The Muslims of Sindh supported the 'Jihad Movement' under the leadership of Syed

Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi and also fought the British in the first war of independence of
1857.

1. MUSLIM LEADERS

MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH

Born in Karachi to a Gujurati family, Pakistan’s founder was among the first students of a
Muslim school in Bombay which was also attended by the renown Quran translator Abudllah
Yusuf Ali. Jinnah also attended the school Sind Madrassat-ul-Islam in his native Karachi.

From a young age, his aspirations were clearly Islamic. When he was sent to study law in
England, he chose the law school the Lincoln Inn in London because it considered Prophet
Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, as one of the greatest law givers of the world.

He became the youngest graduate at his school, completing his law degree at 18. Later, after
returning to India and establishing a successful law practice, he joined the Indian National
Congress and its movement to free India from British colonial rule. However, he became
disenchanted with the party when Mohandas Gandhi, its leader, began brining Hindu religious
language and symbolism into the movement. Jinnah felt this disempowered Muslims and
slowed down the cause of freedom.

In response, he quit the Congress and returned to England. The Muslim poet-philosopher
Allama Muhammad Iqbal coaxed him back to India, inspiring him with the idea of Pakistan and
the need to fight for the rights of Indian Muslims, who were not fairly represented in the Hindu-
majority country, particularly in the areas of politics and employment.

Jinnah rose to become president of the Muslim League and leader of the movement for
Pakistan. His entry into Muslim politics also led him to become a much more conscientious
Muslim as he adopted Muslim dress, learned Urdu, and studied the Quran with Islamic scholar
Shabbir Usmani. These changes eventually led to him abandoning a number of unIslamic
practices he had been engaged in.

Although suffering from severe tuberculosis, he kept his illness a secret not only from those
who opposed his mission, but for the millions who supported him as well. He felt that disclosing
his sickness would lower the morale of those working for the cause of Pakistan.

What makes Jinnah even more unique as a leader is the fact that he successfully carved out and
established a nation through legal, constitutional means, without the bloodshed that usually
accompanies such an endeavor. Although horrific massacres did occur after the establishment
of Pakistan as Muslims and Hindus migrated across the new borders, the process of obtaining
Pakistan was done peacefully.

He died in 1948, one year after achieving his goal of Pakistan.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938)

Iqbal is credited with developing the idea of Pakistan from the start, although he died nine
years before he could see his dream come to fruition.

Although Iqbal was politically active, he was best known for his inspiring Urdu and Persian
poetry, which many credit for waking up the Muslims of India to push for their rights. He was
also a philosopher, whose seminal work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, was a
collection of lectures on philosophy he had presented in Hyderabad, Aligarh, and Madras.

Born in Sialkot, Punjab, he was a descendent of Kashmiri Brahmins who had converted to Islam
centuries earlier. His love for poetry was evident from a very young age, and he became a
frequent participant in Lahore’s annual poetry gatherings (Mushairas).

Like Jinnah, he became a lawyer. With degrees from Cambridge University in England and a
doctorate from the University of Munich in Germany, he returned to Lahore to teach at the
local Government College, while maintaining a private law practice there.
Iqbal took his first important step in the realm of politics during his stay in England while
studying at Cambridge University. There, he became an active member of the British
Committee of the All-Indian Muslim League. When in 1906, this Committee was active in
making British public opinion and political leaders accept the principle of separate electorates
for the Muslims of India, Iqbal was one of the staunch supporters of the Committee. Upon
returning to Lahore, he joined the existing Muslim League and served as secretary and advisor
to the party.

Iqbal was convinced that the only solution for the Muslims was a two-state one, thus conceiving
the idea for Pakistan, a federation composed of the Muslim-majority states of India at the time.
He died in 1938, not being able to see that dream come true. However, his close partnership
with Jinnah in his later years allowed him to pass the torch of the Pakistan idea to the man who
would later be known as Quaid-e-Azam.

He is also credited with encouraging a young Islamic scholar and journalist from Hyderabad,
India, to settle in Punjab and to establish and Islamic research institute for the revival of Islam.
This man, Syed Abul Ala Mawdoodi, took up Iqbal’s offer, going on to become one of Pakistan’s
leading supporters and scholars.

Iqbal’s poetry in Persian left a legacy to the revolutionaries of Iran, particularly leaders like Ali
Shariati, who were inspired by his ideas of self-reliance and pan-Islamism that transcended the
narrow focus on Iran alone, which marked the 1979 revolution.

Muhammad Ali Johar (1878-1931)

Do not send me back to a colonized state, for I want to go back and live in an independent
country.
Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar. [ 1930 ].
Islamic scholar Muhammad Ali Johar was a dynamic leader second only to Muhammad Ali
Jinnah himself. He is best known for his leadership of the Khilafah movement, in whose capacity
he was influential even among non-Muslims like Mohandas Gandhi.

The poet and journalist was educated at Aligarh and Oxford Universities and served in the
Education Department of Rampur state, which was also his birthplace. He remained faithful to
the All-India Muslim League, which he helped found, and was particularly active between 1906
and 1928. He became president of the party in 1918.

As a journalist, he established the English weekly newspaper “Comrade” from Calcutta in 1911,
and the Urdu weekly “Hamdard” in 1913 from Delhi. He had also been published in English
newspapers like the Manchester Guardian and The Observer.

Like other stalwarts of the Pakistan movement, his concern for Muslim issues was prominent in
his activism. What sets him apart from the other leaders of the movement though, is his active
support for causes outside the subcontinent. Prominent among these was his championing of
the cause of the Islamic Khilafah, which collapsed in 1924. He was jailed between 1911 and
1915 for his support of this cause. In 1915, he became the main leader of the Khilafah
movement and led a delegation of Indian Muslims to London for this cause in 1920.

It is important to note that the Khilafah movement was not just focused on the Islamic world
and the preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate. Another aspect of it promoted the freedom of
all colonized people and nations. This aspect of the movement gained support from non-
Muslim leaders as well, including India’s Mohandas Gandhi.

A former member of the Indian National Congress, he left the party in 1928 and expressed his
support for Quaid-e-Azam’s fourteen points.

Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar died in London and was buried in Jerusalem. He had asked in his
will that he be buried there because he did not want to return to a “slave country”.

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque (1873-1962)

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque was an advocate par excellence for Muslims in India, especially those in
Bengal, as well as for the Pakistan movement. He is credited with including Bengal in the vision
for Pakistan.

The Saturia, Bengal-born Islamic scholar and political activist pushed for the cause of education
and political empowerment of Muslims, as well as the rights of Muslim peasants in Bengal.

He was a unique blend of Islamic scholarship and Western education at a time when the two
worlds were poles apart. He obtained his Islamic education at home through private tutors and
studied law at the University Law College in Calcutta. In 1900, he was enrolled as an advocate in
the Calcutta High Court.

A firm believer that education was the passport to a better future for Muslims in Bengal, he
started the Central National Mohammedan Educational Association in 1912 to help poor and
deserving Muslim students obtain the resources to further their education. He also contributed
to the establishment of the Muslim University at Aligharh in 1920.

Haque established Krishak Proja Samities, a movement for the rights of the Muslim peasants of
Bengal who were often at the mercy of usurious Hindu middlemen. In 1936, he successfully
pushed for the enactment of the Bengal Agricultural Debtors’ Act, through which millions of
Muslim peasants were relieved from millions of rupees of debt incurred by doing businesses
with the Hindu middlemen.

A strong advocate for Muslim rights in India, he served as a joint secretary on the four-man
drafting committee for the constitution of the All-India Muslim League, as well as the general
secretary of the Bengal Provincial Muslim League in 1913. A year later, became the
organization’s president.

Haque was a major participant in the historic session of the Muslim League at Lahore between
March 22 and March 24, 1940, when the Pakistan Resolution was passed. He, like others at the
session, was clearly wary of how India would be ruled, and more importantly, how Muslims
would be treated in a post-British India. Haque, like Jinnah, did not trust the Indian National
Congress, the party that was likely to lead the country after independence. Haque believed that
the establishment of Pakistan was the only way to truly guarantee the political empowerment
and rights of Muslims on the subcontinent.

It is critical to note that during the March 1940 session, Haque pushed for the inclusion of
Bengal to be part of Pakistan. Allama Iqbal’s vision for Pakistan, which he had developed well
before his death in 1938, included only northern and western sections of India. Haque’s
suggestion was accepted and seven years after that critical March day, Pakistan, the East and
West wings, came into being.

He migrated to Pakistan at the age of 74 in 1947 and continued to play an active role in the
country’s political affairs. In 1951, he accepted the Advocate-Generalship of East Pakistan and
was later elected its Chief Minister. He also served as its Governor.
Liaqat Ali Khan (1895-1951)

“Gandhi has men who can advise him and whom he can depend on. And he leans on them quite
often…I have only Liaqat.”

-Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Born into an aristocratic family in Karnal, Punjab, Liaqat Ali Khan could have relied on his hefty
family inheritance to maintain a life of luxury and comfort. But he did nothing of the sort.

The life of Liaqat Ali Khan, who earned the titles Qaid-e-Millat and Shahid-e-Millat, was one of
complete service to the Muslims of India and the cause of Pakistan. He was so devoted that
Muhammad Ali Jinnah himself referred to Khan as his “right hand man”.

He received degrees from Aligarh and Oxford Universities. It was in England that he became
interested in politics, as he observed and participated in debates organized by Oxford’s Indian
Majlis.
Khan obtained a law degree, however, he never really practiced as a lawyer after returning to
India in 1923. The fire of politics burned in him, and that was where he really wanted to apply
himself.

The opportunity arrived with the All-India Muslim League. Khan became one of its members in
1923 and when in 1926, the elections were being held for the Legislative Assembly, he
contested for a seat in the Assembly as an independent candidate.

Khan was elected Honorary Secretary of the Muslim League, then General Secretary for the
party, a post he retained from 1936 until the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. In this capacity,
he developed into a reliable and trustworthy right-hand man for Jinnah as he developed and
worked on the establishment of Pakistan.

Khan was a very hard worker, and interestingly, he had an amazing capacity to juggle several
important posts. Besides being the Deputy Leader of the Muslim League Assembly Party, he
was also Honorary Secretary General of the Muslim League, Convenor of the Action Committee
of the Muslim League, Chairman of the Central Parliamentary Board, and the Managing Director
of the party’s newspaper Dawn.

This ability to juggle many assignments perhaps served as good training for the critical roles he
would play once Pakistan was established in 1947: as the country’s first Prime Minister, who
was also in charge of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations and Defense. This task was
made even more arduous by the fact that everything in Pakistan needed to be built anew in this
nascent nation.
He was able to manage his many tasks even as the country lost Jinnah in 1948.

Khan’s life ended tragically in October 1951, after he was shot to death while giving a speech in
Rawalpindi. His dying words, after reciting the Islamic declaration of faith were, “May God
protect Pakistan.” 

Choudhary Rahmat Ali [1895-1951]

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, was born in 1895. From his
early childhood, Rahmat Ali showed signs of great promise as a student. After completing his
schooling, he joined the Islamia College of Lahore in order to get his Bachelor of Arts degree.
Rahmat Ali finished education in England, obtaining MA and LLB with honors from the
universities of Cambridge and Dublin.

It was during the years 1930 through 1933, that he seemed to have established the Pakistan
National Movement, with its headquarter at Cambridge. On January 28, 1933, he issued his first
memorable pamphlet "Now or Never; Are we to live or perish forever?" He coined the word
"Pakistan" for 30 million Muslims who live in the five northern units of India; Punjab, North
West Frontier (Afghan) Province, Kashmir, Sindh and Baluchistan. The pamphlet also gave
reasons for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate nation. He spoke of an independent
homeland for Muslims, Pakistan, in the northern units of India, "Bang-i-Islam" for Muslims in
Bengal, and "Usmanistan" for the Muslims in Hyderabad-Deccan.

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali propagated the Scheme of Pakistan with a missionary zeal since its
inception in 1933. In August 1947, Pakistan came to be established and in 1948 Chaudhry
Rahmat Ali visited Pakistan. Later he proceeded to England to champion the cause of Kashmir
through the United Nations.

Sick and weak, he died on February 12, 1951.

THE KASHMIR ISSUE

A DETAILED NOTE ON THE KASHMIR ISSUE BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND INDIA

Introduction

Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu Ruler,
Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 77 percent of the
total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord
Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947.
The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the
Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan
consented but India refused.

War of Kashmir 1947

The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August
1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The
Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire and within a matter of
seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local
barrister called Sardar Mohammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government
and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir
had begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the Noth West Frontier Province, wanting to
avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they
defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital.

Maharaja's Coalition with India

The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send
troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir
would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten
accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 26, 1947, India began to airlift her troops
to Srinagar and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite
her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her troops but the British
General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an
immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir Dispute and United Nations

In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of
aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the
accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The government requested the Security
Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw
so that a free impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of
Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistan War 1948 and United Nation's Involvement

While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and
drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into
Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir Army. But
the Security Council on August 13, 1948 called for an immediate ceasefire the withdrawal of all
Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nation's supervision. Both
the Indian and Paksitani government accepted the resolution.
In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was
demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas
of Western Kashmir, Gilgit and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the
North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the
Tiber border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held
and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed and unresolved.
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

The 1965 War

In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a
sparsely inhabited region along the south-western Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians
withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in September 1965, when
India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-
controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks later, following mediation efforts by the UN
and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in
Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other
differences.

The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan,
pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy and
independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people.
The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000 became India
prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh on 6th
December 1971. Following the 1971 Indo-Pakistan conflict, President Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met in the mountain town of Shimla, India in July 1972.
They agreed to a line of control in Kashmir resulting from the December 17, 1971 cease-fire,
and endorsed the principle of settlement of bilateral disputes through peaceful means.

Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984

India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally
acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program.
In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their
respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh province.
In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-
altitude desolate area close to the China border left undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement
(Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949.
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after a
group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985,
President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In
early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen
Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.

Kashmir Insurgency 1990

Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a compaign of
violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level
bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened
again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and
terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both
countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97

In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between
rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
moved to resume official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary
and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In
a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-
aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear
and missile capabilities.

Effects of 9/11 on Kashmir

If the world and the United States changed after September 11, the center of that change is the
region where Pakistan is located. When it came to begin the war against terrorism Pakistan did
not hesitate to do whatever it takes to fight against terrorism. United States of America
appreciated the efforts of Pakistan which did not please India. So, India blamed Pakistan-based
groups for the December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament. In reply, General Parvez
Musharraf's speech of January 12, 2002 which even India's hawkish Home Minister Lal Krishna
Advani termed four days later as "path-breaking", India was caught on the back foot.

National Kashmir Committee

It is in this context that Pakistan launched a new political initiative on Kashmir to reaffirm its
long standing policy of supporting the right of self-determination for the people of kashmir that
is enshrined in United Nations resolutions, initially accepted even by India. Musharraf
announced the formation of a National Kashmir Committee headed by a veteran Kashmiri
politician, and its charter made clear the purposes behind the initiative. The challenge before
the government is to promote confidence among the people in Pakistan and Kashmir regarding
Pakistan's efforts to project the Kashmir cause as a popular and indigenous struggle
internationally.
Having addressed international concerns regarding terrorism and extremism in Musharraf's
January 12 speech, the United States is now more receptive to Pakistan's plea and is anxious to
see a dialogue on all the issues of Kashmir.

Peace in South Asia and the Kashmir Dispute

Pakistan believes that the establishment of durable peace in South Asia hinges on the
resolution of the Kashmir Dispute in light of the security Council resolutions and the wishes of
the Kashmiri people. On March 17, 2004 Prime Minister Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali said the
Kashmir dispute remains the core issue between India and Pakistan. The two South Asian
nations have fought three wars, two of which were over the disputed kashmir region. In
January this year, the two leaderships made a decision to open the dialogue process in a bid to
resolve all disputes between the two sides.

The Dialogue Process

Pakistan always showed seriousness and sincerity towards resolution of the core issue of
Kashmir by adopting several Confidence Building Measures (CBMs). World community. time
and again has advised India to decrease the number of its force in Occupied Kashmir and
release illegally detained Kashmiri Leadership. India never hesitated from leveling baseless
allegations against Pakistan of infiltration and also did not stop massive human rights violations
in Kashmir. The need is to initiate vigorous efforts from both sides in resolving the Kashmir
issue. The basic important dispute between the two countries is Kashmir issue and with its
resolution all the other outstanding issues would be settled very easity. Prime Minister Mir
Zafarullah Khan Jamali said that Kashmir dispute should be resolved according to the United
Nations resolution and with active participation of the Kashmiris.

Year 2005 - Road to Peace

The Prime Minister said that there wre many difficulties on road to peace but emphasized the
need to take measures to promote mutual trust and find new avenues for a peaceful resolution
of the lingering Kashmir dispute. The first formal visit of a faction of the separatist All Parties
Hurriyat Conference (APHC) and the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) to Pakistan
occupied Kashmir (PoK) and subsequently, though unsanctioned by Indian authorities to
Pakistan between June 2-16, 2005 was thus projected as a major event and development in the
process of solving the "Kashmir Issue". Indeed the visit strongly reiterated the fact that the
APHC continues to be a faithful Pakistani proxy. After his meeting with the President Musharraf,
Mirwaiz Umer Farooq declared that We want Kashmir to be divided on geographical grounds.
We don't wand Kashmir to lose its identity.... we support his [President Musharraf]
approach. During their meeting with President Musharraf, the APHC leaders once again were
assured full political, diplomatic and moral support.

This tour has been helpful in understanding the viewpoint of the Kashmiri leaders. Their quest
for a free hand to decide their future is valid. They have been living under brutal Indian
occupation since 1948. Despite promised justice by the UN 57 years ago, they have been denied
their right of self-determination. It was in fact the denial of justice and unabated Indian State-
terrorism perpetrated against Kashmir.
The recent visit of the APHC leaders was a significant development, which can be termed as a
milestone in the process of resolving the core dispute of Kashmir between Pakistan and India
peacefully. We wish both the governments to show courage, boldness and flexibility in settling
the issue.
 Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih
  

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14

FORIEGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

PRINCIPLES OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

Introduction

No country today can think of a life independent of other nations. Every country has to develop
relations with other countries so as to meet its requirements in economical, industrial and
technological fields. It is thus necessary for every country to formulate a sound foreign policy.
Pakistan is an important third world country, in its developmental stage. It also has formulated
her foreign policy keeping in mind its geography, politics and economics.

Definition of Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy can be defined as

Relations between sovereign states. It is a reflection of domestic politics and an interaction

among sovereign states. It indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to
establish relations with another country.

Pakistan's Foreign Policy in Light of Quaid-e-Azam's Words

The father of the nation, Quaid-e-Azam defined Foreign Policy towards other countries of the
world in 1948, as follows
Our Foreign Policy is one of friendliness and good-will towards all the nations of the world. We
do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the policy of
honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our
utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among the nations of the world.
Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the
oppressed and suppressed peoples of the world and in upholding the principles of the United
Nations Charter.

Basic Goals of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.

2. Maintenance of its political independence.

3. Acceleration of social and economic development.

4. Strengthening its place on the globe.

5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

Guiding Principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

Following are the basic principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy:

1. Protection of Freedom and Sovereignity

Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of million of Muslims. Like any other country, she
also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not
allow any country to harm its freedom. Therefore, the principle of protection of independence
and sovereignity is the corner stone of Pakistan's Foreign Policy.

2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries

Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has
always moved its concern against Israel, India and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and
Afghanistan respectively. She has shouldered high responsibilities and used her influence for
safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of the Islamic
Conference.

3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs of Other Countries

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially in
neighbouring countries, on the basis of universally acknowledge the principle of national
sovereignity, non use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states.

4. Implementation of U.N Charter

Pakistan's policy is to act upon UN charter and to support all moves by the UN to implement it.
Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth.

5. Promotion of World Peace

Pakistan's policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any
country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the
international disputes should be settled through negotiations rather than non-battlefield.

6. Non-Alignment

Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment with any big
power bloc, and avoids taking sides in the cold war. It has also given up its association with
SEATO and CENTO and was included in NAM in 1979.

7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination

Pakistan is a stomach supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the fore front
of efforts to eliminate colonialism and racism. It has advocated the right of self-determination
of Kashmir.

8. Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament

Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and security cannot be
achieved and sustained in the world with arms. Disarmament is the imperative condition for
truly durable peace in the world. Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in
the nuclear and conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a
collective endeavour by countries at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance
security at the lowest possible level of armaments is an indispensable result to their advocacy
of global disarmament.

9. Member of International Organization

Pakistan had become the member of the British Commonwealth with the time of its
establishment. In addition it is the member of United Nations (U.N), Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM), Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO),
South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN), and D-Eight. Being a member of International Organizations the objectives of
Pakistan are to struggle for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote regional
co-operation.

Conclusion

The guiding principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy are rooted in the country's Islamic ideology,
its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country,
Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles, which
hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which nations can live in peace and
security.

PAKISTAN’S RELATIONS WITH UNITED STATES

Pakistan's relationship with the West, particularly the United States, was of major importance.
Geographically the USA is not a neighbour of Pakistan, but interests of politician, Bureaucracy
and Generals have brought both the countries close together. The United States and Pakistan
established diplomatic relations in 1947.

Liaquat Ali Khan's Visit 1950

In 1949, the US Secretary of State extended invitation to the Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan for
a visit to the United States. The Prime Minister visited USA at the end of 1950. During his visit
he tried to identify Pakistan as more near to the West and Islam more near to Christianity than
to Communism and begged for economic and military aid.

SEATO and CENTO 1954-55

Pakistan's relations with the United States developed against the backdrop of the Cold War.
Pakistan's strategic geographic position made it a valuable partner in Western alliance systems
to contain the spread of communism. In 1954 Pakistan signed a Mutual Defence Agreement
with the United States and subsequently became a member of SEATO (South East Asian Treaty
Organization) and CENTO (Central Treaty Organization). The U.S. agreement to provide
economic and military assistance to Pakistan and the latter's partnership in the Baghdad Pact
CENTO and SEATO strengthened relations between the two nations.

Pakistan as Washington's Closest Ally

Pakistan also used as a base for United States military reconnaissance flights over Soviet
territory. During the cold War years, Pakistan was considered one of Washington's closest allies
in Asia. Pakistan, in return, received large amounts of economic and military assistance.

1965 and 1971 Wars and United States

The United States suspended military assistance to both the countries involved in the conflict of
1965. However, the U.S. suspension of military assistance during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan was
generated a widespread feeling in Pakistan that the United States was not a reliable ally. The
United States embargo on arms shipments to Pakistan remained in place during the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1971 and was not lifted until 1975. Gradually, relations improved and arms
sales were renewed in 1975. United States-Pakistani relations preceding the 1971 was were
characterized by poor communication and much confusion.

Withdraw from SEATO and CENTO

Following the lost of East Wing, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO. Pakistan's military links with
the West continued to decline throughout Bhutto's tenure in power and into the first years of
the Zia regime. CENTO was disbanded following the fall of the Shah of Iran in March 1979, and
Pakistan then joined the Nonaligned Movement. Zia also continued Bhutto's policy of
developing Pakistan's nuclear capability.

Cease of Economic Assistance

Developing Pakistan's nuclear capability policy had originated as a defensive measure in
reaction to India's explosion of a nuclear device in 1974. In April 1979, President Jimmy Carter
cut off economic assistance to Pakistan, except for food assistance, as required under the
Symington Amendment to the Foreign Assistance act of 1961. This amendment called for
ceasing economic assistance to those countries that had imported uranium-enrichment
technology. Relations between the United States and Pakistan were further strained in
November 1979 when protesters sacked the United States embassy i Islamabad, resulting in the
death of four persons. The violence had been sparked by a false report that the United States
was involved in a fire at the Grand Masjid in Macca.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and American's Changed Policy

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 revived the close relationship between
Pakistan and the United States. Initially, however the President Carter lifted the ban on aid to
Pakistan and in January 1980, offered a package of US$ 400 million economic and military aid to
Pakistan which was rejected by General Zia-ul-Haq, who termed it"peanuts". Under President
Ronald Reagan, the United States agreed in 1981 to provide US$ 3.2 billion to Pakistan aimed at
helping Pakistan deal with the heightened threat to security in the region and its economic
development needs. However, although the Symington Amendment was waived, the amount
was subject to the annual appropriation process. A second economic and military assistance
program was announced in April 1986, this time for over US$ 4.0 billion, with 57 percent for
economic assistance. With U.S, assistance in the largest covert operation in history - Pakistan
armed and supplied anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan, eventually defeating the Soviets, who
withdrew in 1988.

Pressler Amendment 1985

On October 01, 1990 however, the United States suspended all military assistance and new
economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, which required that the President
certify annually that Pakistan "does not possess a nuclear explosive device". For several years,
the United States president, with Pakistan's assurances that its nuclear program was for
peaceful uses, was able to make this certification. However, with the Soviet withdrawal from
Afghanistan and the end of the Cold War, the United States took a harder position on the
nuclear weapons issue and President George Bush refused to make the certification required
under the Pressler Amendment, and assistance to Pakistan was subsequently terminated.
Further, the supply of F-16 jet fighters was also stopped for which Pakistan had already paid
$650 million to the US.

Sanctions on alleged transfer of M-11 missiles

Pakistan's retention of the nuclear option became a defining issue in its relations with the
United States. USA another action in regard of the nuclear issue occurred in September 1993
when the US imposed sanctions against China and Pakistan on alleged transfer of M-11 missiles
to Pakistan labeling it a violation of the MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime).

Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's Visit to US 1995

In the background of the number of unresolved issues including nuclear non-proliferation,
delivery of F-16s, alleged supply of M-11 missiles by China, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto paid
an official visit to Washington in April 1995. The joint statement failed to mention any solution
to these issues. Pakistan and US signed in Washington Memoranda of Unterstanding providing
for $6 million of investment by American companies in Pakistan.
Brown Amendment 1995
According to US officials the Pressler Amendment was a hurdle in the normalization of Pak-US
relations. As a result, on 21st September 1995, the US Senate under Clinton Administration
passed the Brown Amendment to lessen its negative impact. The amendment opened the way
for 28 undelivered F-16s to be sold to a third country and the money refunded to Pakistan,
release of $368 million worth defense equipment, restoration of corporation in such areas as
narcotics control, international terrorism, peace keeping and the availability of US insurance
cover for investment made in Pakistan.

Nuclear Weapon Tests 1998

India's decision to conduct nuclear tests in May 1998 and Pakistan's matching response set back
U.S. relations in the region. President Clinton's visit to Pakistan scheduled for the first quarter of
1998 was postponed and under the Glenn Amendment, sanctions restricted the provisions of
credits, military sales, economic assistance and loans to the government. An intensive dialogue
on nuclear nonproliferation and security issues was initiated with discussion focusing on CTBT
(Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) signature and ratification. Pakistan declared that it would sign
the treaty only when India did so first.

Nawaz Sharif's Meeting with President Clinton 1998

The relations improved a little after the former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's meeting with
President Clinton in Washington in December 1998. As a consequence, the economic sanctions
imposed by the US after the Nuclear Test were eased. A notable achievement was a resolution
of the F-16s issue and accordingly US released $436.7 million to Pakistan as a claim in
connection with the F-16 aircrafts. But the October 1999 overthrow of the democratically
elected Sharif government triggered an additional layer of sanctions with include restrictions on
foreign military financing and economic assistance. U.S. Government assistance to Pakistan was
limited mainly to refugee and counter-narcotics assistance.

September 11 attacks and Pakistan-US relationship

History changed its course on September 11, 2001 when deadly terrorists attacks destroyed
World Trade Centre at New York and severally damaged the Pentagon in Washington. More
than 5,000 people were killed in this attack. The 9/11 incidence gave a new direction to the
global politics.
The Pakistan-US relationship changed significantly when Pakistan moved decisively to ally itself
with the United States in its war against Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. It gave the U.S. a
number of military airports and bases for its attack on Afghanistan. It has arrested over five
hundred Al-Qaeda members and handed them over to the United States. In response the
United States stepped up its economic assistance to Pakistan providing debt relief.

President Musharraf's Visit to US 2003

President Musharraf visited United States in June 2003 and both Presidents negotiated on 24th
June 2003 at Camp David. Afterwards President Bush announced to provide Pakistan $3 billion
economic and military aid and plainly refused about the delivery of F-16s.
The Bush Administration expressed its desire that "an enhanced and enduring
relationship" with Pakistan would continue to thrive in the years ahead. Continuing interest of
President Bush and personal diplomacy of Secretary Powell to defuse border tension between
Pakistan and India also reflected the US desire for enhanced constructive engagement in the
region.

Pakistan as major Non-NATO ally

In March, 2004 the United States designated Pakistan as a "major Non-NATO ally". This move
will significantly enhance military cooperation between the two countries and enable Pakistan
to purchase modern military equipment, satellite technology, depleted uranium ammunition
and enhance cooperation in defense sector, research and development with US.

PAKISTAN’S RELATIONS WITH INDIA

Since partition of the sub-continent in 1947, relations between Pakistan and India have been
characterized by rivalry and suspicion. The animosity has its roots in religion and history, and is
epitomized by the long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Historical Background
The Indian Sub Continent was partitioned into Hindu-dominated India and the newly created
Muslim state of Pakistan after India's independence from Great Britain in 1947. Severe rioting
and population movement ensued and an estimated half a million people were killed in
communal violence. About a million people were left homeless. Since partition, the territory of
Jammu and Kashmir has remained in dispute with Pakistan and India both holding sectors.

First Indo-Pakistan War 1947-49

At the time of partition, the princely state of Kashmir, though ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, had
an overwhelmingly Muslim population. When the Maharaja hesitated in acceding to either
Pakistan or India in 1947, some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan,
revolted in favor of joining Pakistan.
The first Indo-Pakistan war started after armed tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier
Province invaded Kashmir in October 1947. Besieged both by a revolt n his state and by the
invasion, the Maharaja requested armed assistance from the Government of India. In return he
acceded to India, handling over powers of defense, communication and foreign affairs. Both
India and Pakistan agreed that the accession would be confirmed by a referendum once
hostilities had ceased. In May 1948, the regular Pakistani army was called upon to protect
Pakistan's borders. Fighting continued throughout the year between Pakistani irregular troops
and the Indian army. The war ended on 1st January 1949 when a ceasefire was arranged by the
United Nations which recommended that both India and Pakistan should adhere to their
commitment to hold a referendum in the state. A ceasefire line was established where the two
sides stopped fighting and a UN peacekeeping force established. The referendum, however has
never been held.

The 1965 War

In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a
sparsely inhabited region along the south-western Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians
withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in September 1965, when
India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-
controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks later, following mediation efforts by the UN
and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in
Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other
differences.

The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan,
pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy and
independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people.
The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000 became India
prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh on 6th
December 1971.

Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984

India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally
acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program.
In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their
respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh province.
In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-
altitude desolate area close to the China border left undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement
(Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949.
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after a
group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985,
President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In
early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen
Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.

Kashmir Insurgency 1990

Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a compaign of
violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level
bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened
again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and
terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both
countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97

In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between
rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
moved to resume official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary
and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In
a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-
aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear
and missile capabilities.

Nuclear Rivalry 1998

The arms race between the rivals escalated dramatically in the 1990s. In May 1998, India
conducted underground nuclear tests in the western desert state of Rajasthan near the border
with Pakistan. In response, Pakistan conducted six tests in Balochistan. In the same year,
Pakistan test its longest range missile, the 1,500 km (932 mile) Ghauri missile, named after the
12th Century Muslim warrior who conquered part of India. Both sides were heavily criticized by
the international community for the tests as fears of a nuclear confrontation grew.
The United States ordered sanctions against both countries, freezing more than $20bn of aid,
loans and trade. Japan ordered a block on about $1bn of aid loans. Several European countries
followed suit, and the G-8 governments imposed a ban on non-humanitarian loans to India and
Pakistan. The UN Security Council condemned India and Pakistan for carrying out nuclear tests
and urged the two nations to stop all nuclear weapons programmes.

Indian Prime Minister Atal Vajpayee Visit to Pakistan 1999

The relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee traveled to Lahore
for a summit with Sharif in February 1999. There was considerable hope that the meeting could
lead to a breakthrough. They signed the Lahore accord pledging again to "intensify their efforts
to resolve all issues, including the issue of Jammu and Kashmir."

Kargil Conflict 1999

Unfortunately, in May 1999 India launched air strikes against Pakistani backed forces that had
infiltrated into the mountains in Indian-administrated Kashmir, north of Kargil. Pakistan
responded by occupying positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the remote,
mountainous area of Kashmir near Kargil threatening the ability of India to supply its forces on
Siachen Glacier. By early summer, serious fighting flared in the Kargil sector. The infiltrators
withdrew following a meeting between Prime Minister Sharif and President Bill Clinton in July.
Relations between India nad Pakistan have since been particularly strained, especially since the
October 12, 1999 coup in Islamabad.
The Brink of War 2001
Tension along the ceasefire lined continued. The worst fighting for more than a year broke out
in October as India, which continued to condemn Pakistan for cross-border terrorism, started
shelling Pakistani military positions. October saw a devastating attack on the Kashmiri assembly
in Srinagar in which 38 people were killed. After the attack, the Chief Minister of Indian-
administrated Kashmir, Farooque Abdullah called on Indian Government to launch a war
against militant training camps across the border in Pakistan.
On 13th December, an armed attack on the Indian Parliament in Delhi left 14 people dead. India
again blamed Pakistani-backed Kashmiri militants. The attack led to a dramatic build-up of
troops along the Indo-Pakistan border, military exchanges and raised fears of a wider conflict.
Rail and bus services between the two countries were also blocked.

Relaxation of Tension 2003

A relaxation of tension began in 2003, when then Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee
called for a dialogue. Rail and bus services between the two countries resumed, and the two
countries agreed to a ceasefire in Kashmir.

Summit Talks 2004

Twelfth SAARC Summit was held in Islamabad in January 2004. On this occasion President
Parvez Musharraf met Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee on 5th January 2004. In this
summit talk India and Pakistan resumed comprehensive discussions with an agenda the
included the Kashmir problem, confidence-building measures, and ways to provide security
against terrorism.

No War Pact 2004

These comprehensive consultations have steadily built up trust, resulting in agreements to
continue the suspension of nuclear tests, to give prior notification of missile tests, and to seek a
peaceful resolution of the Kashmir problem. On June 20, 2004, both countries signed "No War
Pact" and agreed to extend a nuclear testing ban and to set up a hotline between their foreign
secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a nuclear war.

Musharraf's Unofficial Visit to India 2005

In April 2005 President Parvez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agreed
on various new confidence-building measures between the two nations. Their talks, held during
Mr. Musharraf's unofficial visit to India on April 17, produced agreement, for example, on the
passage of trucks for commercial purposes over Kashmir's Line of Control, or ceasefire line. This
is expected to greatly help ease tensions between the countries.
The improvement of relations between India and Pakistan still involves uncertain factors such
as the activities of Islamic extremists, but efforts should be stepped up so that the latest
summit can serve as a favorable tail wind for accelerating the thaw between the two nations.
 
Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih
  
LANGUAGES

URDU- NATIONAL LANGUAGE

Introduction

Language is the only media by which one can express his ideas and feelings. It plays a vital role
in building the character of an individual as well as a nation. Languages bring closer each other
and it creates a sense of harmony among the people.

Urdu - National Language of Pakistan

After independence Quaid-e-Azam said in clear cut words that the National Language of
Pakistan would be Urdu. He said

Let me make it clear that the National Language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other
language. Without one state language no nation can remain tied up solidly together.

Evolution of Urdu

Urdu evolved over a period of centuried by cultural between local people of north of Sub
Continent and Muslims of Arabia, Iran and Turkey. The base of this language is Prakrit, an Aryan
language. The script of Urdu is modified form of Persian. Urdu is a word of Turkish language and
its literal meaning is camp.

Progress of Urdu Language

Due to the efforts of poets and writers during different periods of history. Urdu progressed well
and reached almost all parts of the sub-continent in the 16th Century. The Muslims, from time
to time, brought about changes and amendments in it to make it more simple and easy to
understand according to their needs and requirements.
After the emergence of Pakistan, a great deal of work has been done for the progress of Urdu
language. The Urdu language has crossed its evolutionary stages after the Independence and is
now on its way to the road of progress and development. Each Pakistani feels proud of
speaking, reading and writing Urdu. Most of our national leaders, while visiting other countries,
deliver their speeches in Urdu language which enhances its prestige on the International level.
Several Committees have been formed for the level. Being the national language of the country,
it is the binding force between different parts of Pakistan.

Qualities of Urdu

1. Great Power of Assimilation

The splendour of Urdu is Turkish and its charm is Persian in its base. The vitality of Urdu lies in
its ability to adopt words from other languages in such a way as if they originally belonged to it.
The chief reason for its country wide popularity was its power of Assimilation. According to Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan

Still now Urdu has great affinity for many other words and ideas which increases its beauty.

2. Source of National Identity

National language is the identity of a nation. When we are abroad we are identified as Pakistani
because of our national language. That is why, every nation gives out respect and importance to
national language.

Rich Treasure of Prose and Poetry

The Urdu language possesses a very valuable treasure of poetry and prose. The poets and
writers have contributed their most in its development. Maulana Shibli Nomani, Maulana Hali,
Deputy Nazir Ahmed, Mirza Ghalib, Amir Khusro and many others adopted this language in
their poetry and writings. Sir Syed wrote for the re-awakening of the Muslims of Sub Continent.
According to Abdul Haque

It is Sir Syed due to whom Urdu has made such a great progress within a period of only one
century.
Urdu - An Important Part of Our Cultural Heritage

Urdu grew in popularity and by the later Mughal Period and the advent of the British, it had
been adopted by the Muslims and the Hindus alike. It would not be wrong to say if it is said
that:

Urdu is a part of our Cultural Heritage

Importance of Urdu in National Life

Certain points which express the importance of Urdu in national life are given below:

1. Means of Brotherhood and Unity

People of Pakistan are one nation, therefore their thinking, aims and objectives are common.
Their progress and prosperity depends upon their unity and brotherhood. An important factor
for achieving this unity and brotherhood is Urdu.

2. Source of Expression

Urdu has become a source of expression, feeling, thoughts and aspiration. People of two
different areas can easily understood each other ideas and thoughts by Urdu.

3. Means of Communication and Co-ordination

Urdu serves as a means of communication and is a binding force between all the four province
of Pakistan. People living in different provinces realize that in spite of speaking different
languages, they are joined together by one national language which is the heritage of all.

4. Medium of Instruction

Urdu language is the medium of instruction in most of the educational instituations of Pakistan.
History, Islamic Studies, Political Science and other subjects are taught upto M.A level in Urdu.
Lectures on Islamic education and religion are also delivered in Urdu throughout Pakistan.

Conclusion
Being the national language of the country it is the binding force in different parts of Pakistan.
The officers have adopted Urdu language in their official work and the Government has
published a dictionary contained Urdu terms for the office work. The Urdu Development Board
and "Anjuman-e-Taraqi-e-Urdu" are trying to give Urdu a place in society and it is hope that
Urdu would find its place in society within short period of time.
 REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN

Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. No less than twenty-four languages and dialects are spoken
by the people of Pakistan, but mainly include five regional languages Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi,
Pushto, Brahvi and Kashmiri. These languages are rich in literature, poetry, folksongs and
spiritual sayings of their respective saints and contribute greatly to the culture of Pakistan.

The regional languages though distinct from one another in their forms, dialects and
expressions of thoughts have several common factors in them. They cultivate in them love,
respect and a firm adherence to the Pakistan Ideology. The regional languages of Pakistan are:

1. Punjabi

Punjabi is the local language of the province of the Punjab which is the biggest province of
Pakistan with regard to population and development. It has its links with the Aryan language
Prakrit. Before partition it was spoken in Delhi, Dhirpur, Peshawar and Jammu too. However as
time rolled on the vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of Persian, Arabic and
Turkish words. It has different dialects in different parts of Punjabi like Saraiki and Potohari
but the basic language remains the same.

Various Names

Punjabi is a very simple language and easy to understand. It was given various names during
different periods of history. Famous historian Masoodi called it Multani while Al-Beruni used
the name of Al-Hindi for it. The famous Sikh religious leader Baba Guru Nanak gave it the name
of Zaban-e-Jattan. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko.
Hafiz Barkhurdar was the first person to use the name of Punjabi for this language in the first
half of 17th century in his book entitled Muftah-ul-Fiqah. Maulvi Kamal-ud-Din also used this
name for this language in his selected works.

Various forms of Lyric and Narrative Poetry

Punjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. The highly imaginative and artistic exquisite
literature, mostly in verse has two forms one is "Lyric Poetry" which includes Bait, Kafi, Si-harfi,
Bara Mah and Satwara the other one i "Narrative Poetry" which is composed of various
rhythms and meters. Examples are Qissa Noor Namah, Gulzar, Jang Nama and Vaar.

Famous Punjabi Poets

Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language are:

* Baba Farid Shakar Ganj Baksh

* Sheikh Ibrahim Farid Shani

* Madholal Hussein

* Sultan Bahu

* Bullay Shah

* Ali Haider

* Waris Shah

Progress of Punjabi Language

Before partition Punjabi was spoken and understood in the eastern part of the Punjab. After
Independence concrete steps were taken for the promotion and development of this language
which made it a popular language in other parts of the province. The Government is still making
efforts for the progress of Punjabi language and extending support to those institutions which
are striving for its development. A present the Punjabi literature is taugth upto M.A. level in
Pakistan.
2. Sindhi

Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was spoken
in the Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the people of Moen-jo-
Daro contained elements of the present Sindhi language.

The origin of this language is not exactly known. However travelers like Al-Beruni have told us
about the original script of the language. "Chach Nama" being an authentic document proves
that the dialect of the Sindhi language was the same in the 12th century, as it is today. With the
advent and influence of Arabs in the Sub Continent Sindhi changed its form and adopted
maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.

Way of Writing

In the beginning Sindhi was written in "Marwari" and "Arz Nagari"' way of writing. With the
advent and influence of Arabs in the subcontinent this way of writing was subsequently
changed into Arabic and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.

Steps Taken to Develop Sindhi

Various steps have been taken to develop Urdu. Organizations like "Sindhi Literacy Board" and
"Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula" etc were set up. Several newspapers published in Sindhi, such as Ibrat,
Naw-i-Sind and Khadim-I-Watan besides a number of Weeklies.

Famous Sindhi Poets

Some of famous Sindhi Poets are

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai

* Sachal Sarmast

* Makhdoom Noor

* Shah Inayat

* Bedil
* Sabit Ali Shah

* Kazi Kazah

3. Balochi

Balochi is the regional language of Balochistan. It is the least developed of all the regional
languages. It was spread by Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.

The history of Balochi literature may be divided into four periods:

1. Early Medieval Period - 1430 to 1600

2. Later Medieval Period - 1600 to 1850

3. Modern Period - 1850 to 1930

4. Contemporary Period - 1930 up to date

Literature produced by earlier poets has no record as it is preserved traditionally in the

memories of the people. No newspapers or books were published in Balochi up till 1940. After
partition, however Balochi literature received a little boost due to the efforts made by many
associations and by the establishment of T.V stations. At present, Balochi literature is on the
road to development.

Types of Balochi

There are two types of Balochi namely:

1. Sulemani

2. Makrani

Famous Literacy Figures and Poets of Balochi

Some of the most literacy figures are:

* Azad Jamaldini

* Ulfat Naseem

* Abdul Qadir Shahwani

* Malik Mohammad Ramzan

* Mir Aaqil Maingal

Well known poets of Balochi language are

* Jam Darag

* Shah Murid

* Shahdad

Progress of Balochi Language

The Balochi literature was on the verge of decline before partition. After partition, however it
received little boost when Radio Pakistan, Karachi began its broadcast in Balochi language.
Balochi programmes were relayed from Radio Pakistan Karachi which enhanced the
developmental process of Balochi language.

Balochi Literary Association

The Balochi literary Association was set up which published many magazines and articles in
Balochi language. A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan" was published. A monthly known
as "Olassis" was also published.

Quetta Television Station

With the establishment of Quetta Television Station the Balochi language has received great
fillip. Atta Shah is a famous Balochi poet of Pakistan. Ishaq Shamim is another famous poet of
Balochi language whose poem "Dulhan" is very popular. The renowned politician Gul Khan
Naseer is also considered a good poet of Balochi language. Balochi prose has also developed a
great deal after partition. Translation of the Bible has also been published in Balochi language.

4. Pushto

Pushto is the regional language of the N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the East Iranian
group of languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.

Famous Pushto Poets

Some of the well known poets of Pushto language are:

* Amir Karoro

* Khushal Khan Khatak

* Rehman Baba

* Sher Shah Soori

* Saif ullah

* Kazim Kazim

Steps Taken to Develop Pushto

Although Pushto is an old language but its literature is comparatively new one. After
independence Pushto literature received a great boost.

The services rendered by the Pushto poets and writers in the freedom struggle, in fact
contributed a great deal towards the promotion of Pushto literature.

Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum worked very hard to create political awareness in the people of
N.W.F.P. The Islamic College, Peshawar which became the citadel of freedom movement in
N.W.F.P was established because of his dedicated services. Peshawar University was
established after three years of Independence.
An academy for the promotion of Pushto literature was set up under the supervision of the
Government. The Pushto academy was set up in 1954 and Maulana Abdul Qadir (Alig) was
appointed as its Director. This academy prepared Pushto dictionary.

5. Brahvi

Brahvi is the next spoken language of Balochistan. It fact it is said to be spoken by a greater
number of people than Balochi. The Brahvi language is said to be a member of Dravidian family
of languages. It has borrowed heavily from Sindhi, Persian, Arabic and English but remains in an
unexplained isolation among the Indo-Iran dialects.

Brahvi literature has a vast treasure of folklores. It's script has borrowed much from Pushto
script. Malik Dad was a great poet and learned person of Brahvi language.

6. Kashmiri

Kashmiri is the language of the people of inhabitting the occupied Kashmir and Azad Kashmir.
This language has been derived from Sanskrit. Kashmiri is generally spoken in Muslim families
of the valley. It contains many Turkish, Arabic and Persian words and is written in the Persian
Script.

Kashmiri like all the regional languages of Pakistan had its early literature flowered in the form
of poetry, which began with the composition of folk songs and ballads.

Kashmiri Literary Figures

Famous authors of Kashmiri language are:

* Sh. Nooruddin

* Khatoon Lillah Anifa

* Baba Nasiruddin

* Ghani

Conclusion
The regional languages of Pakistan - Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi are the most
modern Pakistani languages. The have several common feature and their literature bears the
same eternal message for mankind. Government has been doing its best to develop the
regional languages.

Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih

  

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14

PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

NEED FOR A SEPARATE HOMELAND

Hindus and Muslims had lived peacefully together in India for centuries, but after the British
invasion in South Asia and their undue support to Hindus, life became very difficult for Indian
Muslims. In fact, the Muslims were a separate nation who always adhered to their religious
identity. The British and the Hindus in spite of their great efforts could not put a wedge into the
Muslim unity and their love for the national character. The creation of Pakistan owes much to
this feeling of adherence to their national image and religious identity.

The Muslims of Indo Pak Sub Continent demanded a separate homeland on the following
grounds.

1. Desire to establish an Islamic State

Islam is a complete code of life for the Muslims and they are eager to implement it in their
personal and collective life. Islamic code of Life or Islamic Ideology cannot be implemented until
a pure Islamic Society free from all other unIslamic influences is established. The desire to
establish an Islamic State was also one of the factors to demand a separate homeland.

2. Two Nation Theory

The Two Nation Theory played an important role for demanding a separate homeland
according to which Hindus and Muslims are the two nations and therefore they cannot live
together. Quaid-e-Azam once said,

Hindus and Muslims though living in the same towns and villages had never been blended into
one nation. They were always two separate entities.

So the Muslims should have a separate State where they could lead their individual and
collective life in accordance with the Islamic principles.

3. Historical Collusion

Hindu and Muslim historical collusion started when Muhammad Bin Qasim, defeating Raja
Dahir, founded Islamic government in the subcontinent. Many battles were fought between
Hindus and Muslims under Muslim Rule. The historical collusion continued also during the
British Regime. Hindus, cooperating with British, tried to diminish Muslim culture and their way
of life but they remained futile. The future of Muslims was obvious in such condition; therefore
they decided to demand for the separate homeland.

4. Hindus and British

Since the British snatched power from Muslims, they were doubtful about the faithfulness of
Muslims. So, Hindus and British joined hands to destroy the Muslims morally, socially,
economically and politically. They reserved all higher civil, judicial and military appointments for
British only while Muslims were debarred from all official positions. The Islamic educational
system was replaced by British one. Then Muslims were forced to change their religion to
Christianity and were compelled to send their children to co educational institutes and abandon
purdha. This was the reason that Muslims became fed up with both British and Hindus and
decided to have a separate homeland.

5. British Parliamentary System

Indian National Congress demanded the British Parliamentary system of government in India
which meant majority rule. The implementation of this simply meant the Hindus slavery of
Muslims since they were in majority. This was the reason that Muslims stressed on separate
electorates and got it accepted. Separate electorate was the first brick in the foundation of
demand for separate homeland.

6. Shuddi and Sangathan Movement

Hindu Muslim Unity evaporated in the year after the Khilafat Movement and Hindu Muslim
Riots began. The poison of differences between the two nations aggravated with the passage of
time. The differences reached to the peak when Shuddhi and Sangathan movements began.
The Shuddhi Movement aimed at the mass conversion of certain backward groups of Muslims
into Hindus by force whereas the Sangathan Programme sought to organize the Hindus into a
Militant force to flight with the Muslims.

7. Activities of Maha Sabha

Maha Sabha was established in 1900. It was a non political party until the Shuddhi and
Sangathan Movement started. These movements motivated Maha Sabha to be involved in
politics. It proved to be the worst enemy of Muslims. The party declared Muslims as outsiders
and said that Muslims have no relation with India. If they want to leave it then they could leave
it happily but if they want to leave it then they could leave it happily but if they want to live in
India, they will have to accept Hindu Mut. So it was impossible for Hindus and Muslims to live in
a country together.

8. Protection of Urdu Language

Urdu was considered to be the language of Muslims in the subcontinent. In 1867, the Hindu-
Urdu controversy began with some outstanding Hindus of Banaras demanding replacements of
Urdu by Hindi as the court language. The supporters of Hindi claimed for it a national status
whereas the Muslims hotly denied it. As the controversy spread, the two languages became
more and more exclusive. Muslims got very disappointed when in April 1900 UP Governor Sir
Antony Mac Donnell gave Hindi the status of National language with Urdu. That's why Muslims
felt the need to set a political party. Then after a detailed discussion at last All India Muslim
League was established in 1906. Maulvi Abdul Haque (1870-1961) has rightly said, Urdu
Language placed the first brick in the foundation of Pakistan. It is a reality that it was one of the
major reasons for demanding a separate country.
9. Protection of Muslim Culture

Hindus, with the consent of British during the Congress Ministries, burnt and looted the
properties and houses of Muslims, Moreover, the signs of Muslims, past glory were damaged.
Educational Syllabus was changed. Urdu was replaced by Hindi and the Muslim students were
forced to worship statues of Gandhi in their schools. The Muslims of India, therefore, decided
that the Muslim culture could be protected in a free and separate Muslim State.

10. Narrow mindedness of Hindus

Hindu is a narrow-minded nation who does not believe the philosophy of equality. They
considers themselves superior and used to call Muslims 'Maleech' (impure). There was no
concept of eating and drinding together. Furthermore Muslims were not allowed to touch
the food items of Hindus. There was only way out for the Muslims to demand a separate
homeland.

11. Economic Hardships

During the period of British Government, Hindus practically threw out Muslims from the fields
of trade and industry. All the business, industrial, and services opportunities were occupied by
Hindus and some degraded jobs were left for the Muslims. Muslims of India became the
political slave of British and economic slave of Hindus. To come out from this vicious circle, at
last, Muslims decided to demand for a separate homeland.

12. Congress Ministries

During the period of Congress Ministries (1937-1939). Hindus did worst possible injustice with
Muslims. The Hindu-Muslim riots were usual during the Congress rule. Band-e-Mataram, three
coloured flag and statue of Gandhi were introduced at national level. Urdu was replaced by
Hindi and slaughtering cow was banned. Muslim leaders showed their resentment before
Gandhi and Jawahar lal Nehru. Gandhi showed his helpless while Nehru plainly and openly said
that there were only two nations in India, Congress and British and the rest should follow them.
After this statement, nothing for left for Muslims but to present Pakistan Resolution in 1940.
Conclusion

On the basis of above mentioned factors and bitter attitude of British and Congress the Muslims
apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of Hindu society.
Therefore they quitted Congress and demanded separate land on the ground that they were
different nation from Hindus. According to Quaid-e-Azam

The Muslims demanded Pakistan were they can rule in accordance with their own system of
life, their cultural development, their traditions and Islamic law.

SERVICES OF ALLAMA IQBAL IN PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot. After seeking early
education, he was admitted to the Government College Lahore, where he obtained the degree
of MA in the subject of philosophy. He left for England for higher studies in 1905. He obtained
the degree of philosophy of ethics in 1907; he obtained the degree of doctorate (Ph.D.) from
Munich University.

Services of Iqbal in Pakistan Movement

Iqbal and Pakistan Movement

Although his main interests were scholarly, Iqbal was not unconcerned with the political
situation of the country and the political fortunes of the Muslim community of India. Already in
1908, while in England, he had been chosen as a member of the executive council of the newly-
established British branch of the Indian Muslim League. In 1931 and 1932 he represented the
Muslims of India in Round Table Conference held in England to discuss the issue of the political
future of India. And in a 1930 lecture Iqbal suggested the creation of a separate homeland for
the Muslims of India. Iqbal died (1938) before the creation of Pakistan (1947), but it was his
teaching that spiritually ... has been the chief force behind the creation of Pakistan.

Iqbal's Idea about Nationhood

Allama Iqbal is the greatest philosopher and poet of the present era. Along with this, he
possessed the view about political affairs. He awakened the feeling of Muslim nationhood
among the Muslims of India through his poetry and told them about the propaganda of West
about the Muslim nationhood.

When the Hindu philosophers presented this philosophy that a nation is born throughout the
country and when Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni seconded it, then Iqbal reacted strongly
towards it. His thinking and poetry reflect the Two Nation Theory and his poetry awakened the
feeling of Islamic Nationality among the Muslims of India. This feeling was a milestone in the
created of Pakistan.

Iqbal's Political Life

Allama Iqbal made his debut in politics then he was elected as the member of Punjab's
Legislative Assembly in 1926. During the elections of 1937, when Quaid-e-Azam started re
contructioning of the Muslim League, Allama Iqbal was along with him. He always supported
Quaid-e-Azam and the Muslim League. He always respected Quaid-e-Azam's point of view.

Iqbal and Two Nation Theory

Allama Iqbal firmly believe that the Muslims of India have a separate identity and to protect his
identity, the establishment of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India was necessary. On
28th March, 1909, he excusing the invitation from the secular party "Minsva Lodge" said

I have been a keen supporter of this theory that religious differences in the country should end
and even now I practise the principle. But, now I think that separate national identity for the
Muslims and the Hindus is necessary for their survival.

At his Presidential address in 1930, on the occasion of the annual session of Muslim League at
Allahbad, Iqbal said

India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages
and professing different religions. There behaviour is not at all determined by a common race
conciousness. I therefore, demand the formation of consolidated Muslim state in the best
interest of India and Islam

Pakistan's Sketch

Allama Iqbal's Presidential Address at Allahbad in 1930 determined the political path of the
Muslims of sub-continent. In his address, he in clear words said

I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Balochistan be
amalgamated into a single state.

He further stated that

The formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appeares to be the final
destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.

Thus, Iqbal demanded a sovereign independent Muslim state even before the Muslim League
demanded it in Pakistan's Resolution.

Round Table Conference

During 1930-1932 three sessions of Round Table Conference were held. Iqbal attended Second
and Third Round Table Conference. Having attended the Second Round Table Conference in
September, 1931 in London, he was keenly aware of the deep-seated Hindu and Sikh prejudice
and unaccommodating attitude. He had observed the mind of the British Government. Hence
he reiterated his apprehensions and suggested safeguards in respect of the Indian Muslims

In so far then as the fundamentals of our policy are concerned, I have got nothing fresh to offer.
Regarding these I have already expressed my views in my address to the All India Muslim
League. In the present address I propose, among other things, to help you, in the first place, in
arriving at a correct view of the situation as it emerged from a rather hesitating behavior of our
delegation the final stages of the Round Table Conference. In the second place, I shall try,
according to my lights to show how far it is desirable to construct a fresh policy now that the
Premier's announcement at the last London Conference has again necessitated a careful survey
of the whole situation.

I must be keep in mind that since Maulana Muhammad Ali had died in January 1931 and Quaid-
e-Azam had stayed behind in London, the responsibility of providing a proper lead to the India
Muslim had fallen on him alone. He had to assume the role of a jealous guardian of his nation
till Quaid-e-Azam returned to the sub-continent in 1935.

During the Third Round Table Conference, Iqbal was invited by the London National League
where he addressed and audience which included among others, foreign diplomas, members of
the House of Commons, Members of the House of Lords and Muslim members of R.T.C
delegation. In that gathering he dilated upon the situation of the Indian Muslims. He explained
why he wanted the communal settlement first and then the constitutional reforms. He stressed
the need for provincial autonomy because autonomy gave the Muslim majority provinces some
power to safeguard their rights, cultural traditions and religion. Under the central Government
the Muslims were bound to lose their cultural and religious entity at the hands of the
overwhelming Hindu majority. referred to what he had said at Allahabad in 1930 and reiterated
his belief that before long people were bound to come round to his viewpoint base on cegent
reason.

Iqbal's letter to Quaid-e-Azam

The seed sown, the idea to began to evolve and take root. It soon assumed the shape of Muslim
state or states in the western and eastern Muslim majority zones as is obvious from the
following lines of Iqbal's letter, of June 21, 1937, to the Quaid-e-Azam, only ten months before
the former's death

A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the
only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of
Non-Muslims. Why not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal should be considered as
nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.

Ideology of Pakistan and Iqbal

Iqbal was strictly against nationalism. He considered all the Muslims to be a part of One Umma.
For him, a Muslim whether he belonged to any part of the world was the part of brotherly
relation. He considered nationalism to be a coffin for the Muslim Umma.

Thus, opposing the limitation and disadvantages of nationalism, Iqbal gave the philosophy of a
"Millat-e-Islamia" and this philosophy is the basis of Pakistan ideology.

Conclusion

In short, personality of Allama Iqbal has left indelible marks in history. He tried to awaken the
Muslims of India through his philosophy, poetry and politics and he brought the ideas of
independence among the Muslims of India. Iqbal died on 21st April, 1938. He was buried in
front of the "Badshahi Mosque" in "Huzori Bagh".
 Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih
  

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MUSLIM LEAGUE

INDIA AFTER WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND VERNACULAR ACT

After the WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, the British government came into action and restricted the
authority of the EAST INDIA COMPANY by a large extent and the British government itself took
the responsibility to control the SUBCONTINENT. In 1877, QUEEN VICTORIA was proclaimed
Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi.

However, British rule proved unpopular among Indians because they were treated as salves in
their own country without any right to have any say in the running of their country. The ruling
elite and government servants were all British. The recruitment of Indians into the army was
also reduced by a large ratio and conditions were created for the British goods to be available
at cheaper rates and therefore local manufacturers found it very hard to sell their own goods.

The lack of opportunities for Indians led to widespread criticism of the British in regional
newspapers. The British response was to pass the Vernacular Act of 1878, which placed strict
controls on these newspapers. In the same year, the British passed and an Arms Act which
made it impossible for most Indians to own weapons, to ensure that future revolts were not
that effective. In this environment, it is not surprising that nationalist ideas started to grow in
India.

FORMATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Events like the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 and the Ilbert Bill of 1882, as well as
the reduction of the age limit for the Civil Services Exams in 1876 resulted in a wave of
opposition from the middle class Indians. Consequently some of them came together and
formed a number of small political parties that came out in the streets for protests and rallies.
The British foresaw the situation resulting in another rebellion on the pattern of the War of
Independence of 1857. To avoid such a situation, the British decided to provide an outlet to the
local people where they could discuss their political problems. In order to achieve this goal,
Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, had a series of meetings with Lord Dufferin,
the Viceroy. He also visited England and met people like John Bright, Sir James Caird, Lord Ripon
and some members of the British Parliament. Hume also had the support of a large number of
Englishmen in India, including Sir William Wedderbun, George Yule and Charles Bradlaugh.

On his return from Britain, Hume consulted the local Indian leaders and started working
towards the establishment of an Indian political organization. He invited the convention of the
Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884, to Bombay in December
1885. Seventy delegates, most of whom were lawyers, educationalists and journalists, attended
the convention in which the Indian National Congress was established. This first session of
Congress was presided over by Womesh Chandra Banerjee and he was also elected as the first
president of the organization.

To begin with, Congress acted as a 'Kings Party'. Its early aims and objectives were:

1. To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts.

2. Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form national unity.

3. Discuss and solve the social problems of the country.

4. To request the government, give more share to the locals in administrative affairs.

As time went by, the Congress changed its stance and apparently became the biggest
opposition to the British government.
Muslims primarily opposed the creation of Congress and refused to participate in its activities.
Out of the 70 delegates who attended the opening session of the Congress, only two were
Muslims. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was invited to attend the Bombay session, refused the
offer. He also urged the Muslims to abstain from the Congress activities and predicted that the
party would eventually become a Hindu party and would only look after the interests of the
Hindus. Syed Ameer Ali, another important Muslim figure of the era, also refused to join Indian
National Congress.

THE PARTITION OF BENGAL

Finding the Bengal Presidency too large for one governor to administer, in 1905 the English
decided to redraw its boundaries and divided it into two parts.

The provinces of Bengal and Assam were reconstituted so as to form the two provinces of
manageable size. Western Bengal, with a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 9
million Muslims); and Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million (12 million
Hindus and 18 million Muslims). The territory to be transferred from Bengal to the new
province consisted of the districts of Chittagong and Dhaka Divisions, Rajshahi Division
excluding Darjeeling, and the District of Malda.

Curzon, the Viceroy of India, sent the proposal to London in February 1905. The Secretary of
State for India St. John Brodrich sanctioned it in June, and the proclamation of the formation of
the new province was issued in September. The province of Bengal and Assam came into being
on October 16 1905.

Incidentally, the partition went in favor of the Muslims. Before the partition, Western Bengal,
being the first area to come under western influence, was developed and industrialized. It was
a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim peasantry was crushed under the
Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with pirates, and very few funds were allocated
for education. It was dreaded as a place of banishment. The partition helped boost Bengali
literature and language; efforts were also made towards the social, economic and educational
uplift of the Muslims.
●      MUSLIM  REACTION:

The new province if Eastern Bengal brought happier prospects of political and economic life for
the Muslims. The Muslims turned into majority by the creations of new province. The partition
of Bengal provided chances of great progress to the Muslims who formed the majority group in
the new setup. In the combined province of Bengal, the Muslims were a suppressed class of
society. The Hindus had monopolized trade and government services which aggravated the
economic condition of the Muslims. The partition of Bengal provided them with a chance to
rehabilitate their social position. They hoped that their social status would get a tremendous
boost in the new province. The Muslims expressed their utmost happiness over the partition of
Bengal. They offered their gratification in the loyal way to the government for taking a step for
their social, economic and political uplift.

●      HINDU REACTION:

The Hindus reacted toward the partition of Bengal in a hostile and violent manner. The Hindus
could never support a move which was to bring prosperity and happiness to the Muslims. The
reasons for Hindus opposition to the partition were as follows:

1.       The Hindus believed that they would come under the domination of the Muslim majority in
the new province and their superior position would be downgraded to the inferior status.
2.       As the provincial High Court and other judicial bodies were to be shifted to Dhaka, the Hindu
lawyers feared that their legal practice would be affected.

3.       Since Dhaka was to become the center of journalistic and other academic activities, the
Hindu press and media believed that from now onward the Muslim point of view would be
projected in the newspapers and magazines. They also feared that their income would seriously
be lessened.

4.       The Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders did not like the partition as it was to put an end
to their exploitation of the poor Muslims.

5.       Before the partition of Bengal the Hindus enjoyed dominant position in the political sphere
of the province over the Muslims. The new setup was to put an end to their superior political
position and their political dominance over the Muslims would finish.

The Hindus, therefore, launched an intensive movement against the partition of Bengal, They
termed the partition as degrading and an insult to the national character of the Hindu
population. Religions color was given to the agitation and the partition was termed as the
dissection of the 'Scared Cow Mother' in order to arouse intense opposition by the Hindu
masses. They considered the partition as an attempt to sow the needs of hatred and
discontentment among the Indian people to weaken the national movements for
independence.

The day of 16 October, 1905, when the partition was enforced, was declared as a national
tragedy. Strikes were held throughout the country. The Indian National Congress also jumped in
to support the agitation against partition. The Hindu students put up violent demonstrations
against the partition. The Congress severely criticized the partition in the annual session of
1906.
 The Hindu agitation soon turned into a violent reaction. The people disobeyed government
orders by refusing to pay taxes and rentals. Communal clashes erupted at a number of places
which upset the law and order situation in the country. The political disorder and unrest largely
largely prevailed in the country. Bombs were thrown and attacks were made on the lives of the
British people. Swadeshi movement was organized by the Hindu majority to boycott the British
manufacturers. The train carrying the Governor of the Eastern Bengal was derailed and an
attempt was made on the Viceroy's life which failed.

The Muslims kept away from the Hindu agitation and adopted a humble and loyal posture. They
welcomed the partition and passed resolutions supporting the partition of Bengal. They
impressed upon the government to maintain its decision of the partition of Bengal.

The most serious result of the Hindu agitation was a steep rise in Hindu - Muslim riots. The net
result of this was that the Hindu agitation definitely disunited the Muslims from the Congress.

●      BRITISH REACTION TO HINDU PROTEST:

1.       Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings. Editors were prosecuted and
imprisoned.
2.       In 1908, a press act gave even more control to government over newspapers.
3.       Many influential Hindu leaders were either imprisoned or sent into exile.

THE SIMLA DEPUTATION

In 1906 a group of Muslim landed magnates and chieftains organized a deputation of Lord
Minto, the Viceroy, at Simla and pleaded for a few concession to the Muslim community of
India.
The Simla Deputation, the meeting came to be called, was a pre-arranged affair. And it is said
that the Deputation that waited upon Lord Minto was actually a British move.

However, within a few months following the Simla Deputation a political forum of the
communalist Muslims emerged. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca took initiative in organizing a
conference of the communalist Muslims in which a resolution was adopted in favour of the
foundation of the All India Muslim League.

Accordingly the All India Muslim League was founded in 1906.

OBJECTIVES OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The All India Muslim League was formed under the initiative of Nawab Salimulla of Dacca in
1906 with the following objectives .

 (1) To promote among the MUSLIMS of India a feeling of loyalty to the British government.

(2) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the MUSLIMS of India, and to
represent their needs and aspirations to the British government.

(3) To prevent the rise among MUSLIMS of India of any feeling of hostility towards other ;
communities. Above were the objectives with which the All India Muslim League was founded.

THE MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, announced in the British
parliament that his government wanted to introduce new reforms for India, in which the locals
were to be given more powers in legislative affairs. With this, a series of correspondences
started between him and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of India. A committee was
appointed by the Government of India to propose a scheme of reforms. The committee
submitted its report, and after the approval of Lord Minto and Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was
passed by the British parliament. The Act of 1909 is commonly known as the Minto-Morley
Reforms.

The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:

1. The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16
to 60.

2. The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was fixed as
50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30.

3. The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the provinces, were to be
of four categories i.e. ex-officio members (Governor General and the members of their
Executive Councils), nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor General
and were government officials), nominated non-official members (nominated by the Governor
General but were not government officials) and elected members (elected by different
categories of Indian people).

4. Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.

5. At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official
members would be in majority.

6. The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the
amendments and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were included as non-vote
items. They were also entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative
proceedings.
7. The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive
Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to four.

8. Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.

9. The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive
Council.

THE BENGAL PARTITION REVERSED

Just how vital it was for Muslims to form their own political party was emphasized in 1911
when the British showed that they could not be trusted to protect Muslim interests. Lord
Harding, the new Viceroy, agreed to reverse the partition of Bengal. The decision was
announced at a Durbar in Delhi on 12 December by King George V, who was visiting India at
that time. The British tried to suggest that they had reversed the partition as a part of their
governing policy of India. In reality, they had been forced into the move by the fierce opposition
of the Bengali Hindus. However, the British also moved the capital from Calcutta to Delhi to
show that Hindu opposition had not been completely successful. The reversal of the partition of
the partition of Bengal was bitterly opposed by the Muslims, but the British were not to be
moved. The Muslims now realized that how important it was for the Muslim League to prosper
if they were in hope of receiving fair treatment in India.

Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih

  

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DEC
14
 SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Early Biography Details

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi. He came from a wealthy family and his father
gave him high quality education. When he was 18 Sir Syed was skilled in Arabic, Persian,
Mathematics and Medicine. He was also introduced as Sub-continent most able writer. In 1838
his father died so he became a judge in Delhi in 1846. When the war of Independence broke
out in 1857 he was working as Chief Judge in Bijnaur and had saved the life of British women
and children during the fighting. In return for his loyalty the British gave him estate with large
income but he refused.  His Belief that armed uprising against the British was pointless made
him unpopular to many Muslims. He was appointed Chief justice in Muradabad and was later
transferred to Ghazipore. In 1864 he was transferred to Aligarh where he played an important
part in establishing the college. In 1876 he retired from his work to concentrate on running the
college and devoting himself to improve the position of Muslims through education. He died on
27 March 1898.
Beliefs
Sir Syed was extremely unhappy about the position of Muslims in the subcontinent. Since the
days of the Mughal declined the social and economical status of Muslims had declined sharply
and the role of Muslims in the war of Independence had left further decline as British took
measures to ensure that their control was unchallenged. Sir Syed Ahmed felt that the poor
status of Muslims was due to they were treated as second-class citizen by British and Hindus
and they had to take some responsibilities themselves. Most Muslims thought that British were
no more than just invaders and they had nothing to do with them. Sir Syed Ahmed believed
that Muslims had to accept that the British were there rulers and could only improve if they
have a positive approach towards them. They needed to accept the British idea and their
education if they wanted to improve. Sir Syed wanted to see Muslims untied and prospering in
their social, economical and religious fortune. He made this his Life’s ambition and founded
Aligarh movement.
Aligarh Movement
Sir Syed was interested in Muslims. He wanted to improve relations with British and the
positions of Muslims.
The central aims of the Aligarh Movement were to:
- improve relations between the British and Muslims communities by removing British doubts
about Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about the British intentions.
- improve the social and economic position of Muslims by encouraging them to receive Western
education and take up posts in the civil service and army.
- increase their political awareness to make them aware of the threat to from the Hindu policy
of cooperation with the British.

Work
1. Improving Relation between the British and Muslim Communities
Sir Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the subcontinent could only be improved if
relations with the British were improved by the Muslims gained higher-quality education. There
were two major obstacles to good relations.
A. The British had put the entire responsibility for the War of Independence in 1857 on the
Muslims.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this false view was corrected.
B. There was a deep-seated resentment of the British among many in the Muslim community.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that the benefits and advantages of British rule, in particular in the
areas of science and technology were embraced by the Muslim community to improve the lives
of the masses.    

Convincing the British

In 1860 Sir Syed wrote “The Loyal Mohammedans of India”. In this work he defended Muslims
and listed the name of those Muslims who remained Loyal to the British during the uprising. In
order to convince that the British were wrong to fully blame the Muslims for the uprising so he
wrote a pamphlet “Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt”. In this he pointed the reasons for
the uprising. He told that British were unable to understand the Indians. This Pamphlet was
circulated freely among the British officials in India and the copies were also sent to England
were it was studied carefully. Many British thought that he was blaming them for uprising but
others sympathetic and accepted the truth in his words. He also cleared the misunderstanding
that Muslim called the British “Nadarath”, He told that this was no insult but the word came
from Arabic word “Nasir” which means helpers.
Convincing the Muslims
Sir Syed was aware that the British knew very little about Islam. Indeed, on a visit to England he
was so offended by an English book on the life of the Prophet (PBUH) that he immediately
wrote his own work correcting the many errors. Sir Syed was aware that Muslim in India knew
very little about Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing “Tabyin-ul-Kalam” in which he
pointed out the similarities between Islam and Christianity.
 2. Encouraging the growth of Western education
●      He also supported the idea of western education as he knew that Muslims could not succeed
until they had high quality education which was received by the Hindus. He believed that the
acceptance of Western scientific and technological ideas was necessary as this could only make
Muslim advance in the world of science. He related this with Holy Quran that it was written in
Quran that the study and that an understanding of modern scientific belief actually helped
reveal the full majesty of God. He established scientific society at Ghazipore and its main
purpose was making Scientific Writing available to more people. When he visited England he
was impressing by the quality of education the student received there so in 1875 he founded
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College its main purpose was to provide the education to the
Muslims like the people in England received. The subjects were Mathematics, Modern Science
and Agricultural Science. (In 1920 the college became the University of Aligarh.

3. Increasing Political Awareness

Syed Ahmed also wanted Muslims to have a good relation with the Hindus but he found out
that Hindus did not want good relations.
●      In 1885 Indian Nation Congress was found which claimed to speak for Indians but later it was
found out that it was a body dominated by Hindus.
●      Sir Syed wanted Muslims to stay away from Democracy as the Muslims were in minorities in
India and every election would be won by the Hindus.
●      A further cause of concern to Syed Ahmed was the “Hindi-Urdu Controversy”. In 1867 the
Hindus demanded that Hindi should be the next official language. The Muslims were struck by
this as Urdu had special place in their hearts. This was another factor guiding him towards his
two nation theory.
Hindi-Urdu Controversy
Hindi-Urdu Controversy was started in 1867. Hindus demanded Hindi to be official language but
Muslims wanted Urdu to be official language. Sir Syed supported Urdu in this thing. Due to this
reason Sir Syed started “Two Nation Theory” telling that Muslims and Hindus were two
separate kinds of people. Muslims opposed this and supported Urdu as it was the sign and
united the Muslims of the India under one language.
 Two-Nation Theory
Urdu was the national language for many years. But Hindus opposed it in Urdu Controversy.
This provoked Sir Syed to make his Two Nation Theory to tell that Urdu had place in hearts of
Muslims and was supported by them and can’t be replaced by Hindu which was the language of
the Hindus. It was important because Sir Syed had realized that Muslims and Hindu couldn’t
work together as the Hindus were not with the Muslims.
Another reason was that the parliamentary system was not supported by Sir Syed was Hindus
were in more number so they always outnumbered the Muslims and due to this Sir Syed
opposed it. Sir Syed realised that separate electorate was the possible solution to this so in view
of his Two Nations Theory. He made this decision of separate electorate demand for elections
for the good of the Muslims.
Another reason it was important was that congress spoke of competitive examinations for jobs
and good posts while Muslims were always not given good education so they were also not able
to take good posts as Hindu won all the seats and passed the examinations always. According to
Two Nation Theory Sir Syed suggested it as two separate groups of Muslims and Hindus were
not working for the Muslims at that time so Two Nation Theory was important here as well.
Importance
He worked tirelessly to improve the relation of British and Muslims and wrote several books
and pamphlets so that British might be convinced and trust Muslims once again. He played a
major role in educating Muslims so that they can take up good jobs and their condition was
improved. He is known as “Father of the Pakistan Movement” As he was the first one to express
the Idea of treating Muslims and Hindus separately.

Contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (14Marks)

1. Attempts to achieve a better understanding between the British and the Muslims
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was one of the Muslim reformers. He carefully studied and analyzed the
decline of Muslims in political power, social status and economic well-being. He came to the
conclusion that Muslims were being handicapped because of the misunderstanding which had
cropped up between the British and Muslim rulers, the Muslims opposed and hated the British
and everything associated with the British. Muslims kept away from modern education and
English language which the British were trying to enforce in India. On the other hand the British
held the Muslims responsible for the revolt of 1857 and considered them (Muslims) to be their
real enemies. The result of this mistrust was that Muslims were being crushed in every way.
Therefore, Sir Syed tried to remove this misunderstanding by addressing both the British and
Muslims. Sir Syed wrote books and explained to the British that the real cause of 1857 uprising
was the wrong policies and altitude of the British themselves. To Muslims Sir Syed explained
that Christians and Christianity should not be hated. He specially stressed that Muslims should
came towards modern education, the lack of which was causing continual set back to the
Muslims of India.
 2. Education
Sir Syed gave much importance to modern education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim
education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim education is very important. He opened
schools at several places where he was posted. He established Scientific Society and printed the
Aligarh Institute Gazette. He was visited England in 1869 on his own expenses to observe the
working of British Universities. Most important achievement in education sector was the
founding of M.A.O College at Aligarh in 1877. Sir Syed founded the Mohammadens Educational
Conference whose objective was to discuss and solve the education problems of Muslims in the
sub-continent. His efforts for Muslim education served double purpose. It helped the Muslims
to get good jobs and raised their status in society. It also helped in removing the mistrust
between the British and the Muslims. Therefore education was the most important aspect of Sir
Syed’s services in the Muslims of India.
  
3. Politics
Sir Syed’s advice to Muslims in the political field is also important. He believed   that under the
European system or democratic government the Muslims of India would always be at the mercy
of Hindu majority. He suggested separate electorate for Muslims. He advised the Muslims not
to join Congress. He opposed the system of competitive examinations for government posts
because Muslims were much behind the Hindus in education. Sir Syed strongly opposed the
replacement of Urdu with Hindi as court and official language.  

4.Religion
In Religion Sir Syed united the Muslims by supporting the “Two Nation Theory” and the Hindi-
Urdu controversy of 1867 in which Hindus wanted Hindi to be the official language while the
Muslims wanted Urdu. He realised the threat to Muslims so united them and gave them good
education.                                                       
Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih
  

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7.
DEC
14
WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857

In 1857 British faced a serious challenge to their rule in India. This war is called war of
Independence. There are many causes for this war which are:

Political
As British extended their control they introduced many ways of grabbing land like the use of
Doctrine of Lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie was very unpopular. The mistreatment of
Mughal Emperor was also another cause and when Lord Dalhousie moved the capital from
Delhi. It angered many people. English was replaced by Persian as an Official language.

Religious and Social

As the rule of British grew so did its culture. The British thought that they were Superior Culture
and Disrespected the Indian culture they also did not get mixed with the Indians as they
thought that Indians are uneducated and uncivilized people. This arrogant attitude and the
introduction of new ways of life with railways, roads and telegraph were not accepted to many
Indians. Indians thought that their religion was ay threat by foreigners was sent Christian monks
to spread their religion. These monks insulted the religion of the Indians. This angered many
Indians.

Economic
We have learnt that how British merchants traded with India which was very profitable for
them. The British imposed high taxes on Indians and the tax collectors were corrupt and kept
some money for themselves the resentment grew when the British filled Indian market with
cheap mass produced goods and many families were unable to sell their goods thus this made
most of the Indians poor. British also made the salary of their army (Infantry) low.

Military
There were many Indian soldiers in the British army but not even a single one of Indian was
made an officer. The British used their army to fight other countries and this was not accepted
to Indians who wanted to leave their mother land. They were also rumors that The Indians
were forced to convert into Christianity before they could be made the Officers.
 The Events Of 1857
●      In January 1857 the British announced that they would introduce a new rifle with a paper
cartridge covered with grease to keep the powder dry and before the cartridge would be
loaded the end had to be bitten off. However a rumor spread that the grease was made up of
Cow and pigs fat. The Sepoys were so angry that they refused to use the new rifle.
●      In March a Sepoy named Mangal Pandey defied his British officer and was executed.
●      In May Sepoys of Meerut refused to touch the new cartridge so they were put to prison but
their fellow Sepoys freed them and killed all the British then the soldiers marched to Delhi and
captured it. The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II wined the support of Hindus and
Muslims. The War spread and British lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as
well as Delhi and Lucknow. This area is now known as Uttar pardesh. However British proved to
be too powerful and quickly regained the areas they had lost.
●      In September Delhi was regained and Bahdur Shah was put into life time prison. In august
1858 the war was officially over.

Reasons For Failure Of War of Independence 1857

1.Lack of Unity
Although the whole Indian nation faced resentment against the British but the aims were
different. The Muslim wanted to regain control and again set up the Mughal Empire. Their was
no general plan or a Leader. The princes did not want the Imperial power once again. There was
no sense of patriotism and India was too dived for such a feeling.The only uniting force was
Islam but the other groups opposed them which were Hindus and Sikhs as they did not want
the rule of Muslim once again on the India. These were the reasons as British considered this as
“Muslim Revolt”.
  
2.British Strength:
The most powerful country of that time and because of Industrial Resolution they had High tech
weapons. The British army was well trained and was much disciplined and they were provided
with large weapons and Funds by the British government. The Perhaps the major reason for the
failure of this uprising was the strength of the British.The Britain was Indians were still fighting
 with each other and in the mean time the British use it clever techniques and weapons to crush
the rebellion furthermore it had the support. of some loyal states like Kashmir who sent 2000
troops to support the British win the war.

The Effects of the War

The failure of the war conformed the British masters of India. The war did not loosen control
but rather tightened it. The East India Company was abolished and the Britain took full control
of the Indians affairs. In 1877 the Queen Victoria was given the title as Empress of India and the
Mughal royal family decade away. There were very cruel acts in the war as in the town of
Cawnpore the Indians had murdered several British women and children to avenge their deaths
the British killed anyone who was sympathetic to Indians. They also introduced Viceroy who
was known responsible for all the acts in the country. He had over thousand civil servants to
help him administer the country. These ranged from highly paid judge to lowly paid junior
administer. After the War the British stopped funding Muslim schools and because Muslims still
were not ready to accept the British rule so they did not go in the British schools and became
uneducated. This was not the case with Sikhs and Hindus and they became friendly with the
British and very quickly learned to speak English. After 1857 British did not trust the Indians and
thus they were not taken in the army and the British did not allow Indians to have their own
weapons and thus making the further rebellions less effective. The Control of the British in India
was now unchallenged.

RELIGIOUS THINKERS

SHAH WALIULLAH

●      INTRODUCTION:
Shah Wali Ullah was born on 21 February 1703 during the reign of Aurangzeb his real
name was Qutub-ud-din but became famous as Shah Wali-Ullah his father was Shah
Abdul Rahim who founded Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi his father died in 1718.In 1724
Shah Wali Ullah went to Arabia to perform Hajj. He studied under famous scholar
Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim and returned to Delhi in 1732. During the course of his
education, he learned many of his books from his father and was inducted in the
tradition of bayath (sacred vows) by his father and by the age of 17 was permitted by his
father to provide spiritual guidance and reform his fellow Muslims. After 14 months of
stay in Arabia, two hajj pilgrimages and learning the books of hadith from the scholars of
the holy cities, Shah Waliullah finally returned to India in early 1145 H.E. the journey
home lasted six months and he reached Delhi on Friday 14 Rajab 1145 H.E. on
 reaching home, he started teaching again and writing until his death three decades
later.
●      BELIEFS:
He believed that the Muslims were facing decline not because of weak leadership but
because of Muslim community itself. He believed that many Muslims did not have
complete knowledge of Quranic teachings. A major problem was that Muslims were
divided into Shias and Sunnis and fought with themselves. It was necessary to follow
Islamic teachings into every aspect of life.
●      WORK:
He worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for every Muslim. He translated
Quran into Persian because many people were unfamiliar with Arabic. Later his sons,
Shah Abdul Qader and Shah Rafi, translated Quran into Urdu so more and more people
could gain Islamic knowledge. He wrote fifty one books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst
the most famous were Hujjatullah-ul-Baligha and Izalat-Akhfa. He also wrote an account
of the first four caliphs of Islam in a way that was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis.
In economics he emphasised the need for social justice and for peasants and craftsmen
to be truly valued for their contribution to the economy. His most important contributions
to the Muslim community was his organization of opposition to the Marathas, who were
threatening to over-run the Mughal Empire from the south. It was to call together the
divinities among Muslims and unite them for Jihad. He wrote a letter to Afghan King
Ahmad Shah Abdali and joined local forces with local Muslim leaders and defeated the
Marathas in the Battle of Panipat in 1761. However, despite encouragement from Shah
Wali Ullah, the Muslim leaders did not unite to take advantage of the defeat of the
Marathas. Perhaps if they had done so, the Muslims would not have soon found
themselves under Non-Muslim rule.
●      IMPORTANCE:
Shah Wali Ullah was one of the first thinkers to state that the decline of Mughal Empire and
the vulnerable position of the Muslims were due to a neglect of the principles of Islam.
He showed how this regeneration might take place. The Madrassa continued to play a
vital role in teaching Islamic principles and researching Islamic thought. He believed that
Muslims could prosper if they followed proper Islamic customs and did not indulge in
social evils. His writing gave large number of Muslims a chance to study their religion
and understand its teachings. He gave Muslims inspiration to lead a pure simple Life.
He showed that Muslims had to concentrate more on basic principle rather than finding
the difference which would lead them in the conflict among them. He tried to oppose
Maratha and unite the Muslim under a common enemy. Many future leaders were
inspired by his teachings. And fight for the good of Muslim community.
SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI
●      INTRODUCTION:
Syed Ahmad was born in a small town of Rai Bareli near Lucknow. He moved in Delhi in
1806 and Studied in Madrassa Rahimya for two years. In 1810 in joined a Pathan
Military Leader and learned to use European weaponry. In 1817 He returned to Delhi
trying to make Islam to its original purity.
●      BELIEFS:
He believed that Muslims could achieve their freedom by having arm struggle against
the British and Sikhs. He believed that the evil in the Islamic Society had to be cured.
He called for Jihad Movement to over throw the non-Muslim force which was oppressing
them. Only then Islam could be rescued from the evil customs of other societies.
●      WORK:
In 1821 He went for Hajj and returned from Arabia in 1823 ready for action. At this time
Punjab and NWFP was in the control of Sikh and Muslims were unable to live according
to their faith. He traveled many hundred miles to raise a mujahideen force. In 1826 Syed
Ahmad established his headquarters near Peshawar and sent a messenger asking
Ranjit Singh the ruler to allow muslims follow their religion but the request was turn
down so he had no choice but to attack at Okara on 21 December 1826 and after that
Hazarothe and defeat the Sikhs. He was successful military leader and the mujahideen
force soon reached 80,000 men, but there was a major problem as the force had people
from different area they quarreled on how the camping should run. Sikhs tried to exploit
the army by calling it un-Islamic but it was consider jihad by Muslim leaders. When Syed
Ahmad was about to attack the fort of Attock he encountered the army of Sikh of 35000
men’s. What he did not know was that Yar Muhammad Khan a Pathan chief was bribed
by the Sikh and even his servant tried to poison him. Then Yar Muhammad deserted
him on the battle field along his men and thus this creates chaos and lead to defeat.
Syed Ahmad had no choice but to move his headquarters to safety of Panjtar near
Kashmir but was again betrayed when a person in his army told the British a secret way
to attack them. In battle of Balakot 1831 a surprise attack was lead by Sikh and Six
hundred Muslims were killed along with Syed Ahmed.
●      IMPORTANCE:
The Defeat of the mujahideen in the Battle of Balakot was a serious setback for the
Jihad movement still it survived.  The movement continued on the hills of NWFP until
1863 when the British sent large force to deal with it still it survived through
determination of its followers. The work of Syed Ahmad was important because it was
the first arm struggle of a movement to free Muslims from non-Muslim rule. It was not a
movement for a leader but it was to achieve religious freedom. Jihad of Syed Ahmad
inspired many Muslims. It is the fore-runner of Pakistan movement as the aim of this
movement was to safe-guard Muslim interest and achieves a homeland where they can
practice their Religion, Culture and Freedoms.
 HAJI SHARIATULLAH

●      INTRODUCTION:
He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in east Bengal. His family was poor. In 1799 He
went to Arabia on pilgrimage and stayed there for nineteen years . He was greatly
influenced by the teaching of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab.
●      BELIEFS:
He believed that the miserable condition of the Muslims in India led to the country being
Dar-Ul-Harb (Country under Foreign Rule). He told that Friday prayer and Eid prayer
cannot be offered here. He also believed that Muslim community had moved away from
Islamic practice. He wanted them to return to what he thought was the proper
observation of Islamic duties called Faraizi. This was why he started his movement was
called Faraizi Movement. The Faraizi Movement supported the idea of Jihad against the
non-Muslims who were undermining the true principles of Islam.
●      WORK:
He started Faraizi movement to restore the Pride of the Muslims and remove what he
thought were the Hindu practices. Emphasis was placed on praying for past sins and
promising to lead a righteous life in the future which had crept into their worship. The
success of this movement caused British and Hindu Landlord’s and they did not want
Haji Shariat Ullah to create difficulty for them by uniting a desire to improve their lives
and purify their religion so they drove Haji out of the reign to Nawabganj in Dhaka where
he died in 1840. His work however was carried by his son Mohsin-ud-Din who continued
to improve the position of Muslim in East Bengal and introduced important economic
measures. He divides East Bengal into circle under control of each Khalifa to carry out
religious activities. He helped the peasants to oppose land taxes and he threatened to
declare Jihad against the British so he was captured and put in prison where he died in
1860.
●      IMPORTANCE:
Work of Haji Shariat Ullah was important to Faraizi Movement because it gave
encouragement to Muslims at a time when they demoralised by oppression suffered
from Hindus and British. It also brought about a spiritual revival which led to a revival in
Islamic religion in East Bengal. Hindu influences were removed from Islamic practices. It
might be said that some seeds for the Pakistan Movement were sown by the Faraizi
Movement.

COMPARISIONS OF RELIGIOUS THINKERS

Islam was widely spread in subcontinent by Shah Wali Ullah Syed Ahmed Shaheed
Barelvi and Haji Shariat Ullah.
 Shah Wali Ullah was a religious scholar. He taught Islamic teachings in the Madrassa
Rahimya. This produced a number of scholars in the sub-continent and therefore
increased spread of Islam. Shah Wali Ullah also translated the Quran in Persian. Arabic
was not very much understood in the sub continent so translating Quran revived
Quranic teachings in the subcontinent because Muslims and also other people could
understand Quranic teachings. Shah Wali Ullah also wrote to all Muslim leaders in the
subcontinent to unite and defeat the Marathas it was partly due to his persuade that
Ahmed Durrani came to subcontinent and defeated the Marathas. Thus by writing
letters he decreased the non Muslim influence of Marathas and united Muslim leaders
which revived Islam in subcontinent. Shah Wali Ullah wrote several books about 51.
These books were extremely popular. These not only converted many people to Islam
and increase understanding of religion for Muslims of Islam but also united the different
Muslim sectarian such as the Shias and Sunnis.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi also played part in reviving Islam. He started the Jihad
Movement. The Jihad Movement was a Movement started by Muslims to defeat the non
Muslim oppressors. The Movement united all the different Muslim against one common
enemy. This showed the power of the Muslims and united the Muslim community which
spread Islam.
Haji Shariat Ullah started the Faraizi Movement. It indicated tht Muslims should return to
their religious teaching and perform their religious obligations. This particularly became
popular in Bengal and Muslims were revived back to their religious teachings. His
movement also united the Muslims of Bengal.
However there were failures
Shah Wali Ullah was not able to bring Muslim power back to subcontinent and Muslims
were still being oppressed by Marathas who prevented them from obeying there
religions law.
Syed Ahmed eventually failed to defeat the British and the oppressing Sikhs and
Muslims once again returned to their torturing lives.
Haji Shariat Ullah could only bring rejuvenation in Bengal and so could not reach the
entire subcontinent. The failure of the Jihad Movements discouraged Muslims to rise up
against the enemy which weakened Islam.
●      CONCLUSION:
Although every religious thinker was quite successful in spreading the message
amongst the people, Shah Wali Ullah through writings, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi
through his Jihad Movement and Haji Shariat Ullah through his Faraizi movement, yet in
my opionion Shah Wali Ullah was most successful as his work was ever lasting and
sowed a seed for the later "Pakistan Movement".
                         COMPARISION OF THEIR WORKS
There were many Muslims reformers at that time. SWU was one of them. He believed
that the Muslims were not able to understand Islam because they weren’t able to
understand the Holy Quran because it was in Arabic. He translated Holy Quran from
Arabic to Persian. Later it was translated to Urdu by his sons. He wrote 51 books .They
include Hujjatullah-ul Baligha and Izalat al Akhfa. He also wrote an account on the four
Caliphs of Islam to decrease differences between Sunnis and Shias.(he also fought
against the Marathas)
Another reformer was SASB. He was a man of action. He was a great Muslim warrior.
He gathered an army of mujahideen to fight against the Sikhs and Ranjit Singhs forces.
He did Jihad against the Ranjit Singh army at many times. Although many people left
him he still continued the fight against the Sikhs. He fought the Battle of Balakot in
1831. It was the first example of a movement formed to free Muslims from non Muslims
leaders. It was a uniting force for the Muslims and inspiration for future Muslims.
Another reformer was HSU. He believed that the country was now Dar-Ul Harb where
non Muslims ruled. He also believed that the Muslims had moved away from true
Islamic practice so he started a movement called the Faraizi Movement. It supported
the idea of Jihad Movement. The Faraizi Movement was started to restore the pride of
Muslims and remove non Muslim practices in Islam. This Movement encouraged the
Muslims. It brought a spiritual revival. It also had much economic impact. The Bengal
peasants became united in opposition to the British and became aware of their rights
and unity became to grow between them and they realised their rights that should have
been given.
Conclusion
I think SWU was the most important reformer because he was one of the first persons
to realise the main thing of Muslims problems. He did the major thing of translating Holy
Quran to Persian so that more people could understand it.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
               KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

At the beginning of 1st world war (1914) seat of Khilafat was held by Turkey (Ottoman
Empire). In
the frist world war, the Turks had fought on the side of the Germany and Austrian
 Empire agaisnst Britain, France and Russia. British wanted Indian Muslims to fight in
the
war against the Turks, but they knew that British would respect the rights of the Khalifa
and
Turkish Empire would be maintained. As a result of this promise thousands of Muslims
joined the
British Army.Turkish side defeated at the end of the war. Muslims all over the world
were concerned with how Turkey would be treated. Istanbul had been the home of
Caliphate and the Turkish Sultan was
recognized as the Khalifa or caliph. The Allies hpoed to destroy the Ottoman Empire by
encouraging, Turkey to become a nation rather than an empire. The treaty Of Versailles
set out to
divide Germany into two parts.

KHILAFAT COMMITTEE:The Muslims of India decided to launch a movement for the

safeguard of the institution of Caliphate and to manifesttheir resentment over actions
the Allies had
taken in Turkey. A “Khilafat Committee” was set up in 1919 toconduct and to organize
the Khilfat
movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its General Secretary. Congress also supported
this
movement under Abdul Kalam Azad. This movement was launched to pressurize the
British into
keeping their promises.
In Novemeber 1919 the 1st Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi. Gandhi was also
present at the
Conference. A resolution was alos passed asking the muslims as religious duty to adopt
the policy
of non-cooperation with the British.
In December 1919 the 2nd Khilafat Conference was held in Amri tsar. At the same time
both
Congress and muslims League were also meeting the city. It was agreed that all three
organizations
should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkishempire.
Khilafat Delegation: The khilafat delegation left for England in march 1919 under the
leadership of
Maulana Mohammed Ali Johar and met the Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Prime
minster
refused to accept any arguments extended by the Khilafat Delegation and it failed
without
achieving its purpose. While the delegation was still in Europe the terms of the treaty of
Severs
with turkey was reduced only to Turkish orgin area. Allied divided the non-Turkish part
of Ottoman Empire
among themselves. 
Non-Cooperation Movement : In August 1920 a full scale Non-Cooperation Movement
was
launched in with the collaboration with Gandhi.Gandhi came forward with their full
support for the movement. Indians were asked to give up Government. Services,
renounce title and boycott courts
of law and British goods, walk out of schools and colleges. Gandhi assured the people
that if this
movement would be in a united, disciplined and non-violent fashion, they would attain
“Swaraj or
Self-Rule” with in a year. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement took the shape
of mass
movement. This was the most serious political threat that the British faced after the War
of
independence 1857. Hindu-Muslim unity was at its height.
The congress cleverly decided to use Muslim agitation to press the British for the further
concession on self-rule and to show the Muslims that the hindu Muslims unity was
beneficial.
Quaid-e-Azam was not in favour of Gandhi’s non-cooperation program because he
thought that it
might be violent, so he reisgned from Congress in 1920.

HIJRAT MOVEMENT : It was a by-product of Khilafat Movement. In 1920 Abdul Kalam

Azad
and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call for Hijrat Movement and urged the muslims to
migrate to a
place where they can freely pratice their religion,they called India as ‘dar-ul-Harb’.
Nearly 18000
muslims mostly from Sind, NWFP and Punjab after selling their land and properties,
migrated to
Afghanistan. The Afghan Government welcomed them in the beginning but afterwards
refuse to
accept them. Many people perished in the way and those who returned back to India to
find them
homeless and doomed forever. As a result of this all muslims became backward in all
fields of life.
This migration to Afghanistan is known as the, “Hijrat Movement” in the history of India. 
CHAURA CHAURI INCIDENT:The non-cooperation movement was leading to violence
and
losing its momentum. In Feb. 1922 at Chaura Chauri in a village near UP a trouble
erupted between
the police and the demonstrating procession. The hostile  mob set fire to the police
station where
22policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi was so upset that he immediately and unilaterally
called of
non-cooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat
Movement.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT:

* The non-violence, non-cooperative movement turned intoviolence. After the Chaura

Chauri
incident in feburary 1922, Gandhi himself called of the Non-Cooperation movement
which caused
a sever blow to the Khilafat Movement.
* Gandhi and other muslim’s leader of the movement were arrested in 1922 with the
arrest of
leaders the movement lost its momentum.\
* Although the Khilafat Movement was the first movementin which Hindus and Muslims
worked
together, their unity was probably always doomed to failure.The Hindu aim for self rule
was not
really an objective of the muslims and Hindus were prepared to support the Muslims in
protecting
their religious right only as long as it helped move India towards the self-rule.
* Hijrat Movement at critical stage was another blow for Muslims. Hijrat to Afghanistan
where the
Muslims were shocked by the lack of support from the Afghangovernement.
* On 3rd March 1924 the final and deadly blow was struck at the Khilafat movement by
Mustafa
Kamal Ata Turk Pasha who exiled Khalifa, Muhammad Vl and abolished Khilafat and
established
nationalist governement of Turkey.ss?

June 2009:
b) Explain the reasons for the failure of the Khilafat Movement?
June 2006:
b) Explain why the Khilafat Movement had failed by 1924?
Nov 2008:
c) ‘The Khilafat Movement failed by 1924 of poor leadership.’ Do you agree? Give
reasons
for your answer?

Mughal Decline - 1707-1857

 The successors of Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) were puppets in the hands of the too
powerful soldiers or statesmen who raised them to the throne, controlled them
while on it, and killed them when it suited their purposes to do so. The subsequent
history of the empire is a mere record of ruin. In the century- and one-half that followed,
effective control by Aurangzeb's successors weakened. Contenders for the Mughal
throne fought each other, and the short-lived reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were
strife-filled. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional governors
broke away and founded independent kingdoms
The Mughals had to make peace with Maratha rebels, and Persian and Afghan armies
invaded Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739.
For a time Mughal emperors still ruled India from Delhi. But of the six immediate
successors of Aurangzeb, two were under the control of an unscrupulous general, Zul-
fikar Khan, while the four others were the creatures of a couple of Sayyid adventurers,
who well earned their title of the 'king-makers.' Succession to imperial and even
provincial power, which had often become hereditary, was subject to intrigue and force.
The mansabdari system gave way to the zamindari system, in which high-ranking
officials took on the appearance of hereditary landed aristocracy with powers of
collecting rents. As Delhi's control waned, other contenders for power emerged and
clashed, thus preparing the way for the eventual British takeover.
From the year 1720 the breaking up of the empire took a more open form. The Nizam-ul-Mulk,
or Governor of the Deccan, severed the largest part of Southern India from the Delhi rule (1720-
1748). The Governor of Oudh, originally a Persian merchant, who had risen to the post of wazir,
or prime minister of the empire, practically established his own dynasty as the Nawab Wazfr of
Oudh which had been committed to his care (1732-1743). Amidst the general disintegration of
the Moghal empire, and the rise of new political powers in all parts of India, the leading part was
taken by the Mahrattas, and the leading story of the eighteenth century in India is the story of
Mahratta supremacy. The Marathas having enforced their claim to black-mail (chauth)
throughout Southern India, burst through the Vindhyas into the north, and obtained from the
Delhi emperors the cession of Mahvd (1743) and Orissa (1751), with an imperial grant of tribute
from Bengal.
The Mughals sought not only to block the historical western invasion routes into India
but also to control the fiercely independent tribes who accepted only nominal control
from Delhi in their mountain strongholds between the Kabul-Qandahar axis and the
Indus River -- especially in the Pashtun area of the Suleiman mountain range. As the
area around Qandahar changed hands back and forth between the two great empires
on either side, the local Pashtun tribes exploited the situation to their advantage by
extracting concessions from both sides. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the
Mughals had abandoned the Hindu Kush north of Kabul to the Uzbeks, and in 1748
they lost Qandahar to the Safavids for the third and final time.

The Hindu subjects of the empire were at the same time asserting their independence.
Akbar had rendered a great Empire possible in India by conciliating the native Hindu
races. He thus raised up a powerful third party, consisting of the native military peoples
of India, which enabled him alike to prevent new Muhammadan invasions from Central
Asia, and to keep in subjection his own Muhammadan Governors of Provinces. Under
Aurangzeb and his miserable successors this wise policy of conciliation was given up.
Accordingly, new Muhammadan hordes soon swept down from Afghanistan; the
Muhammadan Governors of Indian Provinces set up as independent potentates: and
the warlike Hindu races, who had helped Akbar to create the Mughal Empire, became,
under his foolish posterity, the chief agents of its ruin.

The Sikh sect in the Punjab was driven by the oppression of the Delhi Emperors into
revolt, and was mercilessly crushed (1710-1716). The indelible memory of the cruelties
then inflicted by the Mughal troops nerved the Sikh nation with that hatred to Delhi
which served the British cause so well in 1857. Their leader, Banda, was carried about
in an iron cage, tricked out in the mockery of imperial robes, with scarlet turban and
cloth of gold. His son's heart was torn out before his eyes, and thrown in his face. He
himself was then pulled to pieces with red-hot pincers; and the Sikhs were
exterminated like mad dogs (1716). The Hindu princes of Rajputana were more
fortunate. Ajit Singh of Jodhpur asserted his independence, and Rajputana practically
severed its connection with the Mughal Empire in 1715.

While the Muhammadan governors and Hindu subjects of the empire were thus becoming
independent of the Delhi emperors, two new sets of external enemies appeared ; one set from
Central Asia, the other set from the sea. In 1739, Nadir Shdh, the Persian monarch, swooped
down on India, with his destroying host, and, after a massacre in the streets of Delhi and a
fiftyeight days' sack, returned through the north-western passes with a booty estimated at 32
millions sterling. The destroying host of the Persian king was succeeded by a series of invasions
from Afghanistan. Six times the Afghans burst through the passes under Ahmad Shah Duranf,
pillaging, slaughtering, and then scornfully retiring to their homes with the plunder of the
Mughal empire.
In 1738, Kabul, the last Afghan Province of the Mughals, was severed from Delhi; and,
in 1752, Ahmad Shah obtained the cession of the Punjab from the miserable emperor.
The cruelties inflicted upon Delhi and Northern India during these six Afghan invasions
form an appalling tale of bloodshed and wanton cruelty. The wretched capital opened
her gates, and was fain to receive the Afghans as guests. Yet on one occasion it
suffered for six weeks every enormity which a barbarian army can inflict upon a
prostrate foe. Meanwhile the Afghan cavalry were scouring the country, slaying,
burning, and mutilating, in the meanest hamlet as in the greatest town. They took
especial delight in sacking the holy places of the Hindus, and murdering the
defenceless votaries at the shrines.

The other set of invaders came from over the sea. In the wars between the French and
English in Southern India, the last vestiges of the Delhi authority in the Karndtik
disappeared (1748-61). Bengal, Behar, and Orissa were handed over to the English by
an imperial grant in 1765. The British obtained these three fertile Provinces as the
nominee of the emperor; but the battle of Pam'pat had already reduced the throne of
Delhi to a shadow. That battle was fought in 1761, between the Afghan invader Ahmad
Shah and the Maratha powers, on the memorable plain of Panipat on which Babar and
Akbar had twice won the sovereignty of India. The Afghans defeated the Marathas; but
although the Muhammadans could still win victories, they could no longer rule India.
During the anarchy which followed, the British patiently built up a new power out of the
wreck of the Mughal Empire.
Puppet emperors continued to reign at Delhi over a numerous seraglio, under such
lofty titles as Akbar II. or Alamglr II. But their power was confined to the palace, while
Marathas, Sikhs, and Englishmen were fighting for the sovereignty of India. The last of
these pensioned Mughal kings of Delhi emerged for a moment as a rebel during the
Mutiny of 1857, and died a State prisoner in Rangoon, the capital of British Burma, in
1862.

Decline of the Mughal Empire in India

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Read this article to learn about the decline of Mughal Empire in India!
The history of India, as well as of the world, has been divided into three periods:
ancient, medieval and modern.

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The death of Aurangzeb is believed to have marked the beginning of the modern period.
This history is seen to conclude with the achievement of independence in 1947.

Is ‘modern’ an adequate and acceptable term to describe this period of history?

Even if we can refer to different historical periods, in which changes occurred and
distinguishing characteristics emerged, we cannot fix precise dates for any specific
period. Each period was born out of the previous one. But gradually each one developed
its own distinctive characteristics.
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6614AF4C11FD.jpg
The idea of the ‘modern’ has come from the West. It is associated with the development
of science, reason, liberty, equality and democracy. If we use the term ‘modern’ for the
period of British rule in India, we accept that these principles were introduced in India
by the British.

An alternate way, then, is to characterise this period as the ‘colonial’. The establishment
and spread of British rule, and the accompanying transformation in the political,
economic, social and cultural worlds, are all part of this colonial rule.

Decline of the Mughals:

The period of the Great Mughals, which began in 1526 with Babur’s accession to the
throne, ended with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Aurangzeb’s death marked the end
of an era in Indian history. When Aurangzeb died, the empire of the Mughals was the
largest in India. Yet, within about fifty years of his death, the Mughal Empire
disintegrated.

Aurangzeb’s death was followed by a war of succession among his three sons. It ended in
the victory of the eldest brother, Prince Muazzam. The sixty five-year-old prince
ascended the throne under the name of Bahadur Shah.

Bahadur Shah (1707 A.D.-1712 A.D.):

Bahadur Shah followed a policy of compromise and conciliation and tried to conciliate
the Rajputs, the Marathas, the Bundelas, the Jats and the Sikhs. During his reign the
Marathas and the Sikhs became more powerful. He had also to face revolt from the
Sikhs. Bahadur Shah died in 1712.
Wars of Succession, which had been a regular feature among the Mughals, had become
more acute after the death of Bahadur Shah. This was specially so because the nobles
had become very powerful. Different factions of nobles supported rival claimants to the
throne in order to occupy high posts.

Jahandar Shah (1712 A.D.-1713 A.D.):

Jahandar Shah who succeeded Bahadur Shah was weak and incompetent. He was
controlled by nobles and could manage to rule only for one year.

Farrukhsiyar (1713 A.D.-1719 A.D.):

Farrukhsiyar ascended the throne with the help of the Sayyid brothers who were
popularly called the ‘king makers’. He was controlled by the Sayyid brothers who were
the real authority behind Mughal power. When he tried to free himself from their
control, he was killed by them.

Mohammad Shah (1719 A.D.-1748 A.D.):

The Sayyids helped Mohammad Shah, ascend the 18-year-old grandson of Bahadur
Shah, to the throne. Taking advantage of the weak rule of Mohammad Shah and the
constant rivalry among the various factions of the nobility, some powerful and
ambitious nobles established virtually independent states. Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh
and Rohilkhand offered but nominal loyalty to the Mughal Emperor. The Mughal
Empire practically broke up.

Mohammad Shah’s long reign of nearly 30 years (1719-1748 A.D.) was the last chance of
saving the empire. When his reign began, Mughal prestige among the people was still an
important political force. A strong ruler could have saved the dynasty. But Mohammad
Shah was not equal to the task. He neglected the affairs of the state and never gave full
support to able wazirs.

Nadir Shah’s Invasion:

The condition of India with its incompetent rulers, weak administration and poor
military strength attracted foreign invaders. Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, attacked
Punjab in 1739. Mohammad Shah was easily defeated and imprisoned. Nadir Shah
marched towards Delhi. Nadir Shah was a ferocious invader.

He massacred thousands of people in Delhi. Delhi looked deserted for

days. Mohammad Shah, however, was reinstated on the throne. Nadir Shah carried with
him the Kohinoor diamond and the Peacock throne of Shah Jahan. By plundering a big
city like Delhi, he got enormous wealth.
Nadir Shah’s invasion gave a crushing blow to the already tottering Mughal Empire and
hastened the process of its disintegration. Mohammad Shah’s kingdom was practically
confined to Delhi and its neighbourhood. He died in 1748.

Mohammad Shah was succeeded by a number of inefficient rulers Ahmad Shah (1748-
1754), Alamgir II (1754-1759), Shah Alam II (1759-1806), Akbar II (1806-1837) and
Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857). During the rule of Alamgir II, the East India Company
fought the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal.
They thus got a foothold in Bengal.

In 1761, during the reign of Shah Alam II, Ahmad Shah Abdali, the independent ruler of
Afghanistan, invaded India. He conquered Punjab and marched towards Delhi. By this
time, the Marathas had extended their influence up to Delhi. Hence a war between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali was inevitable.

In the Third Battle of Panipat the Marathas were completely defeated. They lost
thousands of soldiers along with their very good generals. They were forced to retreat to
the Deccan. Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasion further weakened the Mughal Empire.
 Shah Alam II granted the Dewani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to
the East India Company in 1765. This allowed the Company to collect revenue from
these areas. It also showed that Mughal authority was recognised by the Indian
rulers.Mughal rule formally came to an end when Bahadur Shah was deposed and
deported to Rangoon by the East India Company (1757).
Causes of the decline of the Mughal Empire:
1. Wars of Succession:
The Mughals did not follow any law of succession like the law of primogeniture.
Consequently, each time a ruler died, a war of succession between the brothers for the
throne started. This weakened the Mughal Empire, especially after Aurangzeb. The
nobles, by siding with one contender or the other, increased their own power.

2. Aurangzeb’s Policies:
Aurangzeb failed to realise that the vast Mughal Empire depended on the willing
support of the people. He lost the support of the Rajputs who had contributed greatly to
the strength of the Empire. They had acted as pillars of support, but Aurangzeb’s policy
turned them to bitter foes. The wars with the Sikhs, the Marathas, the Jats and the
Rajputs had drained the resources of the Mughal Empire.

3. Weak Successors of Aurangzeb:

The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and became victims of the intrigues and
conspiracies of the faction-ridden nobles. They were inefficient generals and incapable
of suppressing revolts. The absence of a strong ruler, an efficient bureaucracy and a
capable army had made the Mughal Empire weak.

4. Empty Treasury:
Shah Jahan’s zeal for construction had depleted the treasury. Aurangzeb’s long wars in
the south had further drained the exchequer.
5. Invasions:
Foreign invasions sapped the remaining strength of the Mughals and hastened the
process of disintegration. The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali resulted
in further drainage of wealth. These invasions shook the very stability of the empire.

6. Size of the Empire and Challenge from Regional Powers:

The Mughal Empire had become too large to be controlled by any ruler from one centre
i.e. Delhi. The Great Mughals were efficient and exercised control over ministers and
army, but the later Mughals were poor administrators. As a result, the distant provinces
became independent. The rise of independent states led to the disintegration of the
Mughal Empire.

The Later Mughal Rulers (1707 A.D.-1857 A.D.):

Rise of independent states in the 18th

century:
With the decline of the Mughal Empire a number of provinces seceded from the empire
and several independent states came into existence.

Hyderabad:
The State of Hyderabad was founded by Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi, who was appointed
Viceroy of the Deccan, with the title of Nizam-ul- Mulk, by Emperor Farrukhsiyar in
1712. He established a virtually independent state but returned to Delhi during the reign
of Emperor Mohammad Shah. In 1724, he was reappointed Viceroy of the Deccan with
the title of Asaf Jah. He founded the Asaf Jah dynasty. His successors were known as the
Nizams of Hyderabad.

Asaf Jah ruled the Deccan with a firm hand, crushed the rebellious and powerful
zamindars and established a strong administration. He put his nominee, Anwar-ud-din,
on the throne of Arcot. After his death in 1748, Hyderabad became an easy prey to
powerful neighbours. European trading companies started interfering in the domestic
politics of Hyderabad for their own selfish gains.

The Carnatic:
The Carnatic was one of the provinces of the Mughals in the Deccan and was under the
authority of the Nizam of Hyderabad. However, in practice, the Carnatic was virtually
independent under its nawab.

Bengal:
Bengal in the 18th century comprised Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Murshid Quli Khan was
the Diwan of Bengal under Aurangzeb. Farrukhsiyar appointed him Subedar (governor)
of Bengal in 1717.
Taking advantage of the growing weakness of the central authority, Murshid Quli Khan
became practically independent. Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27) and his successors Shuja-
ud-Daula (1727-39) and Alivardi Khan (1739-1756) gave Bengal a long period of peace
and stable administration.

All these three rulers gave encouragement to trade but maintained

strict control over the foreign trading companies. Alivardi Khan did not permit English
and French trading companies to fortify their possessions in Bengal.
 However, the Nawabs of Bengal failed to build up a
strong army and navy. They also failed to prevent corruption among the officials. Nor
did they firmly destroy the tendency of the East India Company to use force. Their
ignorance of the situation in Europe proved costly. Bengal was the first province to be
conquered by the East India Company.

Awadh:
The subah of Awadh comprised Benaras and some districts near Allahabad. Saadat
Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk was appointed Governor of Awadh by the Mughal Emperor. But
he soon became independent. He established a strong administration, crushed the
power of the big zamindars and brought about law and order in the country.
His successor Safdar Jang gave Awadh a long period of peace and prosperity. The
authority of the Awadh rulers extended up to Rohil-khand, a territory to the east of
Delhi.

Mysore:
Early in the 18th century, Mysore was ruled by a Hindu king. After the death of the king,
Hyder Ali captured the throne. Though illiterate, Hyder Ali was an efficient
administrator. He became the ruler of Mysore when Hyder Ali it was a weak and divided
state.

But within a short span of time he made Mysore one of the leading Indian powers. He
modernized the army and expanded his kingdom through conquests. He was strong
enough to emerge as a rival of the British.

The Rajput Kingdoms:

Taking advantage of the growing weakness of Mughal power, the Rajput states became
virtually independent. But the Rajput chiefs continued to be divided as before. Most of
the Rajput states were involved in petty quarrels and civil wars.
Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber (1681-1743) was a renowned Rajput ruler. He founded
the city of Jaipur. He also erected observatories with accurate and advanced
instruments at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. With the rise of the
Marathas, Rajput influence began to decrease.

The Punjab:
It was under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and the last Guru of the
Sikhs that the community became a political and military force. The invasions of Nadir
Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali and the consequent decline of Mughal power gave the
Sikhs the opportunity to rise. Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and
Jammu under their control. At the end of the 18th century Ranjit Singh, chief of the
Sukercharia misl brought all the Sikh chiefs west of the river Sutlej under his control
and established a powerful Sikh empire in the Punjab.

After Ranjit Singh’s death, there was confusion in the Sikh state.
The English, who were on the lookout for an opportunity to expand their territories,
conquered the Sikh kingdom (1839-40).
 The Marathas:
Shahuji, the grandson of Shivaji, who had been imprisoned by Aurangzeb, was released
by Bahadur Shah in 1707. The Maratha state at that time was ruled by Tara Bai, the
queen regent. A civil war broke out between the two Shahu was victorious.

Shahuji appointed Balaji Vishwanath as his Peshwa or Prime Minister in 1713. Balaji
Vishwanath concentrated all power in his own hands and became the real ruler of the
Marathas. The king was relegated to the background. Balaji Vishwanath assigned
separate areas to the Maratha sardars (chiefs) for the collection of levies of chauth and
sardeshmukhi.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761) further extended the empire in different directions. Maratha
power reached its height under him. The Marathas soon reached Delhi and offered their
support to the Mughal emperor. The expulsion of Ahmad Shah Abdali’s agent from
Punjab brought the Marathas into an open conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali.

The battle between the two forces was fought in Panipat in January 1761. The Marathas
were completely defeated. Nearly 28,000 soldiers were killed. The Peshwa died in June
1761.The Battle of Panipat destroyed the possibility of the Marathas emerging as the
strongest power in India. For the British, this battle was of immense significance. The
Maratha defeat cleared the way for the rise of British power in India.

It should be noted that the Indian powers were strong enough to destroy unite it or to
the Mughal Empire but not strong enough to unite it or to create anything new in its
place. Possibly the Marathas alone possessed the strength to fill the political vacuum
created by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. But they lacked political vision and
succumbed to British power.

Main Causes for the Decline of the Mughal Empire in India

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Read this article to learn about the main cause of the decline of Mughal
Empire in India !
On the whole the decline of the Mughal Empire can be attributed to many factors.

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The process of its decay had begun from the time of Aurangzeb whose misguided
policies weakened the stability of the Mughal polity.

He was ambitious and wanted to increase the geographical limits of his empire even
though it cost him heavily in terms of men and money.

His hard headed attitude towards the Marathas, Rajputs and the Jats and the refusal to
grant them regional autonomy broke the former loyalty that existed between them and
the Mughal Empire.
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Further he made the mistake of imposing the centralized system of governance in far-
flung areas which were beyond his control. Aurangzeb mainly failed to make good
alliances to safeguard his empire and went on making more and more enemies.

As a fanatic his religious policy alienated the Hindus and the Muslims. This certainly
had an adverse effect on the stability of the empire. The wars of succession that plagued
Delhi from 1707 to 1719 too weakened the empire. The trail of weak successors further
damaged the integrity of the empire. None of them had the ability to overcome the
centrifugal forces and to unite the empire.

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Most of them were puppets in the hands of powerful nobles who ran the administration
on their behalf. One more factor for the disintegration of the Mughal Empire was the
infighting between the nobles and their internal divisions.

The Mughal court consisted of four groups of nobles, the Turanis, the Iranis, the
Afghans and the Indian born Muslims. The accession of weak rulers at the center made
them strong contenders for power. They fought amongst themselves for more jagirs and
high offices which were limited in number. They weakened the military by amassing
income from the jagirs for themselves and cutting down the number of troops.

The external invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali broke the remaining
strength of the Mughal Empire. It took a heavy toll of the imperial treasury and property
and laid open the inefficiencies of the military and political administration.

It left India vulnerable to disintegrating forces from within and outside. The precarious
condition of Mughal rule is evident from the fact that it was the Marathas not the
Mughals who fought the third battle of Panipat in 1761 with Abdali.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The causes for the disintegration of the Mughal Empire can be understood in two
different terms. One, that the Mughal system of governance depended greatly on the
effectiveness of the emperor’s personality. It was certainly one of the main imperial
pillars especially capable enough to keep the decentralizing forces at bay.
The other one is strongly attributed to the so called crisis of the jagirdari system, caused
by a shortage of jagirs and the over abundance of the jagirdars. It made the system
exploitative and gave way to peasant’s revolts misbalancing imperial stability.