SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

Body Membranes- are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and cover
organs within the cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial and connective
tissue membrane.

CLASSIFICATION OF BODY MEMBRANES

Epithelial Membrane- Include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the mucous membranes, and
the serous membrane. However calling these membranes “epithelial” is not only misleading
but also inaccurate. Although they all do contain an epithelial sheet, it is always combined
with an underlying layer of connective tissue. Hence, these membranes can actually be
considered to be simple organs. Since the skin will be discussed in some detail shortly, it will
not be considered here except to list it has a category of the epithelial membranes.

Cutaneous Membrane
- Is your skin. 
- Its superficial epidermis is composed of a keratinizing
stratified squamous epithelium. 
- It is exposed to air and is a dry membrane.

Mucous Membrane
- Composed of epithelium resting on a loose connective tissue
membrane called Lamina Propria. 
- Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior like the hollow
organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
-Often adapted for absorption and secretion.

Serous Membrane
- Composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a
thin layer of areolar connective tissue.
- Line body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body.
-It is separated by serous fluids.
Tissue Membranes- is a thin layer or a sheet of cell that covers the outside of the body
(skin), organs (pericardium), internal passage ways that open to the exterior of the body
(mucosa of stomach) and the lining of the movable joint cavities.

2 broad Categories of Tissue Membranes

1. Connective tissue membranes which include synovial membranes.

2. Epithelial membranes which include mucous membranes, serous membranes, and the
cutaneous membrane in other words, the skin.

Connective Tissue Membranes- is formed solely from connective tissue. These membranes
encapsulate organs, such as the kidneys and line our movable joints.

Synovial Membranes- is a type of connective tissue membranes that lines the cavity of a
freely movable joint. For example the joints of the shoulders, elbow and knee.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
(SKIN)
- is an outer protective layer of the body, also known as integument. It is the largest organ of
the body and is water resistant. It has many functions including protecting us from weather
and also infections.

Skin Functions:

1. Heat regulation- cools and warms the body.

2. Protection- keeps out bacteria and creates a barrier against ray of the sun.
3. Elimination- eliminates waste products.
4. Sensation- skin is the organ of touch.
5. Synthesizes vitamin D- Modified cholesterol molecules in skin converted to vitamin D by
sunlight.
6. Melanin Production- Protects body from harmful effects of the sun rays since dark colors
absorb radiation.

Protects deeper tissues from:

Mechanical Damage: Physical barrier contains keratin, which toughens cells; fat cells to cushion
blows; and pressure receptors, which alert the nervous system to possible damage.  
Chemical Damage: Has relatively impermeable keratinized cells; contains pain receptors, which
alert the nervous system to possible damage.
Bacterial Damage: Has an unbroken surface and "acid mantle". Phagocytes ingest foreign
substances and pathogens, preventing them from penetrating into deeper body tissues.  
UV: Melanin produced by melanocytes offers protection from UV damage.
Thermal Damage: Contains heat/cold/ pain receptors. 
Desiccation: Contains a water-resisting glycolipid and keratin.
SKIN STRUCTURE:

Epidermis- The epidermis is made up of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of keratinizing, or

becoming hard and tough.
5 LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS

1. Stratum Basale- (also called the stratum germinativum) is the deepest epidermal layer and
attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the dermis. The cells in
the stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen fibers, referred to as the basement
membrane. A finger-like projection, or fold, known as the dermal papilla (plural = dermal
papillae) is found in the superficial portion of the dermis. Dermal papillae increase the strength of
the connection between the epidermis and dermis; the greater the folding, the stronger the
connections made.
2. Stratum Spinosum- as the name suggests, the stratum spinosum is spiny in appearance due to
the protruding cell processes that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome. The
desmosomes interlock with each other and strengthen the bond between the cells. It is interesting
to note that the “spiny” nature of this layer is an artifact of the staining process. Unstained
epidermis samples do not exhibit this characteristic appearance. The stratum spinosum is
composed of eight to 10 layers of keratinocytes, formed as a result of cell division in the stratum
basale.
3. Stratum Granulosum- has a grainy appearance due to further changes to the keratinocytes as
they are pushed from the stratum spinosum. The cells (three to five layers deep) become flatter,
their cell membranes thicken, and they generate large amounts of the proteins keratin, which is
fibrous, and keratohyalin, which accumulates as lamellar granules within the cells.
4. Stratum Lucidum- is a smooth, seemingly translucent layer of the epidermis located just above
the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. This thin layer of cells is found only in
the thick skin of the palms, soles, and digits. The keratinocytes that compose the stratum lucidum
are dead and flattened.
 5. Stratum Corneum- is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to the
outside environment.

Dermis- considered as the “core” of the integumentary system (derma- = “skin”), as distinct from the
epidermis (epi- = “upon” or “over”) and hypodermis (hypo- = “below”). It contains blood and lymph
vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two
layers of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers,
produced by fibroblasts.

Layers

Papillary layer- the upper dermal region contains phagocytes (defensive cells that help fight bacteria or
other infections that have reached the skin). This layer also contains touch receptors called the Meissner
corpuscles. Dermal papillae are a superficial layer of dermis that projects to form fingerprints.

Reticular layer- made up to 80% of Dermis. It is made of Elastin fibers and Collagen fibers.

Hypodermis- a layer directly below dermis that serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia
(fibrous tissue) on the bones and muscles.

EMOTIONS ALSO INFLUENCE SKIN COLOR, AND MANY ALTERATIONS IN SKIN

COLOR, SKIN DISEASES:

1. Redness (erythema)-reddened skin

2. Pallor (blanching)- emotional stress (fear/anger)
3. Jaundice (yellowing)- liver/gallbladder disorders (excess of bilirubin in the blood)
4. Bruises (black and blue coloring)- where blood has escaped circulation and has clotted

SKIN APPENDAGES:

 Hair follicles- Hair follicles are found in most regions of skin, except the glans penis/clitoris,
labia minora, lip and palms/soles.
 Sebaceous glands- Sebaceous glands are holocrine; the cells themselves are secreted after
undergoing autophagy. Sebaceous glands are found in all areas of the body except the glans; they
are in highest quantity in the face.
 Apocrine sweat glands- Eccrine sweat glands are found in nearly all body regions and are
important in thermoregulation. 
 Eccrine sweat glands- Apocrine glands are only found in the axilla and perineal regions.
 Nails- Nails are a complex keratinised structure also formed by keratinocytes. The nail plate
(hard portion covering the distal ends of digits) is generated by keratinocyte differentiation in the
nail matrix, which is covered by a small fold of thin skin.

SKIN IMBALANCES:

1. Athletes foot- caused by fungal infection

2. Boils and Carbuncles- inflammation of hair follicles and sebaceous glands
3. Cold sores- caused by herpes simplex virus
4. Impetigo- caused by staph
 5. Burns- caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn)

SICSIC, CRISTEL JANE A

PACAYRA, SHENA NAVE

BPED 1A