Certificate No.

AJA19-0226

UNIT V
Page
LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS |1
“Students need to belong, before they can truly achieve.” -Anonymous

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe the nature and learning characteristics of students with additional needs; and
• Articulate appropriate instructional and classroom management strategies that work
best for each category of exceptionality.

INTRODUCTION:
We have learned in the previous unit that effective special educators possess knowledge of the
learners, the curriculum, and the pedagogy. In this unit, the focus will be on building your knowledge
of exceptional learners. Knowing these educational learners and the ways that you can effectively deal
with them in the classroom will make you more confident and effective in implementing inclusive
education.
As you embark on this journey, please remember that you do not read this unit just to get passing
grades, but to really learn something that can make a difference in the life of your future students.
Have fun learning!

A. LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

1. Definition
Intellectual disability pertains to limitations in thinking. Developmental disability means that the
limitations hinder the normal development of functions. In practice, most professionals simply use the
shorter term—intellectual disability. Developmental disability or impairment is a collective term for a
number of different conditions or diagnoses with the common characteristic that the ability to learn
and to cope within society is impaired.
The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) defines
Intellectual disability as follows:
[Intellectual disability] is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual
functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive
skills. This disability originates before age 18. (AAMR Ad Hoc Committee on Terminology and
Classification, 2010, p. 1).
The AAIDD definition emphasizes the following points: Intellectual disability concerns BOTH
INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING and ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR, and a person with intellectual disabilities
CAN IMPROVE in terms of intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Professionals considered adaptive behavior alongside IQ became some students might have poor
academic performance or might score poorly in IQ tests but still be “streetwise”—able to adapt with a Page
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complicated transport system, with a part-time job, with peers.
Adaptive behavior involves social intelligence and practical intelligence (Greenspan, 2006b). Social
intelligence is the ability to understand and interpret people and social interactions, such as being able
to “read” when someone is angry and not being easily deceived or manipulated. Practical intelligence
is the ability to deal with everyday challenges, such as washing the dishes, cooking one’s meals, using
transportation systems, making change, and performing tasks in particular job situations.
Intellectual disabilities can be divided into four general levels:
• Mild Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 50 to 70) – The learner will listen and talk, but may find
it difficult to understand certain concepts and have some limitations with expressing themselves.
S/he will usually be socially well adjusted (if growing up in an inclusive community), and be able to
live independently after finishing their schooling.
• Moderate Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 35 to 50) – The learner can talk, communicate and
participate actively in classroom activities. S/he will also gain from learning some activities of daily
living (ADL), or independent living skills, as well as social skills.
• Severe Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 20 to 35) - The learner can understand simple
communication through signs and mimic, but has limited ability to express oneself through spoken
language. Even if many experience great difficulties in independent living, some level of
independence can be reached.
• Profound Intellectual Disability (IQ below about 20) - Communicative skills are very limited.
Communication is often made through non-verbal sounds. However, some learners may have
limited ability to speak. Most of the learners concerned will need care and attention day and night
(24 hours).

Causes of Developmental Impairment

• Problems during pregnancy: An infection in the mother during the pregnancy can damage the
fetus (Rubella and German measles are common examples), attempted but failed abortions (in
some countries, abortions are attempted by using herbs or traditional massages that can be
unsuccessful and sometimes damage the fetus), lack of nutrition during pregnancy,
consumption of alcohol and drugs during the pregnancy, and the HIV virus, if it is not treated
properly with antiretroviral drugs (ARV), can also damage the growing brain of the fetus.
• Problems at birth: Lack of oxygen during labour and birth, premature birth, low birth-weight,
and jaundice can all result in developmental impairment.
• Problems with nourishment: Iodine deficiency and malnutrition (during infancy and childhood)
can lead to developmental impairment.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

• Health and environmental problems: Whooping cough, measles and meningitis, as well as Page
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exposure to polluted water and poison (lead and mercury), can lead to developmental
impairment.
• Social problems/causes: Physical, mental or sexual abuse, deprivation of love and affection, and
uncaring institutionalization, can cause developmental impairment.
• Chromosomal disorders include Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome,
and Williams syndrome. Down syndrome and Williams syndrome typically result from
chromosomal abnormalities; Fragile X syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome are inherited.

Down’s Syndrome
Down’s syndrome is the most common form of genetic syndrome. Down’s syndrome affects girls and
boys of all races, and from all religious, cultural, social and economic backgrounds. It is usually not an
inherited condition. In the vast majority of cases of Down syndrome, the 21st set of chromosomes (the
normal human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes) is a triplet rather than a pair; hence, the most
common form of Down syndrome is also referred to as trisomy 21. Down syndrome is the most
common form of intellectual disability that is present at birth (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Kim, 2006).

2. Identification
What methods of assessment are used to identify individuals with intellectual disabilities?
Individual IQ tests are used to assess intelligence. The following cautions are important: (1) An
individual’s IQ score can change; (2) all IQ tests are culturally biased to some extent; (3) the younger
the child, the less valid are the results; and (4) the ability to live a successful and fulfilling life does not
depend solely on IQ.
Adaptive behavior measures usually involve a parent, teacher, or other professional answering
questions related to the person’s independence and daily living skills and maladaptive behavior.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

With some learners, their intellectual disability may seem quite obvious; however, there are physical
conditions and impairments that may make a learner “appear” to have an intellectual disability.
With many learners, their intellectual disability is first identified after having been observed in
classroom situations. Even then, it can be difficult to be certain. More important than what sort of
impairment the learner may have is how we identify and remove the barriers to learning, development
and participation they experience in school, at home and in the community.
These are some signs that may indicate that the learner has an intellectual disability– that the
learner displays one or two of these signs does not mean that they have an intellectual disability. They
should be used with caution, as there is much variation in learners’ development:
• The learner experiences difficulties understanding what the teachers are saying even if all the
other learners seem to understand quite well.
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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

• The learner talks differently from the other learners in the class, or does not talk at all. Page
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• The learner moves, speaks and learns more slowly than most of her/his peers.
• The speech of the learner is not understood by anyone else than her/his immediate family.
• The learner does not interact well with other learners her/his age.
• The learner has poor motor coordination, is clumsy and moves very differently from other
learners her/his age.
• The learner has a short attention span.
• The learner has poor short- and/or long-term memory.
• The learner is hyperactive, aggressive or disruptive.
• The learner is apathetic and indifferent.
• The learner has difficulties copying shapes, such as circles and squares.
• The learner mixes up letters (although this is quite common among all school beginners).
• The learner has problems when doing simple jigsaw puzzles and foam boards.

4. Educational Approaches
• Use simple words and sentences when giving instructions. Check that s/he has understood.
• Use real objects that the learner can feel and handle, rather than just working abstractly with
pen and paper. This is important for all learners, especially for learners with disabilities.
• Do one activity at a time with the learner. Make it clear when one activity is finished and another
one is starting.
• Break a task down into small steps or learning objectives. The learner should start with an
activity that s/he can do already before moving on to something that is more difficult. Go back
one step if the learner encounters problems.
• Try to link the tasks to the learner experience and everyday life (this is important for all learners).
• Give extra practice by repeating the task a few times. This will ensure that the learner masters
the skill. It will help increase her/his self-confidence; however, repetitions should not be
exaggerated.
• Repeat a few main tasks with certain intervals so that they become “habits” to prevent skills
from being forgotten.
• Ask other learners (who are doing well academically) to help and assist their classmates with
intellectual disability as part of their own social, emotional, and academic development, which
is also
• mutually enriching.
• Be generous with praise (honest praise) and encouragement when the learner is successful and
masters new skills, as well as when s/he is trying (and working) very hard.
• Motivate the other learners in the class to include the learner with Intellectual disability in out-
of-class play and sport activities, which is also mutually enriching.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

• Ignore undesirable behavior if the child is doing it to get your attention. Give praise and attention Page
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when the child’s behavior is good.
The three main principles for teaching learners with developmental impairment:
1. Divide skill development into small steps and allow for slow progression.
2. Make frequent repetitions.
3. Give a lot of praise and motivation.

B. LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

1. Definition
Specific learning disability is defined in IDEA as a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest in
an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or perform mathematical calculations and
is not caused by a sensory, motor, or intellectual disability; an emotional disturbance; or environmental
or economic disadvantage.
In operationalizing this definition, most states require three criteria: (a) a severe discrepancy
between the student’s intellectual ability and academic achievement, (b) the student’s difficulties are
not the result of another known condition that can cause learning problems, and (c) the need for special
education services to succeed in school.

2. Identification
Four forms of assessment are frequently used with student with learning disabilities:
• Norm-referenced tests compare a child’s score with the scores of age mates who have taken
the same test.
• Criterion-referenced tests, which compare a child’s score with a predetermined mastery level,
are useful in identifying specific skills the child has learned as well as skills that require instruction.
• Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a formative assessment method that measures a
student’s progress in the actual curriculum in which she is participating.
• Direct and daily measurement involves assessing a student’s performance on a specific skill
each time it is taught.
• Response to intervention (RTI) assesses a low-achieving student’s response to increasingly
intensive, scientifically validated instruction to determine whether the student’s learning
difficulties are the result of poor or insufficient instruction or of a disability for which special
education is needed. A learner’s failure to progress in response to scientifically validated
instruction eliminates instructional quality as a viable explanation for poor academic growth and
suggests evidence of a disability. Learners who respond favorably to RTI’s increasingly intensive
instruction benefit from the preventive aspect of the approach.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

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Difficulty reading is the most common characteristic of students with learning disabilities. It is | 6
estimated that 90% of all children identified with learning disabilities are referred for special
education services because of reading problems.
Many students with learning disabilities show one or more of the following characteristics:
written language deficits, math underachievement, poor social skills, attention deficits and
hyperactivity, behavior problems, and low self-esteem or self-efficacy. The fundamental, defining
characteristic of students with learning disabilities is specific and significant achievement deficits
in the presence of adequate overall intelligence.
In addition to their academic and social skills deficits, students with learning disabilities possess
positive attributes and interests that teachers should identify and try to strengthen.

Dyscalculia
Learners with dyscalculia have difficulties learning the most basic aspect of arithmetic skills. The
difficulty lies in the reception, comprehension, or production of quantitative and spatial information
(the physical location of objects and the metric relationships between objects).
Learners with dyscalculia may therefore have difficulty in understanding simple number concepts,
lack an intuitive grasp of numbers and have problems learning number facts and procedures.
Dyscalculia is in some ways like “dyslexia for numbers.” Very little is known about the prevalence
of dyscalculia, causes or treatment. Most learners with dyscalculia have cognitive and language
abilities that are well within what is considered the “normal” range. They may excel in non-
mathematical subjects.

Dysgraphia
“Dysgraphia“ is a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in expressing thoughts in writing
and graphing. It generally refers to extremely poor handwriting. Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder
characterized by writing disabilities. Specifically, the disorder causes a person's writing to be distorted
or incorrect. In children, the disorder generally emerges when they are first introduced to writing. They
make inappropriately sized and spaced letters, or write wrong or misspelled words, despite thorough
instruction. Learners with the disorder may have other learning disabilities, however, they usually have
no social or other academic problems. Cases of dysgraphia in adults generally occur after some trauma.
In addition to poor handwriting, dysgraphia is characterized by wrong or odd spelling, and production
of words that are not correct (i.e., using ”boy” for ”child”). The cause of the disorder is unknown.
Treatment for dysgraphia varies and may include treatment for motor disorders to help control
writing movements. Other treatments may address impaired memory or other neurological problems.
Some physicians recommend that individuals with dysgraphia use computers to avoid the problems
of handwriting. Some individuals with dysgraphia improve their writing ability, but for others, the
disorder persists.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Dyslexia
Learners with dyslexia experience difficulties affecting the learning process in aspects of literacy Page
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and, sometimes, numeracy. A persistent weakness may also be identified in short-term and working
memory, speed of processing, sequencing skills, auditory and/or visual perception, spoken language
and motor skills.
Many learners with dyslexia do not only experience barriers, but they will also have special abilities,
which include: good visuospatial skills, creative thinking and intuitive understanding. These abilities
help to reduce some of the barriers to learning that they face.

Identifying Learners with Dyslexia and Other Reading or Writing Difficulties

Throughout their schooling careers, a learner with dyslexia may:
• Appear bright and able, but can’t get their thoughts down on paper
• Have areas in which they excel, particularly in drama, art and debating
• Be clumsy
• Act as the “class clown” to mask what they see as their academic failure
• Become withdrawn and isolated, sit at the back and not participate in class
• Be able to do one thing at a time very well, but cannot remember an entire list
• Look “glazed” when language is spoken too quickly
• Go home exhausted at the end of a normal day because they have had to put so much effort
into learning
• Be bullied
Dyslexia cannot be diagnosed by using just one simple test. Dyslexia can be mild, moderate,
severe, or profound. The effect of dyslexia will be different from one child to another. Although dyslexia
is one of the most common reasons for why a bright student will struggle with reading, spelling, or
written composition, it is important to know that it is not the only reason.

Dyspraxia
Learners with dyspraxia are affected by an impairment or immaturity of the organization of
movement, often appearing clumsy. Gross and fine motor skills (related to balance and co-ordination)
and fine motor skills (relating to manipulation of objects) are hard to learn and difficult to retain and
generalize. Writing is therefore particularly difficult and time consuming. Computer keyboard skills are
also difficult to acquire, as well as playing the flute and many other musical instruments.
Pronunciation may also be affected, and people with dyspraxia may be over/under sensitive to
noise, light and touch. They may have poor awareness of body posture and position, and misread social
cues. In addition, they may share many of the characteristics common to other learners with special
learning difficulties.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
4. Educational Approaches
• Students with learning disabilities require intensive and frequent individualized interventions Page
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characterized by small group or one-to-one instruction, explicit instruction focused on critical
academic tool skills, high rates of active student engagement with motivating materials and
activities, frequent practice, and systematic feedback.
• Research does not support matching instruction to students’ learning styles and using cognitively
focused instruction (e.g., “brain gym” exercises, attention training).
• Strategy instruction teaches students learning strategies so they can guide themselves successfully
through specific tasks or general problems.
• Evidence-based practices for teaching reading comprehension include answering questions, using
self-questioning to monitor comprehension, completing graphic organizers, examining text
structure, and summarizing
• Self-regulated strategy development is an effective intervention for teaching writing skills such as
planning, organizing, and drafting to students with learning disabilities
• Elementary and secondary students with learning disabilities benefit from math instruction that
progresses in a concrete– representational–abstract sequence.
• Content enhancements such as graphic organizers and visual displays, note-taking strategies, and
mnemonics modify the organization and delivery of curriculum content so that students can better
access, interact with, comprehend, and retain the information.

Practical Tips for Teaching Learners with Dyslexia

• The teacher should make sure that all the learners in the class feel valued and important – including
those learners who experience barriers to learning, development and participation.
• Encourage and motivate all the learners in the class to do the best they can.
• Have high expectations for intellectual stimulation (do not underestimate the learners concerned),
but reasonable expectations for written responses and reading skills.
• Explain things many times and in many different ways – sometimes to the whole class, to a smaller
group of learners (as many will benefit from this), as well as individually to the learner with dyslexia.
• When you give instructions, be deliberate and use few and accurate words, and make simple
sentences. Allow time for the meaning of the words to “sink in.” Make sure that all the learners have
understood by asking them to explain it back to you or to another learner.
• Guide the learners about how to tackle tasks systematically. Learners with dyslexia will often need
to be taught things that other learners learn automatically without your help (this will benefit many
other learners experiencing barriers to learning, as well). This might include: how to clean up their
desk; put away their books after they have finished with them; get dressed properly; remind them
to look for something they have misplaced; pack their school bag; and tie their shoelaces. It is
important that you (as a teacher) and their parents recognize the importance of taking time to teach
these skills in a calm, systematic and repeated regular routine.

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• Try to evaluate written assignments together with the learner. If possible, focus on what the learner
has done right (content, spelling, grammar, sentence structure). Select some of the main errors and Page
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concentrate on those, instead of overwhelming the learner with corrections.
• When you evaluate (grade or mark) a written assignment in a learner’s absence, use two colors for
corrections and suggestions – one for content and another for spelling and presentation. Only
spelling that has been taught specifically should be corrected.
• While you are looking at learner’s work, try to understand the reasons for their mistakes and give
them the chance to explain their difficulties to you. This will help you to know what they need to be
taught or to practice.
• Watch out for signs of falling confidence and self-esteem.
• Enable all the learners in the class to show their skills and knowledge.
• Allow them to share their interests with their friends, tell stories and participate in drama and dance.
Learners will dyslexia will often “shine” orally - teachers should encourage this as it builds
confidence and self-esteem.
• Remember that learners with dyslexia have to work much harder than many of the other learners in
the class. Look out for fatigue and make sure that they get enough rest by doing tasks they master
well, and with which they feel comfortable.
• Be generous with praise (honest praise) and encouragement when the learner is successful, shows
progress and masters new skills, as well as when s/he is trying (and working) very hard (even if the
expected results are not met).

C. LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

1. Definition
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurological condition related, in part, to
the brain's chemistry and anatomy. ADHD manifests itself as a persistent pattern of inattention
and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity that occurs more frequently and more severely than is typically
observed in people at comparable levels of development.

2. Identification
Professionals usually use four methods of assessment: (1) a medical examination, (2) a clinical
interview, (3) teacher and parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral observations. The behavioral
observations can be done in the classroom and/or in the clinician’s office.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

ADHD is a condition that becomes apparent in some children in pre-school and early school
years. It is hard for these children to control their behavior and/or pay attention. It is estimated that
between 3 to 5 percent of children have ADHD. This means that in a classroom of 30 children, it
is likely that at least one child will have ADHD.
Worktext prepared by Ms. Ma. Juna A. Felicen for use of her Education 121 class this second semester SY 2019-2020.
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
The principal characteristics of ADHD are:
• Inattention: trouble paying attention to details, difficulty sustaining attention, problems with Page
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organization, distractible
• Hyperactivity: fidgeting, leaving seat at inappropriate times, talking excessively
• Impulsivity: problems awaiting one’s turn, interrupting others.
These symptoms appear early in a child’s life. Many other children may have these symptoms (but
at a low level) or the symptoms may be caused by another disorder. It is, thus, important that a child
receives a thorough examination and appropriate diagnosis by a well-qualified professional.
It can be difficult for parents and teachers to differentiate between lack of attention and restlessness.
Many younger children have difficulties sitting still, being attentive and concentrating on theoretical
tasks – this does not mean that they have ADHD.

4. Educational Approaches
Allow learners with ADHD to move while learning. Many learners with ADHD need to be moving
while listening. If we require them to sit still while learning, they will use all their concentration on
sitting still and very little (if anything) for learning. However, if we allow them to choose their own
motion, it will almost certainly be very distracting to the teachers and other learners in the classroom.
It is, thus, important to choose activities for them.
Allow learners with ADHD to respond orally. Writing is sheer torture for many learners with ADHD.
When doing mathematics, jumping from the “math calculating” part of the brain to the “put thoughts
down in writing” part of the brain can for many seem like an impossible task. The child may take a
section of writing and recopy it with no problem. S/he can dictate each and every step of a complicated
math problem with great ease. Yet tie the two together, and a 5-minute task may turns into 45 minutes.
Integrate motion into most learning activities. When learning spelling and mathematics, the
learners can play a game where they line up in the classroom according to how long their names are:
JOSHUA will stand in front of MIKA and ANA because his name has 6 letters, but NATHANIEL will
be standing in front of JOSHUA because his name has 9 letters, MICHAEL will have to stand between
NATHANIEL and JOSHUA because her name has 7 letters, and so on. This is a good game to play to
help young learners learn both spelling and mathematics, and to be physically active at the same time.
The game can be played inside the classroom, as well as in the school yard.
Give your students a checklist of the things that need to be done every day. This helps learners
with ADHD to be accountable and develop responsibility. Many learners with ADHD want to know
what is going to happen next. They do not necessarily like surprises, and it gives them great
satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment when they can tick off each assignment as it's completed.

Worktext prepared by Ms. Ma. Juna A. Felicen for use of her Education 121 class this second semester SY 2019-2020.
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
D. LEARNERS WITH EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
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1. Definition
Emotional or behavioral Disorders is difficult to define properly. Many of the children and youth
referred to with this term have complex and chronic difficulties, which place them at risk of school
and wider social exclusion.
What is considered socially acceptable behavior will vary enormously from one cultural,
religious and traditional context to another. Emotional or behavioral disorders are therefore
strongly influenced by the background and situation of the learners concerned.
Learners with different disabilities may develop emotional or behavioral disorders if their
individual (leading) needs are not addressed properly by parents and teachers.

2. Identification
Teacher judgment plays the most significant role in assessing if a learner has emotional or
behavioral disorders. Most students are below average in tested intelligence and academic
achievement and exhibit externalizing (aggressive toward others) or internalizing (immature,
withdrawn, depressed) behavior or a combination of the two.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

What characterizes children with emotional or behavioral disorders?
• Children with social difficulties experience barriers in contact, play, and interaction with other
children and/or adults.
• Learners with emotional difficulties struggle with their feelings (amongst others: fears, sadness.
loneliness, moods and depression).
• Learners with behavioral difficulties experience difficulties in controlling their own behavior,
while parents and teachers are often challenged and provoked by impulsive, aggressive and
unpredictable behavior.
Additionally, learners with emotional or behavioral disorders:
• Generally behave unusually
• May respond in an extreme fashion to a variety of social, personal, emotional or physical
circumstances
• Have low self-image, anxiety, depression or withdrawal
• May show resentment, vindictiveness or defiance
• Can be silent or may threaten, interrupt, argue or swear
• Can act clingy or refuse contact
• May fail to attend classes, or be frequently absent from school
• May fail to observe rules or be disruptive, destructive, aggressive or violent
• Are often unable or unwilling to work without direct supervision
• Are restless and unable to concentrate
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• Are often unable and/or unwilling to complete tasks and follow instructions
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4. Educational Approaches
We should try to find out why the learner experiences difficulties. It is important to respond
based on an informed assessment of the situation. We should discuss it with the learner and, if
necessary, with her/his parents to try to come up with a strategy to solve the problem together.
Learners should be challenged (intellectually, socially, emotionally and physically) according to
their individual abilities. If we consistently give tasks to learners that are too complicated for them
to master, or too easy, too boring, or irrelevant for their lives, some learners may react by
“misbehaving” to provoke a response, get attention or create a distraction for their feeling of
“failure.”
We should make sure all learners feel appreciated and valued, regardless of their abilities,
disabilities or backgrounds. If learners feel ignored, some may “misbehave” to get attention.
We should clearly explain the consequences that different behavior and actions will have. This
way, learners will realize/understand that they do not only choose their behavior, but also influence
the response to that behavior. The responsibility for the response is, therefore, transferred from
parents and teachers to the learners themselves because they will have to experience the
consequences of their actions. The response should be measured and in accordance with the
information the learners received before they made their decision to act a certain way.
We should develop a set of manageable rules for each of the learners in the class. Start with
just a few because otherwise they will be overwhelmed. These rules should be developed in
collaboration with the learner and her/his parents.

E. LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS

1. Definition
The term autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) is an umbrella term that encompasses the terms
autism, Asperger’s syndrome (also known as high functioning autism), autistic disorder and classic
autism (also known as Kanner’s autism). The information in this unit is relevant for learners with
autism and Asperger’s syndrome.
ASD is a group of related neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood marked by persistent
deficits in social communication and interaction and by restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior
and interests. Asperger syndrome is marked by impairments in all social areas, particularly an
inability to understand how to interact socially. Learners with Asperger syndrome do not have
general language delay, and most have average or above-average intelligence.

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 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

Autism spectrum disorders classification recommended by Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Page
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of Mental Disorders-V (DSM-V) workgroup:
• Autism: extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication; often includes
stereotyped movements, resistance to change, and unusual responses to sensory experiences;
usually manifests before 3 years of age
• Asperger syndrome (or Asperger disorder): much like mild autism, but without significant
impairments in cognition and language
• Childhood disintegrative disorder: normal development for at least 2 and up to 10 years followed
by significant loss of skills; much more prevalent in males
• Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS): persons who display
behaviors typical of autism but to a lesser degree and/or with an onset later than 3 years of age

2. Identification
No medical test for ASD is available; a diagnosis is most often made according to criteria in the
DSM. Autism can be reliably diagnosed at 18 months of age, with research currently developing
methods for detecting warning signs in children at 6 months of age. Screening babies for early
warning signs of autism is critical because early diagnosis is correlated with dramatically better
outcomes. Signs that warrant concern during the first 18 months of life include lack of pointing or
gestures, infrequent or poor imitation, no single words by 16 months, lack of smiling, not
responding to name, lack of joint attention, and loss of previously acquired language or social skills.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

The APA recommends that in order to be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, the
individual must meet the following three criteria:
1. Clinically significant, persistent deficits in social communication and interactions, as manifest by
all of the following:
a. Marked deficits in nonverbal and verbal communication used for social interaction;
b. Lack of social reciprocity [give-and-take];
c. Failure to develop and maintain peer relationships appropriate to developmental level
2. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least
TWO of the following:
a. Stereotyped motor or verbal behaviors, or unusual sensory behaviors
b. Excessive adherence to routines and ritualized patterns of behavior
c. Restricted, fixated interests
3. Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully manifest until social
demands exceed limited capacities) (American Psychiatric Association: DSM-V Development,
2010).

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All children (and adults) with an autistic spectrum disorder have difficulties in three main areas:
(1) Social understanding and social behavior; (2) Social communication (verbal and non-verbal);
and (3) Rigidity of thinking and difficulties with social imagination.

4. Educational Approaches
• Learners with autism are among the most difficult to teach of all students; they require carefully
planned, meticulously delivered, and continually evaluated and analyzed instruction.
• Visual activity schedules—a series of images, photos, icons, or video clips depicting activities a
learner can perform, presented in sequence—can help learners with autism independently
select and carry out a sequence of activities in the classroom, home, or community.
• Social stories, which explain social situations and the expected behaviors of the people involved
in a format understandable to a student with ASD, can decrease a learner’s anxiety about an
event, improve his behavior, and help him understand events from the perspective of others.

F. LEARNERS COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

1. Definition
• A communication disorder is “an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and
comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems” (ASHA, 1993, p. 40).
• A child has a speech impairment if his speech draws unfavorable attention to itself, interferes
with the ability to communicate, or causes social or interpersonal problems.
• The three basic types of speech impairments are articulation disorders (errors in the production
of speech sounds), fluency disorders (difficulties with the flow or rhythm of speech), and voice
disorders (problems with the quality or use of one’s voice).
• Some learners have trouble understanding language (receptive language disorders), others have
trouble using language to communicate (expressive language disorders), and still others have
language delays.
• Speech or language differences based on cultural or regional dialects are not communication
disorders. However, learners who use a different dialect may also have speech or language
disorders.

2. Identification
Assessment of a suspected communication disorder may include some or all of the following
components: (a) case history and physical examination, (b) articulation test, (c) hearing test, (d)
auditory discrimination test, (e) phonological awareness and processing, (f) vocabulary and overall
language development test, (g) assessment of language function, (h) language samples, and (i)
observation in natural settings
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• Four basic kinds of speech-sound errors exist: distortions, substitutions, omissions, and additions.
• A child with an articulation disorder cannot produce a given sound physically.
• A child with a phonological disorder can produce a given sound and does so correctly in some
instances but not at other times.
• Stuttering, the most common fluency disorder, is marked by rapid-fire repetitions of consonant
or vowel sounds, especially at the beginnings of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections,
and complete verbal blocks.
• A voice disorder is characterized by abnormal vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, or
duration for the speaker’s age and sex.
• Language impairments involve problems in phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, or
pragmatics; they are usually classified as either receptive or expressive.

4. Educational Approaches
The classroom teacher needs to work with others in three main areas:
• Facilitating the social uses of language
• Question asking
• Teaching literacy: Reading and written language

G. LEARNERS WITH WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING

1. Definition
Professionals with a physiological perspective use a decibel loss of 90 dB or greater as the
cutoff for deafness. Those with an educational perspective classify individuals as deaf if they can’t
process linguistic information, with or without a hearing aid; they classify individuals as hard of
hearing if they can process this information with the help of a hearing aid.
Congenital versus adventitious deafness refers to being born deaf versus acquiring deafness
after birth; prelingual deafness versus postlingual deafness refers to deafness occurring before
versus after speech and language development.
Sentiment is growing in the Deaf community that those who are deaf should be considered as
a cultural/linguistic minority rather than disabled.

2. Identification
Screening tests for infants often measure otoacoustic emissions, low-intensity sound emitted
from the cochlea when stimulated. Pure-tone audiometry assesses decibel (intensity) and hertz
(frequency) levels. Speech audiometry assesses the ability to detect and understand speech.

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Deaf learners —especially those with a pre-lingual hearing loss of 90 dB or greater—are at a
great disadvantage in acquiring English literacy skills. The speech of many learners with hearing
loss may be difficult to understand because they omit speech sounds, speak too loudly or softly,
speak in a high pitch, speak with limited inflection, or speak too quickly or too slowly. As a group,
students who are deaf and hard of hearing lag far behind their hearing peers in academic
achievement, and the achievement gap usually widens as they get older. Learners with severe to
profound hearing losses often report feeling isolated and unhappy in school, particularly when
their socialization with other learners with hearing loss is limited.

4. Educational Approaches
• The oral/aural approach views speech as essential if students are to function in the hearing world;
much emphasis is given to amplification; auditory training; speechreading; the use of technological
aids; and, above all, talking.
• Total communication uses speech and simultaneous manual communication via signs and
fingerspelling.
• In the bilingual-bicultural approach, deafness is viewed as a cultural and linguistic difference, not
a disability, and Filipino Sign Language (FSL) is used as the language of instruction.

H. LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS OR LOW VISION

1. Definition
Those using a legal definition use visual acuity and field of vision:
• Blindness is visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction; low vision is 20/70
to 20/200.
• Blindness is a field of vision no greater than 20 degrees.
Those using an educational definition use method of reading:
• Blindness is needing to use braille or aural methods.
• Low vision is being able to read print (enlarged or magnified).

2. Identification
Visual acuity for far distances is most often measured by using the Snellen chart. Measures are
also available for measuring visual acuity for near distances. Vision teachers can perform functional
assessments to determine how students use their vision in everyday situations.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

• Language development is largely unaffected, although subtle developmental delays can occur,
especially in infancy.
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• Individuals may experience early delays in conceptual development, which do not last long.
• Motor delays in infancy are common; it is important that adults encourage infants to explore Page
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their environment to help overcome these delays.
• Studies suggest that some students who are blind experience low academic achievement, which
is most likely due to low expectations or lack of exposure to braille.
• Phonological awareness is important for learning to read print or braille.
• Any social adjustment problems that people with visual impairment have are largely due to
sighted society’s reactions to blindness.

4. Educational Approaches
• Select books with good print quality and layout. The text should ideally be left-aligned (with an
even left margin, and an uneven right margin). This will make it easier for learners with low
vision to read, with a minimum of assistive devices. It will also benefit other learners who
struggle with reading.
• Books and other reading material should be provided in Braille for those who depend on Braille
for reading and writing. The books should be provided for free or at the same price as sighted
learners pay for their books (in ink print).
• Learners who write Braille should have access to writing frames and stylus for free, or at the
same price as pen and pencils.
• Appropriate visual devices should be provided to learners with low vision based on their
individual needs as well as availability of devices.
• Orientation and mobility (O&M) training should be provided – how to move about with a white
cane, use trailing techniques as well as touch and protection techniques, effective use of
landmarks (including sound and echo), guiding techniques (human guide) as well as techniques
for free movement in space.
• Space awareness activities – enable learners with visual impairment to move about in open
space in order to feel confident and in control over their own bodies and movements.
• Activities of daily living (ADL) – many learners with visual impairment need training in
performing daily tasks that for most other learners are learnt by mimicking and copying their
parents, siblings and peers. These are, amongst others: going to the toilet, washing, dressing,
tying shoelaces, eating and drinking without spilling, pouring a glass of water, and using cutlery
(or sticks).
• If you have learners with albinism in your class, please make sure that their eyes and skin is
protected from the sun when playing outside or having physical education, ideally with long
sleeves, long trousers, skirts with stockings, caps and sun glasses, because their skin will burn
easily in the sun. Learners with albinism are therefore extremely vulnerable to skin cancer.
• Seat the learners with visual impairment so that they can hear well because they will depend
more on their hearing than most other learners, both for learning and participation.

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• If some classrooms in the school are noisier than others – (noise from busy roads, trains, airports
or factories), the school should be flexible and move the class who has learners with visual Page
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impairment (as well as classes who have learners with hearing impairment or other disabilities)
to a less noisy classroom.
• We should seat learners with low vision so that they can maximize the use of their residual
vision as well as prevent them from being blinded by light (reflection from sunshine and other
light sources).
• Many learners who are blind have some light perception and feel bothered by light, while others
will benefit from light because they will be able to use their light perception for mobility
purposes.
• The seating arrangements should be fixed or at least not changed too frequently, so that the
learners can orient themselves and find the way to their seats independently, as well as know
where all their friends are seated (located).
• Prevent the classroom, especially floor areas, from being cluttered to ease mobility for the
learners concerned and prevent accidents and injuries.
• Likewise, important objects in the classroom (books, learning material and devises) should not
be moved around too much. Have fixed places so that learners with visual impairment can find
things independently.
• Think about a “goal” that should be set for the learner with visual impairment (what should be
learned throughout the school year), and try to find ways and strategies to help the learner
achieve this goal. This will help you to plan for when you might need external support from an
itinerant resource teacher, or an assistant teacher (if these are available), how the other learners
in the class can help out, and what kind of adjusted teaching and learning material would be
needed. Remember it may take time to get hold of books in Braille, an abacus or other material
– if these are at all available. Spend some time to explain to the learner with visual impairment
about the process of learning in class before they start, especially in classes where series of
different activities are required, such as in science experiments, physical education, cooking and
crafts classes. It is also important to explain and show how different equipment that is used in
the class works because learners with visual impairment might not be able to follow the general
instructions.
• Read everything that is written on the blackboard aloud and slowly.
• Try to speak while facing the learners (not away from them) because learners with visual
impairment greatly depend on their hearing to receive information, and they need to hear you
clearly.
• Involve the other learners in the class to help out. Explaining a visual concept to a person who
cannot see is an interesting challenge for most sighted learners (and adults). It can help them to
see things from different perspectives and deepen their understanding of shapes, colors and
functions. Assisting their friends with visual impairment will contribute greatly to their social,
emotional and academic development, and be mutually enriching.
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• Encourage the class to think about how to include their peers with visual impairment in physical
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Through physical education, learners can learn how to include their peers with disabilities in
after-school activities, as well. This is one of the most important points in inclusive education
because learners with visual impairment tend to be excluded from most after-school activities,
even when they are included in regular classroom activities.
• Produce tactile learning material as part of “class projects.” If the learners make tactile maps, for
example, it will help all learners learn geography better, especially learners who depend on oral
and tactile information for learning.
• Use real objects that the learner can feel and handle, rather than just working abstractly with
pen and paper. This is important for all learners, but especially for learners with disabilities.
• It is difficult for a learner with visual impairment to understand the concept of “things,” especially
very large and very small things. Therefore, provide as many opportunities as possible for the
learners to touch different “things.” If a big tree has fallen down or been cut down near the
school, take the learners there to see and touch it. This will provide better understanding of size,
height and length for all the learners in the class, not “just” for the learner with visual impairment.
• Remember that it takes much, much longer to write Braille characters than ink letters – one
character can have up to five dots. Those dots are embossed separately, when using a stylus
and a writing-frame.

I. LEARNERS WITH LOW-INCIDENCE, MULTIPLE, AND SEVERE DISABILITIES

1. Definition
Low-incidence, multiple, and severe disabilities are those that occur relatively infrequently and
require extensive support in more than one major life activity, such as mobility, communication,
self-care, independent living, employment, and self-sufficiency. Probably 1% or fewer of all learners
have such low-incidence, multiple, or severe disabilities.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is injury to the brain resulting in total or partial disability or
psychosocial maladjustment that affects educational performance. It may be the result of closed
head injuries or open head injuries. It may affect cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning,
abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, sensory or perceptual and motor disabilities,
psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing, or speech—all of which are
important in school.
Deaf-blindness is defined by significant impairments in both hearing and seeing, although the
individual may have some residual hearing or sight. Deaf-blindness may be caused by a variety of
genetic and chromosomal syndromes, prenatal conditions, and postnatal conditions. The person
who is deaf-blind has difficulty accessing information, communicating, and navigating the
environment. Deaf-blindness requires direct teaching, predictable, structured routines, and
emphasis on communication and mobility.
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2. Educational Approaches for Children with Deafblindness Page

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• The first step would be to find out how much residual hearing and/or vision the child has, if any.
• If the learner has residual vision and/or hearing, we need to try to make use of it to create
communication and encourage learning, development and participation.
• We should attempt to invite and develop communication by offering our hands under the
learner’s hands, instead of just shaping her/his hands into formal signs. Signs may not yet have
any meaning for her/him.
• If a child has very few signs, we should accept her/his signs by imitating them under her/his
hands, then modelling the sign for what we think s/he is trying to tell us (again with our hands
under her/his).
• If the child has sufficient functional vision, we should model the signs within her/his field of
vision.
• We should try to build on the child’s own communication by developing a more formal system
when the child is ready. This approach will also foster a trusting relationship with the child by
giving more control to the child and allowing her/him to learn the power of her/his
communication.

J. LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND OTHER HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS

1. Definition
Learners with physical disabilities or other health impairments are those whose physical limitations
or health problems interfere with school attendance or learning to such an extent that they require
special services, training, equipment, materials, or facilities. It may be congenital or acquired, acute or
chronic, episodic or progressive, and accompanied by other disabilities, such as
intellectual disability and emotional or behavioral disorders, or special gifts or talents.
Major categories are neuromotor impairments, orthopedic or musculoskeletal disorders, and other
conditions that affect health or physical abilities.

2. Identification
Some major neuromotor impairments include:
• All involve damage to the brain before, during, or soon after birth or damage to the spinal cord.
• Cerebral palsy, characterized by paralysis, weakness, uncoordination, and/or other motor
dysfunction, sometimes by intellectual disability or other disabilities
• Seizure disorder, an abnormal electrical discharge in the brain
• Spina bifida, the failure of the spinal column to close during fetal development

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Some major orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders include:
• Muscular dystrophy, a degenerative disease causing a progressive weakening and wasting Page
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away of muscle
• Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, acute inflammation around the joints that may cause chronic pain
and other complications

Other conditions that affect health or physical ability include:

• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), now one of the most common causes of malformation and
intellectual disability, caused by the mother’s abuse of alcohol during pregnancy
• AIDS, a life-threatening viral infection that often involves neurological complications such as
intellectual disability, seizures, cerebral palsy, and emotional or behavioral disorders
• Accidents

3. Educational Approaches
• Education must make the most of the student’s assets.
• Education should be as normal as possible and equip the student for daily living as well as
employment or further education.

K. LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL GIFTS AND TALENTS

1. Definition
The US federal government defines gifted and talented (GT) learners as those who demonstrate
evidence of high-achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or
leadership capacity or in specific academic fields and who need services and activities not
ordinarily provided by the school to fully develop these capabilities.

2. Identification and Assessment

Comprehensive and equitable identification of GT students includes a combination of
intelligence tests; achievement measures; checklists; teacher, parent, community, and peer
nominations; self-nomination; and leisure interests.

3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics

Learning and intellectual characteristics of GT students include the ability to
° Rapidly acquire, retain, and use large amounts of information.
° Relate one idea to another.
° Make sound judgments.
° Appreciate multiple and opposing points of view.
° Perceive the operation of larger systems of knowledge that others may not recognize.
° Acquire and manipulate abstract symbol systems.
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° Solve problems by reframing the question and creating novel solutions.
Characteristics of highly gifted students with IQs of 145 and above include Page
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° Intense intellectual curiosity
° Fascination with words and ideas
° Perfectionism and need for precision
° Learning with great intuitive leaps
° Intense need for mental stimulation and challenge
° Difficulty conforming to the thinking of others
° Early moral and existential concerns
° Tendency toward introversion
Many gifted learners are highly creative. Although there is no standard definition of creativity,
most researchers and educators agree that fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration are
important dimensions.
Gifted students display both inter- and intra-individual differences. Asynchrony is a term used
to describe disparate rates of intellectual, emotional, social, and physical growth or development
displayed by some gifted learners.

4. Educational Approaches
• Curricula for GT students should be academically rigorous, thematic and interdisciplinary, and
responsive to the learning characteristics of gifted students.
• Differentiation refers to a variety of strategies for providing curricula and instructional practices
appropriate to the different needs, interests, readiness, and learning profiles of students.
• Acceleration is the general term for a variety of methods for increasing the speed with which a
student progresses through the curriculum or school.
• Curriculum compacting involves compressing instructional content so students have time to work
on more challenging materials.
• Enrichment means probing or studying a subject in greater depth than would occur in the general
education curriculum.
• Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives provides a framework for differentiating curriculum
by asking questions and assigning activities that require students to demonstrate different types
of knowledge.
• Tiered lessons provide extensions of the same basic lesson for groups of students of differing
abilities.
• Inquiry-based learning is an evidence-based practice for teaching science that engages students
in asking research questions, planning investigations, collecting and analyzing data, deriving
explanations, and communicating their findings.
• Problem-based learning is a collaborative problem-solving activity that challenges students to
seek solutions to real world problems.
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• Project-based learning is an instructional activity in which students work together for an extended
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(e.g., a product or presentation) that answers the question.
• Gifted educators recommend a wide range of leadership activities that include learning about
leadership in the classroom, interacting with leaders, and engaging in opportunities to be a leader.
• Options for learning outside school include internships and mentorships, special courses and
workshops in the community, summer programs, competitions and fairs, and international
experiences.

References:
1. Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Children. Pearson Education, Inc.
2. Kauffman, J. M. & Hallahan, D. P. (2011). Handbook of special education. Taylor & Francis.
3. Kauffman, J. M., Hallahan, D. P., & Pullen, P. C. (2014). Exceptional learners: Introduction to special education. (12th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
4. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015). Teaching Children with Disabilities in Inclusive Settings. Bangkok, Thailand.

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CASE ANALYSIS | 24

Mike’s Dilemma

Mike, a 12-year-old, has been diagnosed as having Asperger’s syndrome and has the various solitary
interests that mark this condition. He loves playing computer and video games but pays little attention
to his peers. He has no interest in team games or in attending birthday parties or other social functions
of his class and age group. This upsets his mother, who thinks that this lack of interest in social matters
will hurt his adjustment later on in school and community. She enrolled Mike in dance classes and
encourages him to participate in sports. So far, Mike couldn’t care less about these activities and wants
his mother to stop. His father, is uncertain whether to support Mike in his wishes or to support his wife,
who has Mike’s long-range adjustment in mind. What should Mike’s family do? What is your strategy?
If Mike was your student, how would you advise his parents?

CREATE

Make a summary of the characteristics and educational approaches for each category of exceptionality
using a mind map or a diagram. Cite your sources.

Instructions:

This learning task must be written in an A4 bond paper. It may be handwritten or computerized so
long as the texts are legible. It must have the proper heading, followed by the name of the student, the
course, year, and section, the date of submission, and the number and title of the unit. Students are
advised to keep their answers brief but scholarly. It may be sent via messenger or e-mail to
[email protected] on or before August 28, 2020, 5PM.

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RUBRIC for REFLECTIVE PAPER and CASE ANALYSIS (20 points) | 25

25pts. (Purpose) The purpose of the text and the writer’s aim are perfectly clear to the reader.
(Organization) The text is well organized at both the sentence and the paragraph level. (Support)
Relevant evidence is used for presenting each argument. (Use of sources) The writer uses variety of
sources to support, extend, and inform ideas effectively without using it as a substitute to the writer’s
own ideas.

20pts. (Purpose) The purpose of the text and the writer’s aim are clear to the reader. (Organization)
The text is reasonably well organized at both the sentence and the paragraph level. (Support) Evidence
used for presenting each argument is generally relevant. (Use of sources) Sources are generally able
to support, extend, and inform ideas effectively without using it as a substitute to the writer’s own
ideas.

15pts. (Purpose) The purpose of the text and the writer’s aim are generally clear. (Organization) The
text is reasonably well organized, at least at the sentence level. (Support) Evidence presented is partly
relevant to the point being made. (Use of sources) Some sources are able to support, extend, and
inform ideas effectively without using it as a substitute to the writer’s own ideas.

10pts. (Purpose) The purpose of the text and the writer’s aim are not entirely clear. (Organization) The
text is not well organized at either the paragraph or sentence level. (Support) Evidence presented is
rarely relevant to the point being made. (Use of sources) Sources are rarely able to support, extend,
and inform ideas effectively without using it as a substitute to the writer’s own ideas.

5pts. (Purpose) The purpose of the text and the writer’s aim are entirely unclear. (Organization) The
text is not organized at either the paragraph or sentence level. (Support) The writer offers little or no
relevant evidence for ideas. (Use of sources) The writer neglected important sources that should have
been used.

Worktext prepared by Ms. Ma. Juna A. Felicen for use of her Education 121 class this second semester SY 2019-2020.