cylinder and the circle
of diameter ab its plan.
Make the distance a' 12' equal to the given pitch. Then from
the definition of a helix we know the curve must rise from
a' to 12' uniformly with its travel around the circumference of
the circle which represents the plan of the cylinder. Therefore
divide the circle and the pitch distance into the same number of

equal parts, and mark as shown 1, 2, 11, and T, 2', . .

6'
.

Draw projectors through each of the division points on the

circle. Then when the point has moved round to 1, it must
have moved up one-twelfth of its pitch, and it will, therefore, be
140 PBACTIOAL, PLANS, AND SOLID GSOMSTBT.

on the horizontal line drawn tnrough 1',and at the point where

this line cats the projector through the point 1 on the circle,
"imilarlythe second point is where the projector through point 2
on the circle cuts the
horizontal line drawn

through the point 2\ and

so on for the remaining
points. The curve aV
12' is then a helix of one

convolution.
The figure also repre-
sents
the geometrical pro-
jection
of a square thread

screw, for a further scription

de-
of which see p.
166. The width of the
thread a' 6' is half the

pitch,therefore the curves

y Y beginning at 6', 12', and
d' are each parallel to
the half helix a'e', and
are half the pitch apart,
and can be drawn by
setting off distances of
half pitch along the
the

projectorsalready drawn,
starting from points on
the curve a* e' " thus,
vfhn^no^op. The

depth of the thread is

the distance marked x^
therefore when the thread
is cut, it leaves a cylinder
of the diameter shown by
Fig. 94.
the smaller circle in the

The inner edge of the thread is helix of the same pitch

plan. a

drawn a cylinder of the diameter 6" 12*, and is constructed

upon
the helix representing the outer
in exactly the same manner as

lines being shown dotted. Thus the

edge, the construction curve

starts from h' and rises to the through 1',while it has moved
line
round one-twelfth of the circumference, and the first point in the

curve is found projector through the point 1" on

by drawing a

the circle to meet the horizontal line through the point 1' in the

elevation, and so on for the successive points. These inner curves

of the and only
disappear from sight at the centre screw, are
142 PBAOTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETBT.

spring is a cylinder equal to the outside diameter,

helix upon a

and the inner edge a helix upon a cylinder equal to the inside
diameter. With springs of circular section, a helix should be
drawn upon a cylinder equal to the mean diameter of the inside
and outside of the spring, which helix will represent the path of
the centre of the material of which the spring is made, then a

number of circles of diameter equal to the section of the spring

should be drawn upon this helix as a centre, to give points for
the lines of the spring

EXAMPLES.

EX. 15. "

Draw a helix of one convolution upon a cylinder
3' diameter, and develop the surface of the cylinder with the
helix. Fitch of helix l^".
EX. 16. "
Show three threads of a square thread, outside
diameter 3', pitch I'',depth Y*
EX. 17. " edge of base, 3*^ high, is bored
A square prism 4:"
with a central screwed internally with a square thread
hole and

screw, 2^" diameter, ^''pitch, -^^ deep. Show a vertical section

through the centre of the prism when it stands with one base

upon the paper.

EX. 18. Draw " a helix of one convolution upon a cone of 2^'
diameter of base, 4' high, and develop the cone surface with the
helix. Pitch of helix 2^
EX. spiralspring is 2f outside diameter, and is made
19. "
^A
'^
of f round wire. Draw a length of the spring showing six coils,
the pitch being y. Show the two top coils in section, the section
plane being vertical and passing through the centre of the

spring.

SECTION XII.

ISOMETRIO PROJECTION.

Thb principlesof isometric projection enable the three sions

dimen-
of a solid to be shown by one drawing, which, in ance,
appear-
is somewhat similar to a perspective representation,with
the additional advantage that the actual sizes of the solid can be
measured direct from the drawing.
If a cube be made to rest by one corner upon the paper, so

that a diagonal vertical,its plan will be repre-

of the solid
sented is

by the drawing of Fig. 96. For the three top faces which
 I80METBI0 PROJECTION. 143

meet in a solid right angle at A, are each equally inclined to the

paper, therefore their plans are similar and equal figures,and for
the same reason the length of the plans of all the edges are equal.
It is also evident that the three lines A B, A 0, and A D which

represent the three edges of the solid right angle, make angles
with each other of or 120", and that all other lines repre-
-^"

sen ting edges of the solid are parallelto one of these three lines.
The figureis,therefore, very easily constructed, as the lines A 0
and A D make angles of 30" with the horizontal and 60* with
the vertical,and thus be drawn with the T and 60"
can square
set square.
The above reasoning only strictlyapplies to oblong solids
having solid right angles, but, as will be shown later on, the
same construction can be
very conveniently applied to irregular
solids and solids with curved surfaces. For example, the draw-
ings
of the simple solids on pp. 104 and 105 are in isometric jection.
pro-

Referring again to the example of the cube in Fig. 96, it is

evident that the length of the edges in the drawing, should not
be equal to their real length, as they are all inclined to the

Fig. 96. Fig. 97.

plane of the paper. The relation of their projected length to

their real length can be seen on reference to Fig. 97 ; a, 6, c, d is
a "ce of the cube, and ac a diagonal of the face ; if ay and ce

are drawn at right angles to a c, and each made equal to the

length of an edge of the cube, then the oblong a,^ e, c represents
a section of the cube containing two diagonals of the solid,and
fc is one of these diagonals. But
Fig. 96 this diagonal is in
supposed vertical therefore, draw X Y through c at right angles
to/c, and the length c^ is the projected plan of an edge of the
cube. But if the cube edge ad or dc = I, then ae = hJTf"nd
fc B iJS; also, the triangles ecg and c e/ are similar, there-
144 PBACTIOAL, PIiAHB, AND SOLID GEOMETBY.

fore ce : eg : : "J3: "/2,hence, by constructing a right-angled

triangle similar to the triangle fae, where the base is ^2 and

the perpendicular is 1, the hypotenuse will be n/3,and real

lengths along the hypotenuse, when projected upon the base,

will give the isometric length.
The practical objection to this correct isometric projection is
that it entails the use of an isometric scale, and that lengths of
the object cannot be measured direct from the drawing. But if
the cube in Fig. 96, or any other solid,is drawn its real size,the

only alteration in the drawing is in its size, and not in its shape,
and hence we see there can be no objection to making isometric
projections the actual size of the objects they represent, thus
dispensing with the use of an isometric scale, and maldng it
possible to take measurements direct from the drawing. This

Hirangement is generally adopted in practice,and is adhered to

in the following examples : "

It has been said, in referring to the drawing of the cube

Fig. 96, that with oblong solids all lines are parallel to one of
the three lines A B, A 0, and A D.
These lines are termed the "" ISOMETRIC AXES," and it is

necessaiy in commencing any isometric projectionto first set out

these three lines.
We may now plan of a cube with
regard Fig. 96 not as the
a diagonal of the solid vertical,but as a drawing of a cube with
one face lying upon the paper. On such a supposition the figure
AGED shows the top horizontal face, and the figuresA D F B
and A 0GB vertical faces, so that in projecting a horizontal
surface isometrically its length and breadth must be set off along
the two sloping isometric axes A 0 and A D, while for a vertical
surface, its length and breadth must be set off along the vertical
axis A B, and one of the sloping axes A 0 or A D. It is im-
portant
to remember this distinction.
Either surfaces or solids can be projected isometricaJly,
and, as before stated, the construction can be extended to
surfaces or oblong form,
solids not of by which the method
this is done clearly will be
seen in the following examples, but
it will be better understood by remembering that since the
isometric axes represent lines at right angles only, the projection
of figures containing other angles requires that they shall be
surrounded by oblong figures,thus a circle is first enclosed in a
and a hexagon in an oblong.
square

PROBLEM LVIII. (Fig.98a, 6)." ^o draw the isometric prqjec-

tiona of a hollow square prism (a) with its axis vertical,(6) unth its
axis horizontoL
 T80METRI0 PROJECTION. 145

Fig. 980) draw the isometric axesalonga 5, ac^ad, set off ae

a c, and af along a length

dy equal in edge prism to the of the
base. Draw /g parallelto ac and eg parallelto ad, meeting at
g, then the figureafg e is the isometric projectionof one outside
square base of the prism. Set offal =:a2"^3 =^^4, equal
to the thickness of the block, and draw
sides of lines as shown
dotted to obtain the inside square 5, 6, 7, 8. Set off the length of
the prism down the axis a b from a to A, and draw lines through
y and e parallelto a b. point h
Through the draw lines
parallelto
the other axes, as shown, thus completing the projection of the
prism. Dotted lines representing the bottom base, can be drawn
if desired

Fig. 986, to draw the prism with its axis horizontal, the square

Fig. 98a Fig. 986.

representing its base must be drawn as a vertical face, and is

thus shown at ae/g. The completion of the projectionneeds
no further description.
EXAMPLES.

EX. 1. "
Draw the isometric projection of an oblong, sides 3"
and 2'',when its plan is horizontal.
EX. 2. "
^A cube, 2J" edge, stands upon squarea block 3i"
edge, 1" thick. Draw their isometric projectionwhen the blocK
stands upon the ground.
EX. 3. "
Make an isometric projection of a wooden box 8"
long, 6"
deep, 4'' broad
a lid openedoutside, and having flat

through an angle of 120^, the thickness of the wood being j^"

throughout. Scale, half full size. (Yict. Hon., 1892.)
10
 146 PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID OBOMBTBT.

EX. 4. Two timbers 9" x 9" are joined right

at
"
square
angles to each other by means of a tenon and mortise joint,the
width of the mortisebeing 3". Draw an isometric projection of
the timbers ready for jointing but separate from each other.
Scale, 3" = 1'.
EX. 5. "
^Draw the isometric projection of a headed key 6"
long, taper ^" per foot, width f least thickness |",thickness of
,

head l|". Use an isometric scale. (Yict Hon., 1889.) See

Fig. 1336.

PROBLEM LIX. (Pig. 99)." ^o draw the insametric prqjeo-

tian of a heocagoncUprism^ with its cbxia vertical.
Draw thehexagon a^ b^ e^ d^ e^ /^ g (Pig-99, A) representing the
yrv

Fig. 99. Fig. 100.

base of the prism, and surround

by the oblong m, n, o, p. it
Set off a of the
long side oblong n o along one of the sloping
insometric axis, and a short side nm along the other sloping
axis, and complete the insometric projection of the oblong, as at
m', n', o',p\ Make n* b' n 6, and o' c' = o c, and by parallels =

mark the corresponding points e'/' ^^ *^6 other side m p' ; the
points g and d are at the middle of m n and o /", therefore bisect
m' ri and o' p' at g' and d\ and join as shown, thus obtaining the
isometric projection of the hexagonal base. Draw lines through
each corner of the hexagon parallel to the vertical axis, and
 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. 147

equal in length to the height of the solid, and complete as

before.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 6. "
Draw the isometric projection of a hexagon of IJ*
edge, when its plane is vertical.
EX. 7. "
Draw the isometric projection of a hexagonal prism,
edge of base 1 J",height 2", when its axis is vertical.
EX. 8. "
Draw the isometric projection of a pentagonal mid
pyra-
edge of base lY, axis 3^", and horizontal.
PROBLEM LX. (Fig. 100)." ^o draw the isometric prqjeo-
tion of a cylinder with its axis vertical.
Draw thecircle a, 6, c, d (Fig A) and surround it by a square

m, n, o, p, and project it isometricallyas a hoi*izontal surface, as

shown at m', n', o\ p'. Bisect the sides of the figure in the
points a',h\ c\ d\ obtaining four points in the projection of
thus
the circle. other points diaw
To obtain the diagonals of the

square w, n, o, /?, cutting the circle in four points, draw lines

through these points parallel to the sides of the square, thus

making four small squares. Draw the isometric projection of
these squares in the comers of large squares, thus wV w 6 and =

n'f nfy thus giving the point g' as an additional

= point in the
curve, and similarlyfor the other comers. A closed curve can

then be drawn through the eight points, which represent the

isometric projection of the circular base. Through each point
in the curve draw lines parallelto the line g' h\ and make the

length of each equal to the length of the cylinder,and complete

the figure as shown.
The method adopted of finding additional points in the curve
is one that should be carefully noticed, as its application is
required for other curves. We could, of course, find still more

points in the projection,although the figures would not then be

squares, but oblongs, such, for example, as is shown by dotted

lines for the points r and ", which are further from one side of
the square than the other.

EXAMPLES.

EX. 9. "
Draw the isometric projection of a circle of 3*'
diameter when its plane is horizontal.
EX. 10. "
Draw the isometric projection ot a right hexagonal
prism, side of base 2*^,length 3*^,with a circular hole 1" \rx

diameter bored through it at right angles to the axis. (Vict.

Hon., 1890.)
EX. 11. "
Draw the isometrical projectionof a cross consisting
148 FRACnCAI^ FLAVB, AHD SOLID GSOMCTBT.

of cylindrical rods 1' in diameter

two and 6' and 4' long, inter-
secting
axiall J and at right angles at the middle of their lengths.

(Vict. Hon., 1891.)

EX. 12. "
A bolt consists of a conical part 2* long, {' diameter
at the end, and increasing to 1^' at head. The head is a the
'
block, 2* x 2" and f thick. Draw an isometric tion
projec-
square
when the axis of the bolt is vertical, the head being at the
top. (8. " A. A., 1887.)
EX. 13. "
^Draw the isometric projection of a 3' hexagonal nnt

and washer, showing the chamfers of the nnts ; the washer to

be 6^' diameter and ^' thick (see p. 169 and Fig. 117).

PROBLEM T.XT
(Fig. \Q\)."To draw the igometric projection

of an irregtUar blocks the plan and elevation o/wkieh is given.

Let P be the plan and E the elevation of the block. Sorronnd
the elevation E by an oblong m^nfOjp, and draw the isometric

I9tl

Pig. 101.

projection of the oblong in a vertical plane as m\ n',o\ p\ shown

by dotted lines. Draw the centreoblong line s t and s* t' of the
in each
figure. Draw a number of horizontal lines across the

oblong in Fig. E as ae, fk and Zg, and project them iso-

metrically as at a' V
e\ f k', q'y so that o' e' ^oe, o' k' ^ok^ and
o' q' ^o q. Then make c' d! and c'V^cd and c 5 on the elevation,
"lg. E, thus obtaining points d' and (' in the isometric
 APPENDIX.

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES.

The following examples are taken by permission of the Board

of Education and H.M. Stationery Office from the Examination

Papers of the Board of Education in Practical, Plane, and

Solid Geometry, 1897 to 1904.

*
Questions marked have diagrams attached to them.

Scales.

1. The actual distance between two points is known to be 60 yards, but

on a map the points are shown 4} inches apart. Draw a scale for the map,

dividing and figuring it so as to be of practical use. Show 100 yards, and

make the smallest division 10 yards. Write the representative fraction

above the scale.

2. Draw a scale of 25 inches to 1 mile, reading up to 500 yards. No

unit smaller than 10 yards need be shown. Draw a line representing

370 yards.
*3. The given line Q represents a length of 11*3 feet. Construct a

decimal scale of feet, and by its use measure and write down, as accurately
as you can, the length represented by the line D.

C t-

D "-

CONSTKUOTION OF GeOMETBICAL FiGXTBES.

1. Draw a circle, radius 6 cm. By stepping off with the dividers or

otherwise, divide its circumference accurately 'into seven equal parts.

From each point of division draw lines to every other point. (This

exercise is to test your power of neat and accurate draughtsmanship).

 APPENDIX.

*2. Draw the

figure from the
dim ens ions
siven. Itisno^to
be merely copied
the same size as

in the diagram.

"3. Draw the

figure to the
dtmensiona cated.
indi-
The
dotted lines and
circles indicate
the construction
and need not be
reproduced. It
will be seen that,
for drawing the
figure,only two
radii are ployed,
em-

namely
of I inch and IJ
inches.

N,B, "
No marks will be given for a mere reproduction of the figure.
 APPENDIX.

*4. Construct a figure made up of a trefoil of tangential arcs with the

circumscribing circle, like the one shown, but to the dimensions given.
Show all the construction lines clearly.

*5. The figure shows a junction of rails for small waggons, the lines

drawn dotted being midway between the rails. Set out the figure to a

scale of 1 centimetre to 1 foot, working to the given dimensions, and not

copying the diagram. Show the construction for determining the centres

of the circular arcs FO, OH which are of equal lengths and radii.

Indicate on the drawing the radii to which the several portions of the

curved rails must be bent.

 APPENDIX.

*6. Draw a figure

similar to the given
one, but using the
dimensions marked
on it. (No marks
will be given for
reproducing the
diaVam the^ same

size.)
I

"

I
I
I

1
I

I
I

I
I

4-
^.

*7. Draw a figure

similar to that shown
in the diagram, but
using the dimensions
given in figures on
it. (No marks will
be given for mere

reproduction of the
diagram. )
 APPENDIX. O

*8. Describe a circle of | inch radius. Then carefullydraw in succession

the series of circumscribing squares, so as to obtain a figure similar to the

one shown. Then measure accurately and write down the lengths of the

four sides AB, and the two diagonals AA, BB, N,B, "
^All the lines may
be drawn by the use of the tee-square and the 45** and 60** set squares,
without the employment of a protractor. (No credit will be given for a

mere copy of the diagram.)

-B A.

A. B

*9. Draw a figure like the one shown, but to the given dimensions.

Show clearly all the construction lines. N.B, "

No credit will be given
for a mere copy of the diagram.

3-

Xf
 APPENDIX.

CONSTRUCnOK AMD MEASUREMENT OF AnOLES.

1. The tangent of an angle is 0*715, construct the angle. Determine

its sine. The use of arithmetic is permitted.
2. The cosine of an angle is 0*610, construct the angle. Measure it
in degrees and in radians. What is the tangent of the angle ? The use

of arithmetic is permitted.
3. Draw two lines OX, OY, at right angles. Mark a point P distance
5*25 inches from OY and 3*81 inches from OX, Join OP and measure

the length of OP, Verify your answer by calculation. Measure the angle
XOP in degrees; verify this result by first calculating the tangent of
the angle XOP and then referringto a table of tangents of angles.
4. A tower is built on level ground and a flagstaffrises from its top.
A person at a distance observes the angles of elevation of the top of the
tower and the top of the flagstaff to be 18" and 27" respectivelyabove the
horizontal. He then walks 38 '6 yards further off and finds the angle of
elevation of the top of the flagstaff to be 18". Determine and state the

heights of the tower and flagstaff above the level of the eye of the
observer. Use a scale of \ inch to 10 yards
he
5. A
surveyor is making a map on which wishes to locate two
inaccessible objects H and K situatecl towards the north. He lays off a
base line DE^ 20 chains or } mile long, going due east. When stationed
at Z", he measures the angles EDK, KDH^ by means of a sextant, and
finds them to be 51" and 55". When stationed at E the angles DEH and
HEK measure 48" and 62". Plot the points D, Ey H, K to a. scale of
8 inches to the mile. Measure the distance and direction of HK,
6. P and Q are two distant objects. A person stationed at a place A,
observes the angle PAQ subtended by P and Q to be 31". He then walks
320 yards in a direct line towards P, to a place B, and finds that the

angle PBQ now subtended

by P and Q is 44". Find and measure the
distance from ^ to Q, and the angle AQB that is subtended by A and B
at Q, all four points being in one plane. Draw to a scale of } inch to
100 yards.
7. There are three places, 0, A, B, on " level plane. A is 52 feet east
and 263 feet south of O. B is 138 feet east and 217 feet north of O.
Plot these points to a scale of 1 inch to 100 feet. Measure the distance
apart of A and B. Measure and state the direction from ^ to ^ in

degrees north of east.

8. A person starting from a place A walks 45 yards instraight line
a

eastwards. He then turns 60" to the left and walks 37 yards in the
direction which he is now facing. He again turns to the left, through
110", and goes a distance of 86 yards. Through what angle to the left
must he turn in order to face his starting place A, and how far must he
walk in order to get there ? Measure the results. Use a scale ^ inch

to 10 yards.

CONSTBUCnON OF TRIANGLES, QUADRILATERALS AND POLYGONS.

1. Construct a triangle ABG, having given : "

Side BC "
4*2"; angle
-45(7=71"; angle 5-40=65*6". Measure the angle AGB, and the
sides AB, AC.
2. rectangle has one side 1} inches
A long, and a diagonal 2" inches.
Draw rectangle,and enclose it in a
the square so that an angle of the
rectangle is in each side of the square.
8 APPENDIX.

ClBCLBS AND TaNOENTS.

1. Draw a circle of { inch radius inscribed in a trianglewhose sides are

in the proportion of 4, 6, and 7. Indicate a point on the circumference of

the circle,which shall be equi-distant from the two ends of the longest
side of the triangle.
2. Inscribe a square in a circle of 2 inches radius. In the square draw

four circles,each touching two other circles and one side of the square.
3. Draw an isosceles triangle TQP ; TQ = QP =s 1 inch ; the base

angles, each, equal to 3(f .

Q is on the circumference of a circle to which

PT is tangen" at the point P. Draw the circle.

4. Describe a circle of 1^ inches radius, and draw any diameter AB.
From a point mAB produced, draw a tangent 2 inches long to the circle.
5. Draw a circle of 2 inches radius, and inscribe in it five equal circles
each touching two of the others and also the circumference of the taining
con-

circle.
*6. From the point P draw a line cutting the given circle,centre 0, so

that the portion of the line intercepted within the circle may be 2 inches

long.

px

*7. A board is of the shape and size given, the linear scale being
1 centimetre to 1 inch. It is required to cut from this board the greatest
possible circular disc. Find, by construction, the centre of the disc.
Draw the circle,and measure, to scale, the diameter of the disc.
 APPENDIX.

Abbas of Plane Figures.

1. From any angle of a regular pentagon of 2-inch sid draw a line

dividing the pentagon into two parts, one of which will be twice as large
as the other.
2. Draw two lines,AB, AC, making an angle of 40** ; take a point P

on ^^ at 2 inches from A, and draw a line PD meeting AC at " point D,

so that the triangleAPD shall be equal in area to the difference of the

squares of two lines, respectively2 inches and 2} inches in length.

3. Let A BCD be an irregular quadrilateral figure, and 0 a point
inside it. Construct the figureaccording to the following conditions : "

A0 = 2i inches. BO-S inches. DO = 2 J inches. CD = COx 2.

Angle AOB = 60". OAB = 60". BOC = 90".

Draw a square equal in area to the quadrilateral.

*4. Having pricked off the given polygon, enlarge it to double size,Ef
becoming EF, Then draw a rectangle with an area equal to that of the

enlarged polygon and having EF for one side. {For figure see next page,)
10 APPENDIX.

" ""

5. Draw triangleABC
a of which the base AB is 5^ inches long, the
vertical angle being 100** and the altitude \\ inches. On the base AB
draw an isosceles triangle of which the area will be double that of the
triangleABC,
6. Draw an irregularpentagon ABCDE from the following conditions,
and reduce it to a trianglestanding on the side AB (produced if necessary)
and with D as vertex.

Side AB = IJ"; BC V; = CD 24"; DE

= = 2i''.
Angles ABC =120"; BCD = 80"; CDE= 126".

*7. Determine, in square inches, the area of the given quadrilateral.

Any method may be employed, the use of arithmetic iSinc allowed. Find
also the area in square centimetres. The answers should be correct to
within 1 per cent.

8. Draw a circle of 3 '7 inches diameter. Divide it into three sectors

which have their areas in the ratios of 4:5:6. Measure the lengths of
the three arcs of the sectors.
9. Draw a triangleABB, base BB= 10*8 cm. ; sides AB, ^ J?= 15*7 cm.
and 8*9 cm. Draw a line parallel to the base so as to bisect the sides
in (7(7. Find in square inches the areas of the triangles ABB, ACG,
and the area of the trapezoid BBCC, What are the ratios of these
areas to one another ?
10. Construct a triangleABC to the following data : "

AB = 3*8 inches ; BC = 3*3 inches, sin ABC = 0*652,

Taking AB as the base drawthe perpendicular from the vertex C, and

measure the altitude of triangle. Verify the result by calculation
the
using the ffiven line. What is the area of the triangle? What is the

length of the base of a triangle of equal area, but having an altitude of

1*6 inches?
*11. The given circle is divided into two sectors, the areas of which
represent the relative areas of land and water on the earth's surface. If
 APPENDIX. 11

the of the land is 52 millions of miles, what is the area

of the
area square

water ?

*12. The plan of hall is given, scale ^ inch to 10 feet; L is the plat'
a
.

form and K
L
the body of the hall. Find the area
of K in square'^feet.
Calculate the sitting accommodation of Ky 30 per cent, of its area being
occupied by and 4 feet of
passages, allowing one person to
every square
the remainder.

K
12 APPENDIX.

Problems on Mbasubement.

*1. the given angle AOB, in

Measure, as accurately
as you can,
and decimals of Measure also OA in inches and
degrees a aegree.
decimals of inch. From A draw AM perpendicular to OB, and
an
OM, arithmetic divide Om by OA, and give the
measure By ordinary
quotient.

B
O

2. Draw a circle of 2*25 inches radius. In this circle inscribe a lateral

quadri-
ABCD, having given
Sides AB = 2*87 inches ; DG = 2'5 inches.

Angle BCD = 16'6\

Measure, in degrees, the angle BAD. Draw the tangent to the circle
at A, Join AC and measure the angles which AO makes with the

Also angles
the ABG and ADO,
tangent. measure

*3. Measure, in degrees, the angle between the two given lines LL, LL"
Wi^ consider given angle in
what
accuracy do can measure a
you you
? That is, state the greatest
degrees by the apphances error
you possess
be liable. What is the magnitude
to which you think your answer may
You arithmetic if you wish.
of the angles in radians ? may use
 APPENDIX. 13

*4. A portion of a triangle is given, base DE, the vertex F being out
of reach. By the aid of construction, measurement, and arithmetic
determine the length of the side EF,
14 APPENDIX.

*6, A segment of a circle is given. Determine and measure, in degrees,

the angle contained by this segment. Mark a point P on the arc distant
0*2 inch from one end O; then draw accurately, and produce, the chord
OP, Draw the tangent to the arc at the end O,

*6. In the given figure, P, P represent two points on the floor of a

room. The distance apart of P, P is required ; T is an obstacle venting

pre-
direct measurement. Suppose that

by means of a chalked string and tape

measure, or otherwise, you were able to

draw straight lines and measure lengths

on the floor of the room. Indicate clearly
on your drawing what lines you would

draw, and what measurements you would

make, so that by plotting these to scale,

or by easy calculation, or in any manner,
the required distance between P and P
could be ascertained.

*7. A, B, C are three points on the floor

of a room. The shape of the triangle ABC

is required; K is an obstacle preventing
direct measurement. Having the same ditions
con-

and materials of the last question,

set out in a scale drawing the shape of the

triangle ABC. (A square is not available

for drawing perpendicular lines on the floor,

nor may you use a protractor).
16 APPENDIX.

BD = arc BA nearly. Apply thU construction to the given arc. Measure

BD in centimetres. Also, by means of tracing and a pricker,

paper or

otherwise, find the exact length of the arc. Is BD too long or too short,
and by what per cent. ?

\
\

\
A

\
\

\
\
\

*11. Draw parallel lines through E, F, O, such that the line through F

is equidistant from the lines through E and G, Let these parallels cut

Measure and write down the lengths of ef

the line HH in e, /, and g.

and/gr.
 APPENDIX. 17

*12. Draw a line allel

par-
to LL to cut the

given lines AA^ BB,

CO, in a, 6, c, so that

ac shall be 1*6 ah, A

locus may be used if

desired.

Loci.

*1. Through the given point B draw a straight line to cut the lines Os,
OtiaS and T so that the ratio BS : BT shalilbe 2:3. A locus may be
used if desired.

It

o
18 APPBHDIX.

that the sides AB^ AB always

*2. The given triangle ABB moves so

the fixed points P, P. Trace the locus of the point A.

pass through
What is this curve ? Also plot the locus of one of the points B,

*3. PQ is a link one end P of which moves in a circular path, centre (7,
and the other end Q oscillates in a circular arc, centre 0. The dimensions
are:

CM = 6' 0"; MO = ^; CMO = 90^

CP = 2' (f; PQ = 6' 3"; OQ =3' (f.

PO = OQ,

Plot the position of O when the angle ACP ^ 0", and also when
J CP - 46'. Scale 1 inch to I foot.

/
 APPENDIX. 19

^
N

*4. Four strips of

sheet celluloid or

other material are

piiined together at
the ends as shown,
the whole formine a Q
jointed parallelo-
gram.
Suppose the
stripMM to be fixed
to thedrawing board,
and let the other

strips be turned into

successive positions,
the two sides MN
thus rotating about
the points M as

centres. Find the

locus of Q, the dle
mid-

point of the strip

NN,

Points, Lines, Planes.

1. Draw the projections aa', hh\ cc' of the points A, B, and C

^ is 3 inches )
^ is 2 inches " above the horizontal plane of projection.
Cisli inches ;

A is in the vertical plane of projection

ah = bc = ac = 3i inches. a' c' = 2^ inches.
Letter each projection distinctly.
2. Show the projections of two points, P and Q, which are situated as

follows : "
P i inch in front of the vertical plane of projection, and 2 inches
20 APPENDIX.

above the horizontal plane ; Q li inches in front of the vertical plane, and
f inch above the horizontal plane. The real distance between the points
P and Q is 3 inches.
3. A small object P is situated in a room at a distance of 17 inches
from a side wall, 24 inches from an end wall, and 33 inches above the
floor. Ascertain and measure the distance of P from the comer 0 of the
room where these three mutually perpendicular planes meet. Scale, ^th.
4. Draw the projections of a line, inclined at 30" to the horizontal

plane. Its verticiedtrace is If inches above the horizontal plane of jection,

pro-
and its horizontal trace is 2^ inches from the vertical plane of
projection.
5. Draw two lines ah, ac, forming an angle of 60**. ah is inclined at
45**,ac at 30**,to the horizontal -pluxe ; and the point a is the plan of
a point A H inches above the horizontal plane. Find, on the two lines,
lengths ab, a"c, such that the triangleahc shall be the plan of an isosceles
triangle,in which AB = AC " 2 inches.
*6. a and h are two points in the horizontal plane, and c' a point in the
vertical plane of projection. Draw the projections of the hnes AC And
BC, and determine their real length.

CiX

J}

7. A line is 2*5 inches long, and its plan measures 2 inches ; find and
measure the inclination of the line to the horizontal plane. Find also and
state how much higher one end is than the other. Draw the projections
of this line when one end is in xy^ and the plan makes 45" with an/,
8. A person on the top of a tower 80 feet
high, which rises from a

horizontal plane, observes the

angles of depression (below the horizon) of
two objects H and K on the plane to be 14*3" and 25*5" ; the directions of
ff and K from the tower being north and west respectively. Draw a plan,
to a scale of 1 inch to 100 feet, showing the relative positions of the person
and the two objects. Measure and state in feet the distance between H
and K,
 AFPENDIJt. 21

*9. The plan d and the elevation d/ of a point D given, from which
are

a line DE is to be drawn making 45" with the horizontal plane. If d'e' is

the elevation of the required line DEy draw and carefully letter the
plan of it.

sX"

(^d
*10. plans of two
the intersecting lines which are each really
rs, rt are

elevation of the point of which is the

2^ inches long. Taking tf as the a

plim, draw an elevation of both lines,and find what the real angle is
between the two lines.

s'"^

JC -y
 i

22 APPENDIX.

11. The horizontal and vertical traces

of a plane make iff and 55"*respectively
with the ot^yline, liind and measure the
inclination of the plane to the horizontal.
Find also and state in decrees the true
angle between the traces of the plane.

*12. The plans mut mn are shown of

two lines mN, MN which lie in the
given plane. Draw the elevations of the
lines.

CL

*13. The figure^shows two

lines which meet at a point
^ ^ in space. Determine and
measure the real angle between
the lines.
24 APPENDIX.

and 2 inches above the horizontal plane. Draw the projections of a line,

lyingin the plane 8 inclined at 60**to the horizontal plane and passing
through P.
17. The plan of a line is perpendicularto the xy line,and its vertical
and horizontal traces are, respectively, distant 1 inch and 2 inches from it.
Draw a plane inclined at 45 , contaming this line. Then draw a second
plane,also containingthe line,but perpendicular to the first plane.
*18. qu is the horizontal trace of a plane, which intersects another
plane; the line of intersection of the two planes,of which ijis the plan, is

inclined at 45" to the

horizontal plane. Draw
the vertical trace of the
first mentioned
-
plane,
and also both traces of
the other plane,when the
real angle between the
two planesis 110^

*19. A point in the

planevoh is represented
m plan by p. From this
point draw (in plan and
elevation)two lines con-
tained

by the plane, one

to have the same clination
in-
to the tal
horizon-
plane as the given
plane has, and the other
an inclination of 25" to
the horizontal plane.

"
I
 APPENDIX. 25

*20. HT is the horizontal trace of a plane. J" is a line in the plane.

Complete the elevation of AB. Draw the vertical trace of the plane.
Find and measure the inclination of the plane to the horizontal plane.

+ v

21. I"raw two parallel planes, inclined at 52" to the horizontal plane.
Their horizontal traces make an angle of 47" with the xy line,and the

planes are f inch apart, the distance being measured perpendicularly to

their surfaces.

22. A horizontal line If inches above the horizontal plane makes an

angle of 60" with the vertical plane of projection. Draw the traces of

a plane containing the line and making an angle of 70"* with the vertical

plane.
26 APPEHDIZ.

*23. Fiiid the point where the line mm* meeta the plane VOH,

*2i. Find the intersection between the planes EFO and PQR.
 APPENDIX. 27

*25. Draw the traces of a plane containing the lines of which the

projectionsh, h'h'\ and ahy a'h' are given.

"L.

26. Find the real angle between the lines, the projections of which are

given in Question 23.

*27. Draw two planes perpendicular to one another, and inclined to the

horizontal plane at 45" and 60" respectively. The former plane is to be

perpendicular to the vertical plane of projection,and the horizontal trace

of each plane is to pass through the given point p.

cc

Qp

*2d. In the plane e'dc of Question 29 draw a line inclined at 45"" to the

horizontal plane, and on that line as base draw the plan of an equilateral
triangle of 1^ inches side, contained in the given plane, its lowest angle
touching the horizontal plane.
28 APPENDIX.

*29. t'd^dc the traces of a plane, ab is the horizontal trace of

are

a plane. Find the

vertical elevation of the intersection of the two planes,
supposingthe point where the vertical traces meet to be beyond the
limits of the paper.
 APPENDIX. 29

*30. ab, a'V is a given line, cd a given point. Find the projections of

a line drawn through the given point, meeting the given line at a point
\ an inch above the horizontal plane. Determine the traces of the plane
containing the two lines.
30 APPENDIX.

PBOJBcnoNS or Planis Fioubes.

*1. The lines Ik, Ik are the plans of two sides LK, LK of a rectangle ;

complete the plan of the figure. If the diagonal KK be horizontal, find

of the sides of the rectangle and the inclinations of its plane,
the lengths
measuring the results.

"

*2. A quadrilateral A BOD is cut out in sheet metal, and a model of

a dihedral angle is made by bending the plate along the diagonal BD,
A plan of the model is shown when resting on the face BCD, The original
shape of the quadrilateralwas BCDA^ (a) Find the height of the comer

A and index its plan a in inches. (6) Draw an elevation of the model

on xy. (c) Find and measure the dihedral angle between the faces

BAD, BCD.

*3. The plan is given of a thin 60" set square resting on its short edge
BC (a) Determine the height of the A and index
; scale \, comer its

plan a in inches. (") Determine the length and inclination to the

horizontal of the edge AB, (c) Draw an elevation of the set square on xy.
Scale i as in the diagram.
32 APPBHDIZ.

6. Draw the plan and elevation of a square A BCD of 2*5 inches side
when situated in any position such that no side is parallel to either plane
of projection. Letter the comers of the square in both views.
*6. The triangle hgh is the plan of an isosceles right angled triangle
HQUy the hypotenuse HH being in the horizontal plane. Determine
and measure :" (a) The length of Uie side HO, (") The height of O above
the horizontal plane, (c) The inclination of the side HQ, (d) The in-
clination
of the plane HOH,

7. A vertical circle of 2 inches diameter rests on the ground with the

plane of its surface perpendicular to both planes of projection. Draw the
elevation of the circle when it has been turned about its vertical diameter

through 30**
8. Draw a triangle ahc with the following dimensions : ac c" "1 = =

inch, a5 = 1| inches, abc is the plan of an equilateraltriangle, and ah is

in the horizontal plane. Draw tne elevation of the triangle,the xy line

parallelto he,
*9, ahcd is the plan of a parallelogram ; "e is a horizontal line, and the

plane of the parallelogram is inclined at 25" to the horizontal plane.

 APPENDIX. 33

Draw the elevation the horizontal

a'h'c'd'i line he being 1 inch above the
horizontal plane, and the xy line parallelto he and ad"

*10. The projectionsof a triangleABO are given {ahc in plan, and a'h'c'
in elevation) ; find the traces of the plane containing the triangle. Rotate
the plane together with the triangle till they coincide with the vertical
plane of projection,and thus show the true shape of the triangleABC,

11. Show the true shape of a figurewhich lies in a plane inclined at

65^ its plan being a circle of 1} inches diameter.
12. If one side (2} inches long) of a square rest in a horizontal plane,
and adjacent side be
an inclined at 55" to the horizontal plane,write down,
measured in degrees,the inclination of the diagonal to the horizontal plane.
3
34 APPENDIX.

*13. The fiflrureshows

three views of a circular
picture frame, which
has been tilted off its
foot T so that its plane
is vertical. Draw the

plan, and the elevation

'
on xy, of the
frame after
it has been turned back
into position with its
foot on the ground.

oc y
Projections and

Sections of Solids.

1. The lengths of
the edges of a gular
rectan-

prism are tively

respec-
4, 3, and 2 inches.
Determine and measure

the length of a diagonal

of the solid "
that is, a
line joining opposite
comers.

hook bolt."
" A vertical
*2. Three views are shown of a portion of a
B, Draw sectional
section plane 88 cuts the bolt into two parts A and a

removed. In
elevation of the part A on a/ v', the part B being supposed
lines the metal cut through by 88.
this view indicate by section
 APPENDIX. 35

*3. A hemisphere is shown in plan resting with its flat face on the

ground. Determine the plan of the section of the solid made by a plane
inclined at 40**,which has TT for its horizontal trace.

4. A tetrahedron, of which the edges are If inches long, has one edge
horizontal on the ground, and a face containing that edge inclined at Zb''

to the horizontal plane. Draw the projections of the solid. Supposing

the upper portion of the tetrahedron is cut oflf by a horizontal plane J inch

above the ground, draw on the plan the resultingsection, the part which
is cut through being cross-lined.

*5. The given figure is the plan of an irregular triangular pyramid

resting with its base on the ground. Its vertex v is 3*9 inches high.
Draw the elevation of the solid on the given xy. Show on the plan the

shape of the section made by a horizontal plane 1 '7 inches high.

X.

*6. ahc is the plan of a prism standing upright,height 2 '5 inches. Draw

the plan of the prism after it has been tilted about the edge BC of the
36 APPENDIX.

base until a rectangular face rests on the horizontal plane, And draw the
elevation of the prism on xy, after tilting.

*7. The given figure is the plan of pyramid resting on

a square a angular
tri-
face. Draw the elevation of the
pyramid on xy. HT is the
horizontal trace of a vertical plane cutting tne pyramid. Find the tion
eleva-
and also the true shape of the section.

*8. plan of a riangular prism is given, the heights of four of its

The
corners being marked. Write down the heights of the remaining two
comers. The prism is cut by a vertical plane S8, Draw a sectional
elevation on xy^ the portion P of the prism in front of the section plane
being supposed to be removed.
 APPENDIX. 37

*9. The plan is given of a triangular prism equilateralends, which

with
rests on one face. S8 represents a vertical plane, dividing the
section

prism into two parts A and B. The latter being supposed removed, draw
the sectional elevation of the part A on xy, indicating by diagonal
lines
the shape of the section.

JO

*10. A is the cross-section, and B one elevation of a wooden bench.

Finish the incomplete plan CD. If the bench is cut into two portions, C
and /", by a vertical plane, of which mn is the horizontal trace, then draw
the sectional portion
elevation of the parallelto mn,
(7 on a plane taken

looking in the direction of the arrow. Cross-line the parts actually cut
The elevation B need neither be pricked oflf from the
through. Note, "

diagram, nor drawn, it is given for reference only.

"t*^iiss;*^^=5%J65s;i;ss-5SS5i;
38 APPENDIX.

*11. The figure fghL represents the plan of a cylinder resting on the

ground. Draw the elevation of the cylinder,and show the projectionsof

a sphere of 1 inch diameUr in contact with it on one side, and also the

projections of a cube with an edge {\ inch long) touching the cylinder on

the other side ; both the sphere and cube are to be on the ground. Show

carefullyin plan the point and line of contact with the cylinder of the

sphere and cube respectively. In plan the portions of the solids which

are not seen are to be denoted by a dotted boundary line.

aa -y

12. The base (2 inches radius) of a right cone, 2 inches high, rests on

the horizontal plane. A sphere of 1^ inches radius touches the cone at a

point 2 inches from the apex. Draw the plan of the solids showing their

point of contact.

13. A pentagonal rightpyramid (side of base 1^ inches, height 2^ inches)

rests with one edge of the base in the horizontal plane, the base being
tilted up till the highest point in it is 1 inch above the horizontal plane.
Draw the elevation of the pyramid on an xy line parallel to the edge of

the base resting on the horizontal plane, so that the base may be visible.
40 APPENDIX.

*17. The TOt"jectionsof a solid

are given. Draw the true form
of the section of it made by a

vertical plane of which mn is

the horizontal trace. Show also
in elevation the portions the of
solid seen behind the plane of
section. The edges of the
section may be shaded.
18. the projections of
Draw
a regular octahedron of 2 inches
lat/wotiow edge, resting with one face in
the horizontal plane. The xy
line makes an ansle of 25" with
one edge of that fiuse.
19. A right pentagonal prism
(side of pentagon 2 inches) 4
inches Ions lies with one long
edge in the horizontal plane,
and one face containing that

edge inclined at 30" to the hori-

zontal
Platv. plane. Draw its plan;
also an elevation on a vertical

plane, which makes an angle of

60" with each of the long edges.
20. The axis of a rightcylinder
of 1 inch radius is inclinea at 40"
to the horizontal plane. Draw
the true form of a horizontal
section through it.
*21. The rectangle A BCD is the base of a pyramid, resting on the
horizontal plane. If F be its vertex, the inclinations of the triangular
sides to the horizontal plane are as follows: "
AVD 60", AVB 70",
BVC 55". Complete the plan of the pyramid.
 APPENDIX. 41

Horizontal Projection.

*1. A represented by a scale of slope, the unit for heights

plane is
being O'l A in the plane is shown
inch. A point by its plan a : (a) Draw "

the horizontal trace of the plane. Draw also the plan of a horizontal line

lying in the plane and containing A. {b) Measure the height of A and
index its plan a. (c) If the plane were turned into the horizontal plane
about its horizontal trace, show where the point A would be carried to,
labelling this point Aq.

aJ

*2. The plan of a piece of ground is shown to a scale of J inch to

100 feet. The form of the surface is indicated by horizontal sections or

contour lines, at vertical intervals of 100 feet. A portion of the surface is

seen to be plane. Draw the plan of any path of steepest slope up this plane.
Find and measure in degrees the inclination of this path to the horizontal.
Represent the plane by a scale of slope.

300 "too

400
 42 APPENDIX.

*3. The diagram shows the plan of a portion of a room drawn to a scale
of 1 inch to 10 feet. 0 is one comer of the floor. P is point 7*3 feet
a

above the floor,shown by its figured plan pj.^ (indexed in feet). Determine
and measure in feet the distance of P from the comer O of the floor. Find
also and measure the distance of P from the line OA on the floor.

-^Vt

4. On the face of a hill a path going Korth has an upward slope of

1 vertical in 6 horizontal. A path from the same point going East has
an upward slope of 1 in 7. Determine and measure the direction (in
degrees East of North), and the slope,of the steepest path up the hill.
*5. The figured plans of two lines r5, st are given. Determine the
plan of the bisector of the angle rst. Show the point where this bisector
meets the horizontal plane. Unit = 0*1 inch.

s 39

i"5
 APPENDIX.
43

*6. Thetlines PP, PQ, whose plans are given, intersect one
another

The heights of the three points P indexed. Determine and index the
are

height of Q, Unit =
0*1 inch.
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THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND STRENGTH.
A Hakdbook ov Bulbs, Formuka, Tables, fto., belatite to MAtBBUfti
SOANTUKOS, AKD PBESSURBS, SaTETT VaLVEB, SPBIKGfl,
FnriNos Ain" Mouhtivos, ka,
FOR THB USE OF ENGINEERS, SURVEYORS, BOILER-MAKERS,
AND STEAM USERS.

By T. W. TRAILL, M. Inst.O.E., F.E.RN.,

Late Engineer Snrreyor-in-Ohief to the Board of Trade.

*"* To THB Second and Third Editions many New Tables lor Pbebsubb,
up to 200 Lbs. per Square Inch have been added.
**
Thi most yaixtabu wo"k on Boilen published in England."" SMiTpina Worli.

Contains an Enokmous Quantist Of iNi osmation arrranged in a very convenient form. .

A MOST UBXf UL YOLUMB . .

supplying
.
information to be had nowhere else."" 7^ Xngineer.

Fourth Impression. Large Crown Svo. With numerouB lUustrations. 6s.

ENGINE-ROOM PRACTICE!
A Handbook for Engineers and Officers in the Royal Navy
and Mercantile Marine, Ineluding the Management
of the Main and Auxiliary Engines on
Board Ship.
By JOHN G. LIVERSIDGE,
Bnglneer, R.N., A.M.I.C.E., Instructor in Applied Mechanics at the Boyal Kaval
College, Greenwich.
Con""fi""."General Description of Marine Machinery." The Conditions of Seryioe and
Duties of
Engineers of the Boyal Navy." Eioitryand Conditions of Service of Engineers of
the Leading S.S. Companies. Baistng Steam "Duties "
of a Steaming Watch on Engines
and Boilers." Shutting ofl Steam." Harbour Duties and Watches Adjustments and "

Repairs of Engines." Freservatior* and Bepairs of "Tank" Boilers." The Hull and its
Fittings." Oleaningand Painting Machinery Beciprocating Pumps, Feed Heaters, and
"

AutomatiLo Feed -water Begulatora Evaporators. Stesm Boats.

"
Electric Light " "

Machinery." Hydraulic Machinery." Air-Compressing Pumps." Befrigerating Machines.

"Machinery of Destroyers.- The Management of Water-Tube Boilers." Begulations for
Entry of Assistant Engineers, B.N. -Questions given in Examinations for Promotion of
Engineers, B.N." Begulations respecting Board of Trade Examinations for Engineers, "o.
^*
The contents oaztnot vail to bb affbsciatsd.**" 7!A" Steamship.
'*
This YiKT UBXFDi. BOOK. .
iLLUBiiunoirs are of gkxat imfobxakob in a work
. .

of this
kind, and it is satisfactory to find that sfeoial attention has been given in this
reapeoi.^'"JKngituers' Oaxette.

In Crown Svo, extra, with Numerous Hlwtrutions, IShortiy,

GAS AND OIL ENGINES:

An Introductory Text-Book on the Theory, Design, Construction,
and Testing of Internal Combustion Engines without Boiler.
FOR THE USE OP STUDENTS.

By Prof. W. H. WATKINSON, Whit. Son., M.Inst.Meoh.E.,

Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.

LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN A CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

30 CHARLB8 QRIFFIN A CO.'B PUBLICATIONS.

SiooiTD Edition, Revised. With nomeroas Plates reduced from

Working Drawings and 280 Illustrations in the Text. 21s.

A MANUAL OF

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING!
A Praetieal Text-Book for the Use of Enfidne Baildtrt"
Designers Draugrhtsmen, and Railway
Engineers, and Students.

BY

WILLIAM FRANK PETTIGREW, M.INOT.O.E.

With a Section on American and Continental Engines.

By albert F. RAVENSHBAR, B.So.,
Of Hia Hajestj'g Patent Offlse.

CoNlwM. HittoriMl Introdnetion,

" 1768-lMS. Modem LooomotiTet t Btanplo.* _

Modem XxMomotiTM: (Compound.- Primary Consideration in LoeomotlTe Design."

C/llnden, Steam Oheete, and StoAng Boxes." Pistons, Piston Bods, Orossheads, aad
Slide Bars." Oonneotlng and Coupling Bods." Wheels and Axles, Axle Boxes, Hocttbloeki^
and Beefing Springs." Balaneing."TalTe Qear." Slide Yalyes and Valye Gear Details."
Framing, Boeiee and Axle Tracks, Badial Axle Boxes." Boilers." Bmokebox, Blast Plps^
Firebox Fitungs. "Boiler Mouitings." Tenders. Bailway Brakes." LutnioatloiL"Oon- -

"amption of FneU BTaporation and Engine fffloiency." American LooonoilTea." Oon-

ftlnental LooomotiTes.- Bepairs, Banning, Inspection, and Benewals." Three Appendloea.
'*
Likely to remain for many yean the Stasdasd Wobk for those wtahing to U
Deeign.**" "^iMriMMT.
*~A most interesting and Talnable addition to the bibliography of the LoecaMtlTe.*'"
tUMwui OpMal 0au9tt".
"
we reoommend the book as THOSonoHLT rftianoAL in its chavaoler, and louTDre a
TLAom xir ANT ooLLBonoir of . .
.
works on Looomotiye Bnglneering."'^iEa"{flSsr i^"wr.
"The work oovTAnrs ijx. that oak bx lkabmt from a book upon soeh a subject It
win at onoe rank as thb stahdaju) wosk ufom this MroBTAinr subject.*'" ItaMwof Jf^vortae,

In Large %vo. Handsome Cloth, With Plates and Illu$traHmu, 16%.

uioscrr RJLiJLiiBriLirs
AT HOME AND ABROAD.

By WILLIAM HENRY OOLE, M.Inst.O.R,

Late Deputy-Manager, North-Western Bailway, India.
Cofitente." DiBotuHuon of the Term
''Light Raawaya."" EngEsh Bailwayi,
Batee, and Farmers. "
Li^ht Railways in Belgium, France, Italv, othv
European Cotmtries, America and the Colonies, India, Ireland." Road Trane-
Dort as an altemaliye." The Light Railways Act, 1896." The Qneetion of
Qavge. Clonstruetion "
and Working." Locomotives and Rolling-Stock. ^Light "

lEtailwayBin England, Scotland, and Wales. "

Appendices and Index.
**
Mr. W. H. Oole has brought together ...
a labox amoitht of valuabui nroBKAr

BO" hitherto practically inacoesBible to the ordinary reader."" nmes.

. . .
"
Will remain, for some time yet a Stahdabd Wobx in eyerything relating to Light
Ballwajs.^*"i?n^'fM"r.
'*
Tt" author has extended practical experience that makes the book lucid and usafaL
It is BSGBBDniaLT Well done.**" z?iHrineertfH;F.
**llie whole subjeot is bxhadstiyelt and PBAoncALLT considered. The work can be
eordially recommended as nrpisPBNSABLB to those whose duty it is to become aoquainted
with one of the^prime neceesities of the immediate future."" iiai/way OjffMdl OwntU.
"*Thxbb oodld bx BO BBTTBB BOOK of flrst refereuoo on ite subject All classes ef
Engineers will welcome its appearance."" iSeo""man.

lONDON : CHARLES aRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

3a CHARLS8 QRIFFIN A CO.' 8 PUBLWATIONS.

Large Sto, Handsome doth. With lUuslratioiis, Tables, "e. 21s.

Lubrication " Lubricants:

A TREATISE ON THE

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LUBRICATION

AND ON THE

NATURE, PROPERTIES, AND TESTING OF LUBRICANTS.

By LEONARD ARCHBXJTT, F.1,0., F.O.S.,

Ghemirt to th* Midland Battway Oompany,

AND

R. MOUNTFORD DEELEY, M.I.M.E., F.G.S.,

Chief LocomotiTe Saperlntendent, Midland Railway Oompany.
(/0NTXHT8." L Friction of Solids." n. Liquid Friction or Visoosity, snd Flastle
IHction." nL Superflcial Tention." lY. The Theory of Lubrication." v. Lubricants,
their Sources, Preparation, and Pxi^rtiea." YI. Physical FnnMrtiea and Methods of
Szamination of Lubricants." YII. Cnemical Properties and Methods of Examination
of LubrieantB.-"YIU. The Systematic Testing of Lubricants by Physical and Chemical
Methods." LX:. The Mechanical Testing of Lubricants." X. The Desiignand Lubrication
of Bearings." XL The Lubrication of Machinery." Inbbx.
"
Destined to become a olassio on the subject."" Ztidtweriet wnd Iron,
"
Contains practically all that is khowk on the subject Deserves the careful
attention of all Engineers."" i{a"7way OfficialQuid*.

Fourth Edition. Vm^f f^Oiy lUustrated. Oloth^ 4s. M.

STEAM - BOILERS:
THSIB DEFKOTS, MANAGEMENT, AND OONSTBUOTIOH.
By R D. MUNRO,
CKUf Bnninur %f tAs SeotAuik Boiler Iniwrtmce and Engine Impeetion Company.
Gbkkkal CONTBNTS." I.(x) by Overheating
EXPLOSIONS Plates-^s) causcd of By
Defective Overloaded
and Safety Yalves" {3) By Corrosion, Internal or External" ^4) By
Defective Desi^ and Construction (Unsupported Flue Tubes ; Unstrengthened Mannoles ;
Defective Staymg ; Strength of Rivetted Joints ; Factor of Safety)" II. Construction op

VxRTiCAL Boilers: Shells " Crown Plates and Uptake Tubes "
Man-Holes, Mud-Holes,
and Fire-Holes " Fireboxes "
Mounting " Management "
Cleaninje;Table " of Bursting
Pressures of Steel Boilers " Table of Kivetted Joints " Specifications and Dravrings u

Lancashire Boiler for Working Pressures (a) 80 lbs. ; (fi)

300 lbs. per square inch respectively.
"
A valuable companion for workmen and engineers engaged about Steam Boilers, ought
ts be carefiillT studied, and always at haht","" Coll. Guardian,
*' The book is very usbpul, especially to steam users, artisans, and young Engineew.""

By the same Author.

KITCHEN BOILER EXPLOSIONS: Why

thej Occur, and How to Prevent their Occurrence. A Practical book
Hand-
based on Actual Experiment. With Diagram and Coloured Plate.
Price 3s.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

 BNQINEERINO AND MMCHAN108. 33

In Crown Svo, Handsome Cloth, With Numerous

Illustrations, ^s, net,

EHERT GRINDING MAGHINET.

A Text-Book of Workshop Practice in General Tool Grinding,
and the Design, Construction, and Application
of the Machines Emoloyed,
BY

R. B. HODGSON, A.M.Inst.Mech.E.,
Author of '*
Machines and Tools Employed in the Working of Sheet Metals."

Introduction. " ^Tool Grinding. " Emery Wheels. " Mounting Emery Wheels.

"
Emery Rings and Cylinders. " Conditions to Ensure EflScient Working. "

Leading Types of Machines. "

Concave and Convex Grinding. " Cup and Cone

Machines. " Multiple Grinding. " "Guest" Universal and Cutter Grinding
Machines. " Ward Universal Cutter Grinder. " Press. "
Tool Grinding. " Lathe

Centre Grinder. " Polishing. "

Index.

"Deals practicallywith every phase of his subject." " Ironmonger

'*
Eminently practical . - . .
cannot fail to attract the notice of the users of this dass of

machinery, and to meet with careful perusal." " Chent. TradeloumaL

Sixth Edition. Folio, strongly ludf-boimd, 21/.

TRAVERSE TABLES:
Computed to Four Places of Decimals for every Minute
of Angle up to 100 of Distance.

For the use of Surveyors and Engrineers.

BY

RICHARD LLOYD GURDEN,

Aathorised Surveyor for the GoTenimcnts of New South Wales and

Victoria.

%* PttklUhid wUk the Cpnatrremce 9/ the Surveyors- Gemerml for New South
Wales and Victoria,

41 "
'Thoie who have cxperiaace in maacX Suktbt-work will bett know how to appreciate
the caonnoas amount of labour repre" ntcd by this valuable book. The computaticos
cna2"le the user to ascertain the sines and cosines for a distance iA twelve miles te within
half an inch, and this ar kxfkbbncb to Onb butTablb, in place d tbe usual Fifteen
minula eoaptttaticns required. Thu alone is evidence of die assistsnce which the Tables
easjore te every user, and as every Surveyor in active practice has feh the want of such
assistance fbw knowing op thbir publication will rbmain without thbm."
" Engineer.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND.

34 CHARLBS QRIFFIN A G0,*8 PUBLICATIONS.

WOBKS BY

ANDJIEW JAMIESON, M.Inst.C.K, M.I.KE^ F.R.S.E.,

^.
Formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering^ The
En^neerin^^ Gla^ow and West of Scotland
chnicn
'

Technical College.

PROFESSOR JAMIESON'S ADVANCED TEXT-BOOEB.

In LcargeCrown 8zv. FuUy lUustratuL

STEAM AND STEAM-ENGINES. For the Use of Students

preparingfor Competitive Examinations. With over 700 pp., over 350
Illustrations,
10 Folding Plates,and very numerous Examination Papers.
Fourteenth Edition. Revised throughout.
"
Professor Jamieson faacmates the reader by his clbarnbss or comcbftion and

"iMFUCtTV OP BXPRBSSION. His treatment recallsthe leotuiingof Faraday."" i4 theneeum,

"
The Bbst Book yet publishedfor the use of Stadeats.**'-Engineer.
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. For Advanced and
"
'*
Honours Students. By Prof. Jamieson,assisted by David Robertson,
B.Sc, Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Merchant Venturers*
Technical
College,Bristol. [Shortly,
APPUED MECHANICS " MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
Vol. I. Comprising Part"
I., with 540 pages, 300 and
Illustrations,
540 Examination Questions: The Principleof and its applica-
tions; Work
Part II.: Friction; Gearing, "c. Fourth Edition. 8s. 6d.
"
Fully maintains the reputation of ue Avkthor,'*^Pract. Engineer.
Vol. II." Comprising Parts III. to VI., with 608 pages, 371 Illus-
trations,
and copious Examination Questions : Motion and Energy ;
Graphic Statics; Strength of Materials; Hydraulics and Hydraulic
Machinery. Third Edition. 8s. 6d.
"Wbll AND LUCIDLY WRiTTKN."" T'At Engineer.
*"* Each of the above volumes is ""*"''^'^ separately.
complete in itself,

PROFESSOR JAMIESON'S INTRODUCTORT MANUALS

Crown Svo, With IlhistraHons and ExaminaHon Papers,
STEAM AND THE STEAM-ENGINE (Elementary
Manual of). For First- Year Students. Tenth Edition, Revised. 3/d.
"
Should be in the hands of bvbry engineeringapprentice.**Practical Enginetr, "

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY (Elementary Manual

of). For First-Year Students. Fifth Edition. 3/6.
"
A CAPITAL TBXT-BOOK . . .
The diagrams are an important i^9Xvxe.**~^choolnuuter.,
"A THOROUGHLY TRUSTWORTHY Tcxt-boolc. PRACTICAL and dear." " Nature,

APPLIED MECHANICS (Elementary Manual of).

Specially aq^anged for First-Year Students. Sixth Edition,
Revised. 3/6'.
'*The work has vbry high qualitibs, which may be condensed into the one word
*
CLBAR.' ^"Science and A ri.

In Preparation. 300 pages. Crown Szfo. Profusely Illustrated.

MODERN Electric Traimway Traction:

A Text-Book of Present-Day Ppaetice.
Fw the Use of Electrical Engineering Students and those interested in Bleetrie
Transmission of Power.
By Prop. ANDREW JAMIESON.
J

A POCKET-BOOK of ELECTRICAL RULES and TABLES.

For the Use of Electricians and Engineers. By John Munro, C.E.,
and Prof. Jamieson. Pocket Sire. Leather, 8s. 6d. Sixteenth
Edition. [See p. 49.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN ft G0" LIMITED,EXETER STREET. STRAND.

 IIJfOIirJBBSINO AND MECHAmOB. 35

WORKS BY

W. J. HAGQUORN RANKINE, LL.D.,F.R.S.,

Late Regius Profeaaor of Civil Engineering in the Unioereity of Qia$gow.

THOBOTTGHLY BEVISED BT

TAT. J. MILLAE, C.E.,

Late Seereituy to the institute of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Seotland,

A MANUAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS :

Oomprising the PrincipleB of Statics and Cinematics, and Theory of

Strnotures, Mechajiism, and Machines. With Numerous Diagrams.

Grown 8yo, cloth. Seventeenth Edition. 12s. 6d.

A MANUAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING :

Comprising Engineering Surreys, Earthwork, Foundations, Masonry, pentry,

Car-
Metal Work, Roads, Railways, Canals, Rivers, Waterworks,
Harbours, fto. With Numerous Tables and Illustrations. Crown 8vo.

cloth. Twenty-Second Edition. 16s.

A MANUAL OF HACHINEBT AND MILLWORK :

Comprising the Geometry, Motions, Work, Strength, Construction, and

Objects of Machines, "o. Dlustrated with nearly 300 Woodcuts,

Grown 8vo, cloth. Seventh Edition. 128. 6d.

A MANUAL OF THE STEAM-ENGINE AND OTHER

PRIME MOVERS :

With a Section on Gas, Oil, and Aib Enoines, by Bbyan Donehn,

M.Inst. C.E. With Foldmg Plates and Numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, cloth. Fifteenth EIdition. 12s. 6d.

LONDON: GHAAIE8 fiRIFFlN " CO.,LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAND^

36 CHARLES O BIFFIN S CO.*S PUBLICATIONS,

Paor. RAmuira'f Wouci" (CWiiMHMi/y.

USEFUL RULES AND TABLES :

for Arohiteoti, Bailden, Engineers, Foonderi, Meehanfoi, Shipbeildertf

Snrreyon, fto. With Appknbix for the obo of EumrtbioaIi EKOnnEKSs,

By ProfeMor Jamiuok, P.R.S.E. Sitmnth Editiok. lOi. 6d.

A MECHANICAL TEXT-BOOK :

A Praotioal and Simple Introduction to the Study of MeohAnict. By

Profenor Rankine and B. F. Bambeb, C.E. With Nomeroiu Ulna
trationa. Crown Svo, cloth. Fifth Edition. 9b.

%* Tlu "MacHAViOAL TsxT-BooK" WM dmigmd bf ProfMtor ""nin m "i Unao*

!" lAtf atoft Bmiu of MtmmOt,

MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC PAPERS.

Royal Svo. Cloth, 31s. 6d

Part L Papers relating to Temperature, Elasticity,and Expansion of

Vapours, Liquids, and Solids. Part II. Papers on Energy and its Trans-
fonnations. Part III. Papers on WaTe-Ferms, Propulsion of Vessels, ko.

With Memoir by Professor Tait, M.A. Edited by W. J. Millar, O.E.

With fine Portrait on Steel, Plates, and Diagrams.

"
No mora MMluriiif Manorial of ProfiMSOV Rankine could b" darisad diaa the poblica-
Ifam of thaw papara in an mmmtStA" tonn, The CbUactum it most
. .
valnabia ob
.

"aoooat of the nature of his discoreries,and the beauty and completeness of his aaalyais.
.
The .
Voltme eaaeeds in importance any work m the same department puhlished
.

hi oar time."" i"fv"U^/.

SHELTON-BEY (W. Vincent, Foreman to the

Imperial Ottoman Gun Factories, Constantinople):

THE MECHANICS GUIDE : A Hand-Book for Engineers and

Artisans. With Copious Tables and Valuable Recipes for Practical Vtt,
nittstrated. Sic^md EdUhH, Crown 8to. Qoth, 7/Cl

LONDON : CHARLES QRIFFIN ft CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND.

 SNOINEERINO AND MEOHANIOS. 37

Third Revised and Enlarged. With 60 Plates and

Edition, Thoroughly
Numerous Illustrations. Handsome Cloth. 34s.

HYDRAULIC POWER
AND

HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
vt

HENRY ROBINSON, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S.,

FELLOW OF KIHGTs COLLBGB, LONDON; PROF. BMBRITUS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
king's COLLBGB, BTC., BTC

Contents " Discharge through Orifices. " Flow of Water through Pipes. Accumulators. "

" Presses and Lifts. " Hoists. " Rams. "

Hydraulic Engines. "
Pumping Engines. Capstans. "

" Traversers. " Jacks. "

Weighing Machines. " Riveters and Shop Tools. " Punching,
Shearing, and Flanging Machines. " Cranes. " Coal Discharging Machines. " Drills and
Cutters. "
Pile Drivers, Excavators, "c. "
Hydraulic Machinery applied to Bridges, Dock
Gates, Wheels ^and Turbines. " Shields. " Various Systems and Power Installations- "

Meters, "c." Index.

"
A Book of great Professional Usefulness." " Iron

In Large 8vo, Handsome Cloth. With Frontiapiecey eeverai PlateSj

and over 250 Illustrations. 2ls.

THE PBIMCIPLES AMD CONSTRUCTION OF

PUMPING MACHINERY
(STEAM AND WATER PRESSURE).

With Practical IlluBtrationB of Engikbs and Pumps applied to Mikivo"

Town Water Supply, Dkaikaoe of Lands, "c., also Economy
and Efficiency Trials of Pumping Machinery.

By henry DAVEY,
Member of the Institiition of Civil Engineiers, Member of the Inatitation of
Mechanioal Engineers, F.O.S., Ac.

Contents Pmnping En^es

"Early Steam Pumping Engines History of "
"

Pumps andGreneral Principles

Pump of Non-BotatiTe Valves
Pumping "

Engines ^The Cornish Engine,

" Simple and Compound Types of MiTting "

Engines Pit Work Shaft

" Sinking Hydraulic Transmission of "Power in "

Mines ^Yalye Gears

"
of Pumping EzigineB Water Pressure PumpingEngines "

"Water Works Enpnes Pumping Engine Economy and Trials ofJPumping "

Machinery Centrifugal and other"

Low-Lift Pumps Hydraulic Bams, "

Pumping Mains, "c." Index.

''By the *one English Engineer who probably knows more about Pumping Machinery
than ANT OTHER.* ...
A YOLniCB BBOORDINO THS SX8ULT8 OT LONG SXPXBIBVCX AND
8T0DT."" 2r/i" EngiuMT.
*'
Undoubtedly THS BEST axd most pbaotigal thbatisx on Pumping Machinery that has

TST BSSN PUBU8HXD.**" J/"ntn(r Journal.

lONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN A CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAMft

2
38 QHARLm QRIFFIN * 00:8 PUBLICATIONS,

RoytU 800, Hamt8om9 Cloth. With numerous llluatrattona and Tables. 26a.

THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.

BY

SIR EDWARD J. REED, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.?.,

nnoHT or thb impbrial orders op st. stanilaus or russia; ntANcis josbph or

AUSTRIA ; MBDJIDIB Or TURKBY ; AND RISING SUN Or JAPAN ; VICB-

PRBSIDBNT or THB INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITBCTS.

In order towork render

complete the
for the purposes of the Shipbuilder, whether at

hooM or abroad, the Methods of Calculation introduced by Mr. F. K. Barnbs. Mr. Grat,
M. Rbbch, M. Daymard, and Mr. Bbnjajiin, are all siyen separately,iUnstrated bj
Tables and worked-out examples. The book contains more than aoo Diagrams, and is
illustrated by a larse number of actual cases, derived from ships of all deseriptions.
'* '
Ships
Sir Edward Rbbd's Stabiuty
The Naval Architbct op
'
is intaluablb.
will find brought togetner and readv to his hand, a mass of informaticMi which he would other-
wise have to seek in an almost enmess variety of publications,and some of which he wook'
posnbly not be aUe to obtain at all elsewhere."" iS/"(UM"At^.

THE DESiaK AND COKSTBUCTION OF SHIPS. By John

Harvard Biles, M.Inst.N.A., Professor of Naval Architecture in the
University of Glasgow. [/" Preparation,

Third Edition. Illustrated with Plates, Numerous Diagrams, and

Figures in the Text. i8s. net

STEEL SH I PSs
THBIB CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

A Manual for Shipbuilders, Ship Superintendents, Students,

and Marine Engineers,
By THOMAS WALTON, Naval Architect,
**
AUTHOR OF KNOW YOUR OWN SHIP."

Ck)NTBNT8. " I. Manufacture of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel. " position
Com-
of Iron and Steel, Strength, Tests,
(Quality, "c. II. Classification of
Steel Ships. III. Considerations
making choice of Type of VesseL ^Framine in "

"f Ships. rV. Strains experienced by Ships. Methods of Computing and "

ComjparingStrengths of Ships. V. Construction of Ships. Alternative Modes "

of Construction. Types 01 Vessels. Turret, Self Trimming,

" and Trunk "

Steamers, "c. Rivets and Eivetting, Workmanship.

"
VI. Pumping ments.
Arrange-
VII. Maintenance. "
Prevention of Deterioration in the Hulls of
Ships. " Cement, Paint. "c." Index.
*'
So thorouKh and well written chapter in the book
is every that it is difficult to select
any of them as heing worthy of exceptional praise. Altogether, the work is excellent, and
will prove of great valne to those for whom it is intended?*" 7/i" Engineer.
**
Mr. Walton has written for the profession of which he is an ornament. His work
will be read and appreciated, no doubt, by every M.I.N.A., and with great benefit by the
majority of them. "Journal of Commerce.

UNIFORM WITH THE ABOVE.

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF

DOCK ENGINEERING.
By BRYSSON CUNNINGHAM, B.E., M.Inst.C.E.
See p. 27.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAND.

40 CHARLES QRIFFIN A CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES,

Introductory Vohi/me. Price Ss. 6(L

THE

British Mercantile Marine.

By EDWARD BLACKMORE,
If ASTBR MARINBR ; ASSOCIATB OP THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITBCTS;
MBMBBR OP THB INSTITUTION OP BNGINBBRS AND SHIPBUIIJ"BItS
IN SCOTUkND; BDITOR OF GRIFFIN'S "NAUTICAL SBRIBS."

GiNERAL CoNTB3rrs." HiSTOBiOAL : From Early Times to 1486" Progress

ander Hemry VIII." To Death of Mary" Dmring Elizabeth's Reign" Ijp to
the Reign of William III." The 18th and 19th Centuries" Institntion ot
Examinations "
Rise
Progress of Steam and
Propulsion Development of "

Free Trade" Shipi^ing Legislation, 1862 to 1875" "

Locksley Hall'' Case-
Shipmasters' Societies" Loading of Ships Shipping Legislation,1884 to 1894" "

Statistics of Shipping; The Pebsonnel : Shipowners " Officers " Mariners-

Duties and Present Position. Education : A Seaman's Education : what it
should be " Present Means of Education " Hints. Disciplinb ajscd Dutt"
Postscript ^The " Serious Decrease in the Number of British Seamen, a Matter
demanding the Attention of the Nation.
'*
iHTBBBSToro and Instructivx . . may be read with fbout and nrjOTiaiiT."-
.

9lm"gcw Berald.
*'ETBKr branch of the sabjeot is dealt with in a way which shows that the writer*
*
'
knows th" ropes familiarly.**" Aeo^tman.
**Thl8 admxrablb book . . .
txkms with nsefnl information" Should be in tti'"
(uuids Hi every Sailor.'*" ir"i(en" Morning News.

Third Edition, Thoroughly Hevised, Erdargedy and Reset.

With Additional Illustrations. Price 6s.

ELEMENTARY SEAMANSHIP,
"r

D. WILSON-BARKER, Master Mariner; P.R.S.E., F.R.G.S.,fto.,"o.

Y017NGBB BROTHER OF THE TRINITT HOUSE.

With Frontispiece, Numerous Plates (Two in Colours), and niuBtrations

in the Text.

General Contents. " ^The Building of a Ship; Parts of Hull, Masts,

ftc. ^Ropes, Knots^
" Splicing, Grear, Lead
"c. and
" Log, "c. Rizging, "

Anchors Sailmaking " "

The Sails, "c. Handling of Boats under
"
Sail "

Signals Signalling" Rule

and of the Road" Keeping and Relieving Watch "

Points of Etiquette" Glossary of Sea Terms and Phrases "

Index.

*"* The Tolome contains the nbw bulbs ot thb boad.

" This AiMmtA"T." KAKUAX.. by Oaft. Wilson-Baxkxb of the '

Worcester,' seems to us-

raBF]ion.T DBSioHBD. and holds its place ezcellentljin *"

Obivfin*b Nautioai. Sebxbs.' . . .

Althongh intended for those who are to become OfBcers of the Merchant Navy, it will be-
round nsefnl by all taohtshxn.'*" iKAcMmim.

*** For complete List of QtvawsaCB Naiitioal Sxribs, see p. 39.

LONDON : CHARLES CRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

 NAVTIOAL W0RK8. 41

GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES,

Second Edition, Revised omd Illustrated, Price Ss, 6d,

NAViaATION:

By DAVID WILSON-BARKER, KN.R, F.R.S.E., "a, "a.

AND

WILLIAM ALLINGHAM,
FIB8T-OLASS HONOUSS, NAYiaATION, 80IBN0E AND ART DBPAKTMEHT.

tRnitb Vlumetoua ^Uuattationa and Bsamination Queationd*

Genebal Contents." DefinitionB" Latitude and Longitnde " Instromenta
of Navigation " Sailing Traverse
Correction Sailing Dsk'fB
of Courses " Plane " "

Work Parallel Sailing

" Middle Latitude Sailing Mercator's Chart"
" "

Mercator Sailing Current Sailing ^Position by Bearings"

"
Great Circle Sailing "

"The Tides" Questions" AppencQx : Compass Error" Numerous Useful Hints.

4ic. " Index.
,

"
Pbboisielt the kind of work required for the New Certiftcates of competency in grades
from Second Mate to extra Master. Candidates will find it TsyAUJAMiA^"DutuUt
. . .

Advertiser.
"A OAPrrAL UTTLK BOOK Specially adapted to the New Examinations. The
. . .

Authors are Oaft. Wkson-Baskxb (Captain-Superintendent of the Nautical College, H.M.S.

^
Worcester/ who has had great experience in the highest problems of Navigation), and
Mb. Alungham, a well-known writer on the Science of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy.*'
-Shipping World.

Handsome Cloth, Fully Illu6tr"Ued, Price 78, 6d.

MARINE METEOROLOGY,
FOR OFFICERS OF THE MERCHANT NAVT.

By WILLIAM ALLINGHAM,
Joint Author of "Navigation, Theoretical and Practical."

With numerous Plates, Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations, and a facsimile

Reproduction of a Page from an actual Meteorological Log-Book.

SUMMABY OP CONTENTS.

INTRODUOTORY." Instruments Used at Sea for Meteorological Purposes." Meteoro*

logical Log-Books."
Atmospheric Pressure." Air Temperatures." Sea Temperatures."
'mnds." Wind force Scales." History of the Law of Storms." Hurricanes, Seasons, and
Storm Tracks." Solution of the Cyclone Problem. Ocean Currents." Icebergs." Syn- "

ehronous Charts." Dew, Mists, Fogs, and Haze." Clouds." Kain, Snow, and Hail."
Mirage, Bainbows, Coronas, Halos, and Meteors." Lightning, Corposants, and Auroras."
"JUBsnoNS."AppKNDix." Index.
"
Quite the best publication, and certainly the host intbubstino, on this sulijeet eyer
presented to Nautical toau.."" Shipping Oazette.

* *
For Complete List of Griftin's Nautical Series, see p. 39.
*

LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN ft CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAND.

4S OBAKLMi OKlfl'IH * OO.'M PVBLIOATlOJn.

GBirrnrs nautical series.

SaooND Edition, Reyisbd. With Numeroiu IllastratioDB. Price 38. 6d..

Practical Mechanics:
Applied to the Bequirements of the Sailor.
By THOS. MACKENZIE,
MoMtw Marinar, F.R.A.S.

GsNUUJi GoNTBNTB. " ^Resolution and Composition of Forces "

^Work done
Machines and Living Agents The Mechanical Powers: The Leyer;.
Sr
eirrioks Bent Levers The Wheel
"

and Axle Windlass

as " : ; Ship's Capstan ;.
Crab Winch" Tackles : the *'01d Man"" The Inclined Plane; the Screw"
The Centre of Gravity of a Ship and Cargo "
Relative Strength of Rope :

Steel Wire, Manilla^Meinp, Coir " Derricks and Shears" Calculation of the
Cross-breaking Strain of Fir Spar "
Centre of Effort of Sails "
Hydrostatics:
the Diving-bell ; Stabilityof Floating Bodies ; the Ship's Pump, "c
"
Tms EXOBLLXNT BOOK . . .
Contains a labgb amount of information.'^
^"Nature.
"
Well wobth the money will be found EXOBBDiNOLr helfful.*' "
. . .

Bhknoinff World.
*'Ko Chips' Offioebs' bookcase will henceforth be complete without
Gaftain Mackenzie's '
Pbaotioal Mechanics. '
Notwithstandrng my man^
Tears' experience at sea, it has told me Juno much more there is to itcquirt," "

(Letter to the Publishers from a Master Mariner).

**
I must express my thanks to you for the labour and care you have takei^
In 'Practical Mechanics.' It is a life's expebience. .
. . . . .

What an amount we frequently see wasted by rigging purchases without reason

and accidents to spars, "c., "c. ! 'Practical Mechanics' would save all
THXB." " (Letter to the Author from ano^er Master Mariner).

WORKS BY RICHARD C. BUCK,

Of "he Tbames Nautloal Training College, H.]i.S. '
Woroestor.'

A Manual of Trigonometry:
With Diagrams, Examples, and Exercises, Price 8s. 6d.
Second Edition, Revised and Corrected.

*"* Mr. Buck's Text-Book has been specially pbepabed with a vieir
to the New Examinations of the Board of Trade, in which Trigonometry
is an obligatory subject.
"This KMnrBNTLT FKAcncAL and bsliablb YOunaL""Behoolmcuter.

A Manual of Algebra.
Designed to meet the Requirements of Saiiora and others. Price 8s, 6d.

\* These elementary works on alqsbba and tbiooitoicbtrt are written Spedally for
tJHose who wHl opportunity of consnlting a Teacher.
have little They are books for "sslv
HSLP." AH bat the simplest explanations have, merefore, been avoided, and answbbs te
the Exercises are given. Any person may readily, by careful study, become master of their
oontents, and thus lay the foandation for a farther mathematical course, if desired. It ia
hoped that to the younger Officers of our Mercantile Marine they will be found decidedly
"ervioeable. The "xampleB and Exercises are taken from the Examination Papers set for
the Oadets of the "
Worcester."
**01early arranged, and well got up. . .
A first-rate Elementary Algebra. "

IfmuMimi Magatine.
%*For complete List of Gbotim's Nautical Sbbibs. see p. 39.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

 NAUTICAL W0RK8. 43

GRIFFIN'S NATTTICAL SERIES.

Second Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Extended. In Grown Svo.
Handsome Cloth. Price- is. 6d.

THE LEGAL DUTIES OF SHIPMASTERS.

BY

BENEDICT WM. GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.),

Of the Inner Temple and Northern Gircnit; BarriBter-at-Law.
General The Qualification for the Position
Contents." of Shipmaster" The tract
Con-
with Shipowner"the The Master's Duty in respect of the Crew : Engagement :

Ap^entices ; Discipline ; Provisions, Accommodation, and Medical Comforts ; Payment

of wages and Discharge" The Master's Duty in respect of the Passengers" The 3"a8ter'B
Financial Besponsibilities- The Master's Duty in respect of the Cargo" The Master's
Duty In Case of Casualty" The Master's Duty to certain Public Authorities" The
Master's D^y in relation to Pilots, Signals, Flags, and Light Dues" The Master's Duty
upon Arrival at the Port of Discharge" Appendices relative to certain Legal Matten :
Board of Trade Certificates,Dietary Scales, Stowage of Grain Cargoes, Load Line B"gula*
tions, Life-saving Appliances, Carriage of Cattle at Sea, Ac, ""c." Copious Index.
"
No intelligent Master shoold fail to add this to bis list of necessary books. A few lines
of it may SAVB " LAWTKB's rsK, BB^roxs KNDLBSs YrovsT. ""Liverpool Journal of ComtMre:
"
Sbvsibls, plainly written, in olxab and non-tbchkical languJiob, and will be ftrand of
WCOH SBBViOB by the Shipmaster."" Jri^uA Trade Review.

Second Edition, Revised. With Diagrams. Price 28.

Latitude and Longitude:

SEoTHT to Find tlnem.
By W. J. MILLAR, C.E.,
Late Secretary to the Inst, of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.

"
CONOISXLT and clearly written . . .
cannot bnt prove an aoqnintion
to those stu^kingNavigation." " Marine Engineer,
"
Tonng seamen will find it handt and usbful, simple and olbar."" TAc
Bngineer,

FIRST AID AT SEA.

SsooND Edition, Revised. With Coloured Plates and Numerous Illastra-
tions, and comprising the latest Regulations Respecting the Carriage
of Medical Stores on Board Ship. Price 6s.

A HEDIGAL AND SURGICAL HELP

FOR SHIPMASTERS AND OFFICERS
IN THE MERCHANT NAVY.
BY

WM. JOHNSON SMITH, F.R.O.S.,

Principal Medical OjQQicer,Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich.

%* The attention of all interested in our Merchant Navy is requested to this exceedingly
nsefnl and valuable work. It is needless to say that it is the outcome of many years
PBAOTiGAL xxFBRiBNCs amougst Seamcu.
**
SouHD, juDioions, BXALLT nBLPFUL."" T^ Lancet.

*"* For Complete List of Gbepfin*8 Nautical Skbiks, see p. 39.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND,

44 CHAR LBS O BIFFIN Jk 00.' S PUBLICATIONS.

GBIFFiyS NAUTICAL SERIES,

Seventh Edition. Bevised, tvith Chapters on Trim^ Buoyancy^

and CaleukUUms. Numerous lUustrtUions. Handsome

Cloth, Crown 8vo, Price 7s, 6d.

KNOW TOUB OWN SHIP.

By THOMAS WALTON, Naval Architect.

8PB0IALLT ARRANGED TO SUIT THE REQUIREMENTS OP SHIFS' OFFICERS,

SHIPOWNERS, SUPERINTENDENTS, DRAUGHTSMEN, ENOINEERS,

AND OTHERS.

This work explains, in a simple manner, such important

snbjeictBas: "

Displacement, Stability,
Deadweight, Rolling,
Tonnage, Ballasting,
Freeboard, Loading,
Moments, ShiftingCargoes,
Buoyancy, Admission of Water,
Straia, Sail Area,
Stractnre,
'*
The little book will be found bxcssdinglt handt by most officen and
ofiicialB connected with shipping. . . .
Mr. Walton's work will obtain
LASTING SUCCESS^ because of its nniqne fitness for those for whom it has been
written." " 8hipp%ng World.
**
An EXCELLENT WORK, full of solid instruction and inyaluablb to eyery
officer of the Mercantile Marine who has his profession at heaxt"" Shipping,
"
Not one of the 242 pages could well be spared. It will admirably fulfil its
purpose . .
useful to ship owners, ship superintendents, diip draughts-
men,
.

and all interested in shippmg." " Liverpool Journal of Commerce,

**
A mass of vert useful information, accompanied by diagrams and trations,
illus-
is giyen in a compact form." "
Fa4rplay,
**
We have found no one statement that we could have wished differently
expressed. The matter has, so far as clearness allows, been admirably con-
densed, and is simple enough to be understood by every seaman.''" ATarifie
Engineer,

BY THK SAMK AUTHOR,

and Maintenance.
SteelSMps: Tbeir Constrnctlon
(See page 38.)

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

 ENGINEERIt^Q AND MECHANICS, 45

Just Out. Fifteenth Edition, Thorov^ldy Revised, GfrecUly Enlarged^

and Reset Throughout. Large Svo, Cloth, pp. i-xxiv+708.
With 280 Illustrations, reduced Jrom Working Drawings,
and 8 Plates. 21s. net.

A MANUAL OF

MARINE ENGINEERING;
COMPRISING THE DESIGNING, CONSTRUCTION, AND
WORKING OF MARINE MACHINERY.

By A. E. SEAT ON, M.InstC.E., M. Inst. Meeh. E.*

M.Inst.N.A.

General
Contents. Part I. Principlesof Marine
" Propulsion. "

Part Principles of Steam

II. " Engineering. Part III. Details of "

Marine Engines : Design and Calculations for Cylinders, Pistons, Valves,

Expansion Valves, "c. Part IV." Propellers. Part V. Boilers. "

Part IV. "

^Miscellaneous.

*"* This Edition includes a Chapter on Water- Tubs Boilers, with Jlliutra-
tioDS of the leading Types and the Revised Rules of the Buremu Veritas.

"
In the three-fold oapaoity of enabling a Student to learn how to design, oonnruoi,
ftod work a Marine Steam-"ngine" Mr. Seaton's Manual has NO bital."" 2Ymc*.
"
By hx the bbbt Manual in existence. . . .
GiTet complete
a account of th"
methods of solving, with the utmost possible economy, the problems before the Marinf
Bncineer.''" ^MMowm;
'"The Student, Draughtsman, and Ennneer will find this work the mor taluible
Handbook of Reference on the Marine Engine now in existence. ""IfttHiM Snffinser,

Seventh Edition, Thoroughly Revised. Pooket-Size, Leather. 8s. 6d.

A POCKET-BOOK OF

MmNE ENGINEERING BOLES AND TABLES,

TOB THE T7SE OT
,

Marine Engineers, Arehiteets, Designers,

Naval Draughtsmen,
Superintendents and Otliers.
BY

A. R SEAT ON, M.LaE., M.I.Mecli.E., M.I.N.A..

AND

H. M. ROUNTHWAITE, M.I.Mecli.E., M.I.N.A.

"Admirably fulfils its purpose." " Mari$u Rnginttr,

By B. CUNNINGHAM.

DOCKS: THEIB GONSTBUGTION " HAINTENANGE.

(See page 27.)

LONDON : CHARLES 6RIFFIN ft CO., LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAND.

46 OHARLBS QRIFFIN S CO.' 8 PUBLICATIONS.

WORKS BY PROF. ROBERT H. SMITH, Assoe.H.I.C.B.,

M.LM.E., M.L"LB., llLMliiJL, Whit Soh., M.Ord.]i"t]L

THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS

AND PHYSICISTS,
Applied to Teehnieal Problems.

WITH IXTEKSIYE

OIiASSIFIED HEFEBENCE LIST OF INTEGRALS.

By PROF. ROBERT H. SMITH.

ASSISTED BT

R F. MUIRHEAD, M.A., B.Sa,

Formerly Olftrk Fellow of QlMgow Univenity, and Lecturer on Mathemattca at
Mason College.

In Crown Svo, extras wth Diagrams and Folding-Plate. Ss. 6d.

**
PAor. B. H. Smith's book will be serviceable in rendering a hard road as iast as pbaotio-
AMiM for the non-mathematical Student and Engineer."" ^tikencniM.
*'
Interesting diagrams, with practical illustrations of actual ooenrrence, are to be found bete
In abundance. I^b tbbt complbtb CLAssirun BirBBBHCB tabui will proye yexy useftil in
saying the time of those who want an int^rral in a huiry."" T%" Enffineer.

MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS
(English and French) :

28 GRAPHIC TABLES OR DIAGRAMS.

Showing at a glance the Mutual Contebsion of Miasubbmbktb

in DiFFEBENT UnITS

Of Lengths, Areas, Volumes, Weights, Stresses, Densities, Quantities

of Work, Horse Powers, Temperatures, M).

For the use of Engineers, Surveyors, Architects, ami Contractors.

In 4tOf Boards. 78. 6d.

"
"
Prof. Smith's Conversion-Tables form the most unique and prehensive
com-
^
collection ever placed before the profession. By their use much
time and labour will be saved, and the cluinces of error in calculation
diminished. It is believed that henceforth no Engineer's Office will be
considered complete without them.
'*
The work is iRyALUABLB."" CoUmtv Gwirdian.
*'
9^^ili'^^
to be in ByB"T office where eyen oecasional conyersions are required. . " .
Frof.
BMRH 8 Tablbs form yery bxcbllbbv chbcks on results."" iifleetrieal Bwiew.
'*
Prof. ^aaiOideseryes the but of the Oommbbcial
hearty thanks, not only of the Bnoinxbb.
^^'J9^ V? V
J* smoothed the way for the adoption of the Mbtsic Stsibm of MBASUBuaurf,
a suQject Which is now assuming great importance as a factor in mAJTifAining our HOID upon
tOBUon TBADB.''-r"" Machinery Market.

LOMBW: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAND-

48 CHARLES QRIFFIN A CO.*S PUBLICATIONS.

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.

With Tables, Illustrations in the Text, and 37 Lithographic Plates. Medium

8vo. Handsome Cloth. 30s.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS:

A Guide to the Construetion of Works for the Prevention of the
Pollution by Sewage of Riyers and Estuaries;

By W. SANTO CRIMP, M.Inst.CK, F.G.S.,

Late AssistaatFEngiaeer, London County CoandL

part l" intkoductort. part ii." sewage disposal works in

Operation" Their Constrvction, Maintenance, and Cost.

*** From the faet of the Author's having, for some years, had drarge of tlie Main
Drainage Works of the Northern Section of the Metropolis, the chapter on London willbe
foud to contain many important details which would not od"erwise hare been available.
"
All persons interested in Sanitary Science owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Crimp. . .

His "r"rfc will be especially useflil to Sanitary Authoritibs and their advisers . .

"mOMfTLY PRACnCAI. AND VSBTUL."" ZrMKV^

"Probably the most cobspubtb and best trbatisb on the subjectwtis^ has ameared
IB language-
our . .
WBl prove of the yenlsot use to all who have Ae problem
Sewage Disposal to fiatce.*" iEififf^f/A MtJkalJpumal,

BeatUi/idly Illustrated, loith Numerous Plates, Diagrams, and

Figures in the Text. Sis, net,

TRADES' WASTE!
ITS TREATMENT AND UTILISATION.
A Handbook for Bopough Engrineeps, Supveyops, Apchitects, and Analysts.

By W. NAYLOR, P.O.S., A.M. Inst. C.E.,

Chief Inspector of Rivers, Bibble Joint Committee.

Contents." I. Introduction." II. Chemical Engineering." III." Wool De-greasiog

and Grease Becovery." IV. Textile Industries; Calico Bleaching and Dyeing." Y. Dyeing
and Calico-printing." VI. Tanning and Fellmongery.- VII. Brewery and Distillery
Waste.- VIII. Paper Mill Befuse." IX. General Trades' Waste." Index.
'*
There is
probably no person England in
to-day better fitted to deal rationally with
such a subject."" J}riti"ft Sanitarian.
**
The work is thoroughly practical, and will serve as a handbook in the future for those
who have to encounter tbe problems discassed."" (7A"mtca; Trade Journal.

At Press. Second Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Re-Written.

CALCAREOUS CEMENTS:
THEIR NATURE, PREPARATION, AND USES.

By gilbert R. REDGRAVE, Assoc. Inst. C.E.,

Assistant Secretary for Technology, Board of Education, South Kensington.
**
Invaluablb to the Student, Architect, and EaginMT."-^ Building Nev".
"
Will be useful to aix interested in the MAinTVAcruBB, usb, and TBsmo of Oementa.""
Knginmr.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRANa

 ELEOTRWAL BNOINEBRINO. 49

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
Second Edition, Revised. Large $vo.
In Handsome Cloth, Profusely
Illustrated with Plates^ Diagrams^ and Figures. 24s, net,

CENTRAL ELECTRICAL STATIONS:

Their Desigrn, Organisation, and Management.
By CHAS. H. WORDINGHAM, A.K.C., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E.,
Late Memb. of Council Inst-E.E., and Engineer
Electrical
to the City of Manchester ;
Electrical Engineer-in-Chief to the Admiralty.

ABRIDGED CONTENTS.
Introductory. " Central As an Station
Investment. The lishment
Estab- Work as a Profession. " "

of
Station. a Systems of Supply.
Central Site. Architecture. Plant." Boilers " " " " "

Systems of Draught and .Waste Heat Economy. Coal Handling, Weighing, and Storing. "
"

The Transmission of Steam. Generators. Condensing A^iiances.^ Switching Gear, " " "

Instruments, and Connections. Distributing Mains. Insulation, Resistance, and Cost.

" " "

Distributing Networks. Service Mains and Feeders. "Testing Mains. Meters and " "

Appliances. Standardising and " Testing Laboratory. Secondanr Batteries. Street Light-
ing. " "

Cost.
" General Organisation.
"
Mains Depsutment. Installation Department. " " "

Standardising Department Drawing Office. Clerical Department "The Consumer. " " "

Routine and Main Laying. Indbx. "

**
One of the most valuable contributions to Central Station literature we have had
for some time."" "lectricity.

ELECTRICITY CONTROL.
A Treatise on EleetPidty Switchgeap and Systems of Transmission.
By LEONARD ANDREWS, M.I.E.E..
Ex-Member of Council of the Incorporated Municipal Electrical Association ; Consulting
Electrical Engineer to the Hastings Corporation, "c., "c.

General Principles of Switchgear Design. "Constructional Details. "

Circuit Breakers or

Arc Interrupting Devices. Automatically Operated Circuit- "

Breakers. " Alternating Reverse
Current Devices.
Arrangement of 'Bus " Bars, and Apparatus for Parallel Running. "

General of Controlling
Arrangement Apparatus for^ ^^S^ Tension Systems. General "

Arrangement of Controlling Apparatus for Low Tension Systems. Examples of Complete "

Installations." Long Distance Transmission Schemes.

Sixteenth Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged.

A POCKET-BOOK
OF

ELECTRICAL RULES " TABLES

FOR THE USE OF ELECTRICIANS AND ENGINEERS,

By JOHN MUNRO, C.E., " Prop. JAMIESON, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.B.

With Numerous Diagrams. Pocket Size. Leather, 35. 6d,
GENERAL CONTENTS.
Units of Measurement. "
Measures. "
Testing. "
Conductors. " Dielectrics. " Submarint.
Cables. " ^Telegraphy. " Electro-Chemistry. "
Electro- Metallurgy. Batteries. "
"
Dynamos aniJ
IVIotors. " ^Transformers. " Electric Lighting. " Miscellaneous. Logarithms. " "
^Appendices.
*'
WoNDBXFULLY Pbrfbct. . . .
Worthy of the highest commendadoo we ca^

ffive it.** EUctrician,"

"The Stbbling Valub of Means. Mvnxo and Jamibson's Pockbt-Boov **-

Slectrieml Review.

LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN " CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.

 50 CHARLES QRIFFIN A CO.'S PUBLICATIONS,

By PROFESSORS J. H. POYNTING A J, J. THOMSON.

In Five YolnmeB. Large Svo. Sold Separately.

A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS
J. H. POYNTING, J. J. THOMSON,
'

8C.D.I f.B.8.1 AND M-^t r.B.B.|

faftteFallow of Trinity Oolleffe,Oambridce; Fellow of Trinity GoUege, Oambridse; Prot
VwUtmat of Physics, Burminxbam of Experimental Physics in the UiUTenitf
University. of Oambridxtt.

Introductory Volume, fnlly Illustrated. Second Edition, Revised.

Price IOb. 6d.

OoMTMi'i'B. gravitation.
" " The Acoeleration
of Orayity. Elasticity. Stresses anri " "

Strains." Torsion." Bending of Bods." Spiral

Springs." Collision." Compressibilityof
Liquids." Pressnres and volomes
of Oases." Thermal Effects Accompanying Strain."
OacAllarity." Surface Tension." Laplace's Theory of Capillarity." Diffusion of Liquids "

Diffusion of Ghases." Tisoosity of Liquids." Index.

"
Students of physics cannot fail to derive benefit from the \iooV.."" Knowledge.
"We regard this book as quiteindispensable not merely to teachers but to physicistsof ever
grade above the lowest."" University Correspondent.

Volume II. Third Edition. Fnlly Illustrated. Price 8s. 6d.

S O XJ M^ I".
OoaTBNTs." The Nature of Sound and its chief Gharaoteristics.- The Velocity of Sound
In Air and other Media." Reflection and Refraction of Sound." Frequencr and Pitch of
Notes." Besonanca and Forced Oscillations." Analysis of Vibrations. Tne Transverse "

Vibrations of Stretched Strings or Wires. "Pipes and other Air Cavities.- Bods." Plates.
"Membranes." Vibrations maintained by Heat" Sensitive Flames and Jets." Musical
Sand." The Superposition of Waves." Iitdex.
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The work . . . may be recommended to anyone desirous of possessing an xast,
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Volume III. At Press. Fully Illustrated.

R c JL rr.
Contents. Temperature. "
ExpaDsion of Sol ids. Liquids. Oases.
"
Circulation " " "

and Convection. Quantity of Heat ; Specific Heat.

"
Conductivity. Forms of Energy ; "
"

Conservation ; Mechanical Equivalent of Heat." The Kinetic Theory "Change of State ;

Liquid Vapour. Critical Points. " Solids and Liquids. Atmospheric Conditions."
" "

BAdiation." Theory of Exchanges." Radiation and Temperature." Thermodynamics."

Isothermal and Adiabatic Changes." Thermodynamics of Changes of Stale, and Solu-
tions."
Thermodynamics of Radiation." Index.

Remaining Volumes in Preparation "

LIGHT; MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY.

THE MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH : An Essay to which the

Adams Prize was adjudged in 1893 in the University of Cambridge. By J. H.
POYNTING, Sc.D., F.R.S., Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; Professor of
Physics, Birmingham University. In Large 8vo, with Bibliography, Illustrations in
the Text, and Seven Lithographed Plates. 12s. 6d.
"
An aooouBt of this suMeet cannot fail to be of okiav and esHisAL ivvibbsv to the sdentlfie
mind. Espedallv is this the case when the aeooant is given by one who has eontributed so
considerably as has Prof. Poyntfatg to our present state of knowledce with respeet to a very
difflonlt subject. Bemarkaoly .
has Newton's
.
estimate
.
been venned by Prof. Poynting.""
Athenanim.
I

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 MEDICINE AND THE ALLIED SCIENCES. 51

Third Edition, Rerised, Enlai^ed, and Re-issued. Price 6s. net.

A SHORT MANUAL OF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
BY

A. DUPRE, Ph.D.,.F.R.S.,

AND

WILSON HAKE, Ph.D., F.I.O., F.C.S.,

Of the Westinmster Hospital Medical School

"
ireH-writtea,dear aad accurate
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LABORATOBT HANDBOOKS BT A. HUMBOLDT SEXTON,

Professor of Metallargy in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.

OUTLINES OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.

FOR THB USE OP STUDENTS,

With lUnstrations. Foxtbth Edition. Crown 8vo, Cloth, da,

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FOR THB USB OF STUDENTS,

With niustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Ss. 6d.
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Compiled with great care, and will snpply a want." " JourruU of EducaMon.

ELEMENTARY METALLURGY:

Inolnding the Author's Practical Laboratory Course. With many

Illustrations. [See p. 66 General Catalogue,

Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo. Cloth, Bs.

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