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Basic Concepts and Issues on add more weight as they develop. Their

Human Development body goes through hormonal changes as
they leave adolescence and enter early
A. Human development is a pattern of adulthood.
movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the life B.     Cognitive Maturation
span. Development includes growth
(positive) and decline (negative). This refers to the cognitive development
of children from birth to adulthood. It
Growth and development occur across the refers to how babies think, learn, interact
life stages and focuses on the physical, with their environment, etc. Some
intellectual, emotional and social changes important aspect of cognitive
that humans go through. development is the processing of
information, language development,
1. Growth predominately concentrates on reasoning skills, development of intellects
the physical changes that take place and memory.
across different parts of the
body. Growth is measured using a range This process of cognitive development
of intervals such as height and weight. begins right at infancy. An infant uses
their sensory organs to explore their
 2. Development refers to the pattern of surroundings. By three months infants can
movement of change that begins at actually distinguish faces and sounds. And
conception and continues through the as they go through adolescence and their
human lifespan. It is also refers to the teenage year, the cognitive development
order of sequence that humans follow and continues. Each stage is earmarked with
mainly focuses on the attainment of skills certain benchmarks that the teachers can
and abilities focus on to chart the child’s cognitive
maturity.
3. Maturation is the process with which we
develop, grow and change throughout Approaches in Development
our entire lives.
1.     Traditional Approach emphasizes
Maturation is a multi-faceted and extensive change from birth to
automatic process. There is mental, adolescence, little to no change in
physical, emotional, somatic growth and adulthood and decline in old age.
development in the child. Some of the
changes are even genetic in mature. 2.     Lifespan Approach emphasizes
During one’s lifetime, there are many developmental change throughout
types of maturation. But the two most childhood to adulthood.
important kinds of maturity during
childhood are physical and cognitive a.     Stages of Human Development
maturation.
1.     Prenatal Development
Types of Maturation
2.     Infancy and Toddlerhood
A.     Physical Maturation
3.     Early Childhood
 As the name suggests it indicates the
physical development and growth that we 4.     Middle Childhood
go through as we get older. A child goes
through some very distinct physical 5.     Adolescence
maturity as they progress through all their
development stages. For example, in the 6.     Early Adulthood
early stages of development, a child
7.     Middle Adulthood
depends on reflexes majorly. Then as they
age, they develop their motor skills and
8.     Late Adulthood
coordination. They also grow taller and
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 In addition, the topic of “Death and 2.     Infancy and Toddlerhood

Dying” is usually addressed after late
adulthood since overall, the likelihood of The first year and a half to two years of life
dying increases in later life (though are ones of dramatic growth and
individual and group variations exist). change. A newborn, with many involuntary
Death and dying will be the topic of our reflexes and a keen sense of hearing
last module, though it is not necessarily a but poor vision, is transformed into a
stage of development that occurs at a walking, talking toddler within a relatively
particular age. short period of time. Caregivers similarly
transform their roles from those who
manage feeding and sleep schedules to
The list of the periods of development constantly moving guides and safety
reflects unique aspects of the various inspectors for mobile, energetic children.
stages of childhood and adulthood that Brain development happens at a
will be explored in this book, including remarkable rate, as does physical growth
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial and language development. Infants have
changes. So while both an 8-month-old their own temperaments and approaches
and an 8-year-old are considered children, to play. Interactions with primary
they have very different motor abilities, caregivers (and others) undergo changes
cognitive skills, and social influenced by possible separation anxiety
relationships. Their nutritional needs are and the development of attachment
different, and their primary psychological styles. Social and cultural issues center
concerns are also distinctive. The same is around breastfeeding or formula-feeding,
true of an 18-year-old and an 80-year-old, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with
both considered adults. We will discover parents, toilet training, and whether or not
the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as to get vaccinations.
well. But first, here is a brief overview of
the stages. 3.     Early Childhood

1.     Prenatal Development Early childhood is also referred to as the

preschool years, consisting of the years
 Conception occurs and development that follow toddlerhood and precede
begins. There are three stages of prenatal formal schooling, roughly from around
development: germinal, embryonic, and ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler, the
fetal periods. All of the major structures of child is busy learning language (with
the body are forming and the health of amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining
the mother is of primary concern. There a sense of self and greater independence,
are various approaches to labor, delivery, and is beginning to learn the workings of
and childbirth, with potential the physical world. This knowledge does
complications of pregnancy and delivery, not come quickly, however, and
as well as risks and complications with preschoolers may initially have interesting
newborns, but also advances in tests, conceptions of size, time, space and
technology, and medicine. The influences distance, such as demonstrating how long
of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g., something will take by holding out their
nutrition and teratogens, which are two index fingers several inches apart. A
environmental factors during pregnancy toddler’s fierce determination to do
that can lead to birth defects) are evident. something may give way to a four-year-
Evolutionary psychology, along with old’s sense of guilt for doing something
studies of twins and adoptions, help us that brings the disapproval of others.
understand the interplay of factors and
the relative influences of nature and 4.     Middle Childhood
nurture on human development.
The ages of 6-11 comprise middle
childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to
their involvement in the early grades of
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school. Now the world becomes one of 30s may love to hear that they are young
learning and testing new academic skills adults!). It is a time when we are at our
and assessing one’s abilities and physiological peak but are most at risk for
accomplishments by making comparisons involvement in violent crimes and
between self and others. Schools substance abuse. It is a time of focusing
participate in this process by comparing on the future and putting a lot of energy
students and making these comparisons into making choices that will help one
public through team sports, test scores, earn the status of a full adult in the eyes
and other forms of recognition. The brain of others. Love and work are the primary
reaches its adult size around age seven, concerns at this stage of life. In recent
but it continues to develop. Growth rates decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and
slow down and children are able to refine other developed countries) that young
their motor skills at this point in life. adults are taking longer to “grow up.”
Children also begin to learn about social They are waiting longer to move out of
relationships beyond the family through their parents’ homes, finish their formal
interaction with friends and fellow education, take on work/careers, get
students; same-sex friendships are married, and have children. One
particularly salient during this period. psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed
that there is a new stage of development
5.     Adolescence after adolescence and before early
adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,”
Adolescence is a period of dramatic from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when
physical change marked by an overall individuals are still exploring their
physical growth spurt and sexual identities and don’t quite feel like adults
maturation, known as puberty; timing may yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the
vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is economy, and socioeconomic status may
also a time of cognitive change as the be key factors in when youth take on adult
adolescent begins to think of new roles.
possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and  
freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a
sense of invincibility that puts them at 7.     Middle Adulthood
greater risk of dying from accidents or
contracting sexually transmitted infections  The late thirties (or age 40) through the
that can have lifelong consequences. mid-60s are referred to as middle
Research on brain development helps us adulthood. This is a period in which
understand teen risk-taking and impulsive physiological aging that began earlier
behavior. A major developmental task becomes more noticeable and a period at
during adolescence involves establishing which many people are at their peak of
one’s own identity. Teens typically productivity in love and work. It may be a
struggle to become more independent period of gaining expertise in certain
from their parents. Peers become more fields and being able to understand
important, as teens strive for a sense of problems and find solutions with greater
belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex efficiency than before. It can also be a
peer groups become more common. New time of becoming more realistic about
roles and responsibilities are explored, possibilities in life; of recognizing the
which may involve dating, driving, taking difference between what is possible and
on a part-time job, and planning for what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich
future academics. generation, middle-aged adults may be in
the middle of taking care of their children
and also taking care of their aging
6.     Early Adulthood parents. While caring about others and
the future, middle-aged adults may also
  Late teens, twenties, and thirties are be questioning their own mortality, goals,
often thought of as early adulthood and commitments, though not necessarily
(students who are in their mid to late experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”
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8.     Late Adulthood b. Factors Affecting Human Growth and

Development
This period of the lifespan, late adulthood,
has increased in the last 100 years, The following are a list of factors which
particularly in industrialized countries, as influence human growth and
average life expectancy has increased. development:
Late adulthood covers a wide age range
with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to 1.     Heredity:
divide it into categories such as the
“young old” (65-74 years old), “old old” Heredity and genes certainly play an
(75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ important role in the transmission of
years old). The young old are similar physical and social characteristics from
to middle-aged adults; possibly still parents to off-springs. Different
working, married, relatively healthy, and characteristics of growth and
active. The old old have some health development like intelligence, aptitudes,
problems and challenges with daily living body structure, height, weight, color of
activities; the oldest old are often frail and hair and eyes are highly influenced by
in need of long term care. However, many heredity.
factors are involved and a better way to
appreciate the diversity of older adults is  
to go beyond chronological age and
examine whether a person is 2.     Environment
experiencing optimal aging.
The environment plays a critical role in the
development of children and it represents
the sum total of physical and
Death and Dying psychological stimulation the child
receives. Some of the environmental
 The study of death and dying is seldom factors influencing early childhood
given the amount of coverage it development involve the physical
deserves. Of course, there is a certain surroundings and geographical conditions
discomfort in thinking about death, but of the place the child lives in, as well his
there is also a certain confidence and social environment and relationships with
acceptance that can come from studying family and peers. It is easy to understand
death and dying. Factors such as age, that a well-nurtured child does better than
religion, and culture play important roles a deprived one; the environment children
in attitudes and approaches to death and are constantly immersed in contributes to
dying. There are different types of death: this. A good school and a loving family
physiological, psychological, and social. builds in children strong social and
The most common causes of death vary interpersonal skills, which will enable them
with age, gender, race, culture, and time in to excel in other areas such as academics
history. Dying and grieving are processes and extracurricular activities. This will, of
and may share certain stages of reactions course, be different for children who are
to loss. There are interesting examples of raised in stressful environments.
cultural variations in death rituals,
mourning, and grief. The concept of a  
“good death” is described as including
personal choices and the involvement of 3.     Sex
loved ones throughout the process.
 Sex is a very important factor which
Palliative care is an approach to maintain
influences human growth and
dying individuals’ comfort level, and
development. There is lot of difference in
hospice is a movement and practice that
growth and development between girls
involves professional and volunteer care
and boys. Physical growth of girls in teens
and loved ones.
is faster than boys. Overall the body
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structure and growth of girls are different  

from boys.

4. Socioeconomic:
7. Race:
Socioeconomic factors definitely have
some affect. It has been seen that the Racial factors also influence height,
children from different socioeconomic weight, color, features, and body
levels vary in average body size at all ages. constitution of a human being. The body
The upper level families being always growth and development differences
more advanced. The most important show a relationship with varied cultural
reasons behind this are better nutrition, groups. For example a child of black race
better facilities, regular meals, sleep, and will be black, their height, their hair and
exercise. Family size also influences eye color, facial structure are all governed
growth rate as in big families with limited by the same race.
income sometimes have children that do
not get the proper nutrition and hence
the growth is affected.  8. Geographical Influences

   Where you live also has a great influence

on how your children turn out to be. The
5. Nutrition: schools they attend, the neighborhood
they live in, the opportunities offered by
Growth is directly related with nutrition. the community and their peer circles are
The human body requires an adequate some of the social factors affecting a
supply of calories for its normal growth child’s development. Living in an enriching
and this need of requirements vary with community that has parks, libraries and
the phase of development. As per studies, community centers for group activities
malnutrition is referred as a large-scale and sports all play a role in developing the
problem in many developing countries. child’s skills, talents, and behavior.
They are more likely to be underweight, Uninteresting communities can push
much shorter than average, and of low some children to not go outside often but
height for age, known as stunting. play video games at home instead. Even
If the children are malnourished, this slows the weather of a place influences children
their growth process. There are nine in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies
different amino acids which are necessary and other health conditions.
for growth and absence of any one will
give rise to stunted growth. Other factors 9. Learning and Reinforcement
like zinc, Iodine, calcium, phosphorus and
vitamins are also essential for proper  Learning involves much more than
growth and deficiency of anyone can schooling. It is also concerned with
affect the normal growth and building the child up mentally,
development of the body. intellectually, emotionally, and socially so
they operate as healthy functional
6. Hormones: individuals in the society. This is where the
development of the mind takes place and
There are a large number of endocrine the child can gain some maturity.
glands present inside our body. These Reinforcement is a component of learning
glands secrete one or more hormones where an activity or exercise is repeated
directly into the bloodstream. These and refined to solidify the lessons learned.
hormones are capable of raising or An example is playing a musical
lowering the activity level of the body or instrument; they get better at playing it as
some organs of the body. Hormones are they practice playing the instrument.
considered to be a growth supporting Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to
substance. These hormones play an be repeated until the right results are
important role in regulating the process of obtained.
growth and development.
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 Although nature contributes much to the important at every age and stage across
growth and development of children, the lifespan.
nurture contributes much more. As
mentioned earlier, some of these factors     2. Cognitive Domain
may not be controllable, and you’ll have
to make do with what you have. But there  If we watch and listen to infants and
are certain things you can definitely toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how
ensure for your child. This includes they learn so much so fast, particularly
ensuring that your child gets enough rest when it comes to language development.
every day, because his development is Then as we compare young children to
heavily dependent on the amount of sleep those in middle childhood, there appear
he gets. Pay close attention to your child’s to be huge differences in their ability to
nutritional and exercise levels, as these think logically about the concrete world
too play an important role in promoting around them. Cognitive development
your child’s timely and healthy growth and includes mental processes, thinking,
development. learning, and understanding, and it
doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents
c.  Domains of Development develop the ability to think logically about
the abstract world (and may like to debate
Human development refers to the matters with adults as they exercise their
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning
development of humans throughout the develops further, as does practical
lifespan. Physical development involves intelligence—wisdom may develop with
genetics, prenatal development, physical experience over time. Memory abilities
development, sensation/perception, and different forms of intelligence tend to
motor skill development  and health and change with age. Brain development and
wellness. Cognitive development involves the brain’s ability to change and
learning, attention, memory, language, compensate for losses is significant to
thinking, reasoning, and creativity. cognitive functions across the lifespan,
Psychosocial development involves too.
emotions, personality, and social
relationships. 3.     Psychosocial/Socio-Emotional
Domain
    1. Physical Domain
Development in this domain involves
 Many of us are familiar with the height what’s going on both psychologically and
and weight charts that pediatricians socially. Early on, the focus is on infants
consult to estimate if babies, children, and and caregivers, as temperament and
teens are growing within normative attachment are significant. As the social
ranges of physical development. We may world expands and the child grows
also be aware of changes in children’s fine psychologically, different types of play
and gross motor skills, as well as their and interactions with other children and
increasing coordination, particularly in teachers become important. Psychosocial
terms of playing sports. But we may not development involves emotions,
realize that physical development also personality, self-esteem, and relationships.
involves brain development, which not Peers become more important for
only enables childhood motor adolescents, who are exploring new roles
coordination but also greater coordination and forming their own identities. Dating,
between emotions and planning in romance, cohabitation, marriage, having
adulthood, as our brains are not done children, and finding work or a career are
developing in infancy or childhood. all parts of the transition into adulthood.
Physical development also includes Psychosocial development continues
puberty, sexual health, fertility, across adulthood with similar (and some
menopause, changes in our senses, and different) developmental issues of family,
primary versus secondary aging. Healthy friends, parenting, romance, divorce,
habits with nutrition and exercise are also remarriage, blended families, caregiving
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for elders, becoming grandparents and          

great grandparents, retirement, new
careers, coping with losses, and death and b.         Cephalocaudal Pattern - During
dying. infancy, the greatest growth always occurs
at the top - the head with physical growth
d.  Principles of Human Growth and in size, weight and future differentiation
Development: gradually working in its way down from
top to bottom (ex. Neck, shoulders,
     1. Development is continuous middle trunk and so on)

     2. Development is gradual  

     3. Development is sequential Most psychologists agree that

development is sequential or orderly.
     4. Rate of development varies person to Every species, whether animal or human,
person follows a pattern of development peculiar
to it. This pattern in general is the same
     5. Development proceeds from general to for all individuals. The child crawls before
specific he creeps, stands before he walks and
babbles before he talks.
     6. Most traits are correlated in
development 4. Rate of development varies person to
person:
     7.Growth and development is a product
of both heredity and environment Rate of development is not uniform.
Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
     8. Development is predictable development. Boys and girls have
different development rates. Each part of
     9. Development brings about both
the body has its own particular rate of
structural and functional changes
growth. There are periods of great
intensity and equilibrium and there are
.  10. There is a constant interaction between
periods of imbalance.
all factors of development
5. Development proceeds from general to
 
specific:
 1. Development is continuous:
Development proceeds from general to
specific. In all areas of development,
The process of growth and development
general activity always precedes specific
continues from the conception till the
activity. For example, the fetus moves its
individual reaches maturity. Development
whole body but is incapable of making
of both physical and mental traits
specific responses. With respect to
continues gradually until these traits reach
emotional behavior infants approach
their maximum growth. It goes on
strange and unusual objects with some
continuously throughout life. Even after
sort of general fear response. Later, their
maturity has been attained, development
fears become more specific and elicit
does not end.
different kinds of behavior, such as, crying,
2. Development is gradual: turning away and hiding etc.

It does not come all on a sudden. It is also 6. Most Traits are correlated in
cumulative in nature. development:

3.   Development is Sequential: Generally, it is seen that the child whose

mental development is above average, is
a.         Proximodistal Pattern - muscular also superior in so many other aspects like
control of the trunk and the arms comes health, sociability and special aptitudes.
earlier as compared to hands and fingers.
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7. Growth and development is a product this stage becomes slow in comparison to

of both heredity and environment: infancy stage. At the age of six years a
child becomes 43 to 45 inches tall. There
Development is influenced by both is an average increase to 3 to 5 pounds of
heredity and environment. Both are weight annually.
responsible for human growth and
development. At six, the child weights 36 to 42 pounds.
Boys are found to be slightly taller than
8. Development is predictable: girls. Body proportions change and head
grows at a slower rate. At six, it attains
The difference in physiological and 90% of adult size. Hands and feet grow
psychological potentialities can be bigger. Muscles grow larger and stronger.
predicated by observation and Hand-skills are established at this stage.
psychological tests. Brushing the hair, bathing and better
toilet habits develop.
9. Development brings about both
structural and functional changes: The child can draw pictures and can also
point. The child learns to hop, skip, jump,
Changes happens due to development in run, climb and dance during this stage. He
both physical and physiological aspects of learns to do various things and he is
an individual. satisfied with this achievements. A major
development task for a child during six
 10. There is a constant interaction years of life is to acquire a gender
between all factors of development: identification. The environment is the
most powerful factor in shaping the
Development in one area is highly related
gender identify among children.
to development in other areas. For
example, a child who has a good health Later Childhood Stage:
can be active socially and intellectually.
During later childhood period (6 years to
  12 years of age) physical growth is initially
slow. Arms and legs grow faster than the
e.   Aspects of Human Growth and
trunk and the child appears tall and thin.
Development
He loses his milk teeth and permanent
teeth begin to appear. The sense organ,
1.     Physical Development
muscles and brain are more or less
mature. The overall appearance of the
During Infancy:
child changes during this stage.
Physical growth and development
The child at 12 years is nearly 55 inches in
describe the physical as well as
height. Boys are slightly taller than girls.
psychomotor changes in an individual.
Sex differences begin to appear at this
The physical development is very rapid at
stage. Child continues to grow in the
this stage. At birth a baby is generally 18
strength, speed and coordination needed
to 20 inches long and seven pounds (3 kg)
for motor skills. He climbs trees, walls etc.
in weight.
He develops precision in athletic ability.
He grows about three times after a year.
The child gains full control over the
By the time he is two years of age he
movement of his limbs. Being active and
attains a length of 33 inches and a weight
participating in games helps the child to
of 25 pounds. At birth the brain is almost
develop a concept of himself. He gets
one fourth of its final weight.
feedback regarding his desirability, worth
Early Childhood Stage: and status from other people.

Early childhood stage covers from 2/3 Adolescence Stage:

years to 6/7 years. Rate of growth during
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The period of transition from childhood to The following are the educational
adulthood is called adolescence. implications of physical development at
Adolescence is very crucial stage of various stages:
development. In Indian conditions the
period of adolescence may vary from 12- a. The children must be provided with a
13 years to 18-21 years. rich and balanced diet for proper physical
development.
A.t. Jersild defines adolescence as “the
span of years during which the boys and b. The child must be trained in acquiring
girls move from childhood to adulthood.” good habits of personal cleanliness and
All types of changes like biological, hygiene.
physical, social, intellectual, moral etc. take
place during the adolescence stage. c. The child must be encouraged to do
many things by independently.
At the early adolescent years, most
children experience the adolescent growth d. Play activities involving maximum use
spurt, a rapid increase in height and of limbs should be provided to the
weight. Usually, this spurt occurs in girls children to facilitate better motor
two years earlier than boys. The spurt development.
usually last about two years and during
this time girls gain 6 to 7 inches and boys e. Good and healthy habits should be
8 to 9 inches in height. By the age of developed in children.
seventeen in girls and eighteen in boys,
the majority of them have reached 98 f. Sympathetic and affectionate type of
percent of their final height. atmosphere should be provided at home
as well as in the school, so that the child
Sex differences become apparent during develops into a well-balanced personality.
this stage. Sex glands start secreting for
the first time and this is responsible for g. For proper physical development,
the growth of boys into manhood and of physical training and physical education
girls into womanhood. Primary and be emphasized.
secondary sex characteristics appear at
h. Health and sex education should be
this stage. Pubic hair grows.
provided during adolescence period.
The voice of boys becomes rough and
i. The teacher and parents should try to
that of girls becomes sweet. Certain bodily
understand the adolescent and his
appearances make both boys and girls
problems.
bodily conscious. Sexual development is
the most remarkable features of
j. The adolescent children must be
adolescence. The boys and girls are
sympathetically dealt with.
attracted towards the opposite sex.
2.     Mental Development
Due to hormonal changes there is an
increase in sexual drive. The early
Mental development includes such
adolescent involves himself in intense
abilities as attending, perceiving,
friendship with the members of either sex.
observing, remembering, imagining,
A capacity for mature heterosexual
thinking, solving problems and growth of
relationship and true intimacy develops in
intelligence as well as of language. These
late adolescence.
abilities grow and mature with age or in
different stage.
 
Infancy:
Educational Implication of Physical
Development:
The child at infancy stage reacts to
external stimuli like light, sound and
temperature. Perceptual skills develop
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during the first year. In this age the child Children up to six years of age regard
can imitate, discriminate and recognize to everything that moves to be alive.
some extent. The child is mostly engaged
in manipulation of objects. Later Childhood:

In this period the infant seeks physical Mental development is rapid at this stage.
satisfaction based upon immediate Child becomes more and more inquisitive
sensory experience. At the age of one year which indicates his thinking capacity.
he has a vocabulary of two or more words Thinking and imagination takes active
and he can respond to simple questions form in this stage. As per the views of
or requests. He gradually acquires the Piaget this is the stage of concrete
sense of form, shape, size and color. operations which covers the period from 7
to 11 years.
He learns things through imitation,
manipulation and play. He recognizes Piaget illustrates the use of concrete
known and unknown persons. He fails to operations as he observed how an 8-year-
understand the difference between fact old child learnt what factor controls the
and fiction. He usually puts many oscillation of a pendulum.
embarrassing questions to the parents
which shows his inquisitiveness. During this stage, the child also learns to
organize systems of classification for the
Early Childhood: perceptions and concepts acquired by
him. The child is able to establish cause
At this stage child’s contact with and effect relationship. The child at this
environment increases and he begins to stage develops better concepts of length,
explore things. He often asks ‘why’ of distance, time, area and volume.
everything. The child develops general
intelligence, perception, memory, learning, The abilities of understanding, reasoning,
problem solving and language. Jean memory, attention and discrimination
Piaget named this stage as the stage of develop to a great extent. The child
pre-operational stage which covers 1 ½ acquires a rich store of vocabulary. Child’s
years to 6 years of age. speech becomes increasingly socialized
and communicative. At this stage the child
In this stage the child begins to develop is interested in performing creative and
language and is able to talk and form productive work.
simple concepts. But he has very little
understanding of operations; particularly Adolescence:
it is difficult for him to understand
reversibility of operations. For example, if At this stage of adolescent attains
water contained in a tall narrow glass is intellectual maturity. The intellectual
poured into a small broad glass, the child maturation is the result of interaction
will judge that there was more water in between maturation, experience,
the narrow glass than when it is poured in education and training. Memory and
the broad glass. imagination increase to a considerable
extent. The adolescent can concentrate on
This stage is also marked by ego- any activity for a longer period. He also
centricism. There is natural shift from the develops ability to take decisions.
sensorimotor stage to logical and social
egocentricity. He fails to understand According to Piaget this stage is known as
another’s point of view. His attitude is, “I the stage of formal operations which
am I and you are you, and how can you be covers the period from 12 to 15 years. In
I and I be you?” this stage the youngster acquires the
ability to think and reason beyond his own
Animism is another characteristic of this immediate world.
stage which the child regards everything
to be alive unless it is broken or damaged. He applies formal logic to solve his own
problems, and approaches them more
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

systematically. The adolescents take An emotional state consists of feelings,

interest in scientific pursuits. Towards the impulses, physical and physiological
end of the adolescence an individual has a reactions. According to wood-worth,
complete mental preparations for a full- Emotion “is a moved or stirred up state of
fledged adult life. an organism. It is disturbed muscular and
glandular activity”. We find different
Educational Implications: emotional development at various stages
of human life.
The following points should be taken into
consideration for proper mental Infancy Stage:
development among the children:
Infants immediately after birth do to
a. Children should be provided a variety of display any distinct emotions. His
direct experiences before they can be emotional reactions are diffuse and gross.
expected to cope with abstract ideas and He cannot show specific reactions like
concepts. anger, fear and love. By the age two
differentiations of emotions are marked.
b. Emphasis should be given on
acquisition and mastery of language According to Watson emotions of fear,
which is one of the aspects of mental anger and love can be identified even in
development. very young infants. After the baby is a few
weeks old, he starts smiling and gurgling
c. Emphasis should be given on reading to give expression to his feeling of
and writing ability of the children. pleasure and contentment.

d. The children should be given As per the views of Bridge, by the age of
opportunity of learning through imitation three months the general excitement is
and repetition. differentiated into distress, if the situation
is unpleasant, and into delight, if the
e. Rote learning should be discouraged. situation is pleasant one. Jealousy appears
Let the children think and learn, that by about 18 months of age. Between the
should be the approach of the process of ages of 18 and 24 months joy further
education. differentiates from elation and affection.
By the age three the child can express his
f. Students should be engaged in debates, distress, fear, anger, joy and affection.
discussions, seminars, creative writing and
competitions etc. for mental development. Early Childhood Stage:

g. Greater importance should be given on As the child grows, his emotional

the active participation of the students in expressions are refined, become more
class room teaching. definite and grow in intensity. Now his
loves, fears and dislikes becomes more
h. The children must be helped to form intense. Curiosity ad inquisitiveness
good habits and attitudes. develops at this stage. The child feels
satisfied when his questions are answered.
3. Emotional Development
With growth and maturity in age comes
decline in overt expression of emotional
Emotional Development:
reactions.
The term emotion is derived from Latin
Previous violent emotional reactions are
term ’emovere’ which means to stir, to
now expressed in subdued form among
agitate to move. Hence, an emotion is
children fear at first is general rather than
referred to as a stirred up state of
specific. As children grow older fear
agitation. We feel agitated or excited
responses become increasingly specific.
when we experience anger, fear, joy, grief,
The child shows his fear by running away
disgust, etc.
to avoid the situation that brightens him.
He also shows jealousy towards other
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

when he finds them possessing things adolescents. Vocational problems also

which he does not have. create emotional disturbances.

Later Childhood Stage: Educational Implications:

At this stage, the emotional behavior of Following suggestions are given to help
the child is guided by rational expressions. children’s emotional development:
He experiences intense emotional feelings
of love, hate and fear which lasts for a a. The children should be helped to
long period of time. But he is able to have eliminate the causes of emotional
control over his emotions. Emotions at outbursts.
wonder dominate the child at this stage. If
anything goes against his interest he b. Care should be taken to fulfill the basic
shows anger. requirements of the infants.

At the age of 10, he becomes obedient c. Children should be helped to learn to

and friendly. Fear is less common in older express their emotions in a socially
children. Older children when become accepted manner.
angry, do not kick things. Instead, they
express their anger in the form of sarcasm, d. Counseling should be provided to
sneers, abuses, and belittling remarks. express the emotional feelings of the
children in a better way.
Anger is expressed in refusal to speak or
quarrelsomeness. At this stage, the e. A child should be helped to develop a
children like to be with the persons whom realistic understanding about the
they love. Joy, pleasure, love, curiosity, situations that aroused unpleasant
grief and affection appear in this stage. emotions.

Adolescence Stage: f. The child should be assisted to control

his emotional feelings which may offend
Adolescence period is marked by other or which are destructive in nature.
heightened emotionality due to change of
roles in home, school and society. It is due g. The child should be gradually directed
to the unfavorable relations in home. to exercise more of internal- control than
Parents and teachers in most cases are to need external control of his emotional
responsible for heightened emotionality in behavior.
adolescents because they do not prepare
their children to meet the problems of h. There must be provision for excursions,
adolescence. picnic, and scouting to give outlet to their
extra energy.
When the child becomes an adolescent,
society and parents expect him to think i. The child must learn to accept many
and act like an adult for which he is not restrictions in life, and learn to tolerate
physically and intellectually matured. situations, persons, or events that cause
annoyance.
In adolescence there is attraction towards
the member of opposite sex but the j. Care should be taken to avoid causes of
adolescent is not able to understand the emotionality like fatigue, poor health,
correct social behavior, how to make thwarted desires, unpreparedness etc.
friendship with the members of opposite among the children.
sex, which create emotional tensions in
him.
4.     Social Development:
Adolescents come in conflict with their
friends and family members who fail to
understand them. School failures cause
emotional disturbance among the
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

At birth, the child is neither social nor ‘no’. The child at this stage is likely to have
unsocial. When the child grows up, he many phantasies.
develops some social behavior which
makes him an acceptable social being. Early Childhood Stage:
Social development can be defined by
Hurlock as social development is the In this period the child usually has one or
“attaining of maturity in social two friends with whom he identifies and
relationships”. plays for short intervals. The young child
selects his playmates of his own age from
Garret regards social development as the his immediate neighborhood. He selects
process whereby “the biological individual friends who provide him friendly
is converted into a human person.” Social companionship ship. The child at this
development is closely associated with stage often quarrels and fights.
mental, physical and emotional aspects of
development. The child shows his sympathy by helping
others in difficulty. He needs recognition
An individual’s social and emotional and praise. He needs approval of adults.
behavior is so closely interlinked that Feeling of being ignored makes him
feelings of jealousy, shyness, affection and naughty in the hope of getting attention
sympathy which are primarily regarded as that he craves for.
emotional responses can also be treated
as social forms of behavior. Studies have reported that nursery school
experiences contribute in acquiring
Certain general trends in the development acceptable social habits, overcoming fear
of social behavior are discussed here: of strangers and other children, ability to
express themselves, and decreasing
  tension.

Infancy Stage: Later Childhood Stage:

During the first few months the child At this stage the child enters, the school
begins to make active. social contacts with and wants to have many friends. He is
the persons in his social environment such interested the play activities that involve
as mother, father, grandmother, elders the group. He desires to be in the group
who care for him. He becomes aware of of friends of his own age and sex. The
the individuals, who stimulate in him the peer approval at this stage is linked with
feeling of satisfaction. the strong desire for friendship and leads
to cooperative behavior.
The child soon learns to differentiate
between his mother and other persons. The child shows interest in what happens
Social responses that starts early in life are in the outside world. He becomes more
those of smiling and laughing. During the extroverts in this stage. Quarrels are also
second half of the first year the child common among friends during this
shows negative response to strangers. period.

After the eighteen months the infant One important development that takes
reacts to other infants in the environment place is the increasing interest and ability
and after that he becomes more and more in organized activities and in team work.
interested in his playmates. By the age of They form clubs or gangs for games,
two years, he can obey certain commands sports and other social activities. These
given to him and call attention of other gangs are formed separately for boys and
persons to objects be feels interested in. girls. However, these groups are often
short lived. Different qualities like taking
During this period the child displays the up responsibility, self-control, self-
tendency towards negativism by reliance, obedience, discipline etc. develop
responding to almost every request with a in this stage.
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

Adolescence Stage: e. Children should be provided training in

leadership which will develop personal
The adolescents have a strong loyalty and and social qualities among them.
devotion to their groups. They are deeply
influenced by peer groups and their f. The children should be engaged in
decisions. At this stage, the adolescent different social work according to their
acquires many habits, attitudes, ideals and interest and skills.
social skills.
g. Education should be imparted to curb
During early adolescent period the close- the negative tendencies among the
friend is usually a member of the same children.
sex. At the later adolescent period, one
usually tries to seek friendship with a B.     Key Issues in Human Development
member of the opposite sex. However,
this is not generally permitted in some a.      Nature versus Nurture
cultures, and so same sex friendships are
more common. For everyone, development begins at the
moment of conception, and probably few
Identification with peer groups, hero- would argue with the possibility that a
worship, growth of patriotic spirit, person’s skills and character are
development of a sense of sacrifice and significantly influenced and shaped by
leadership are some of the important their parents and family during childhood.
features of the social development of the If the same child were to be brought up in
adolescent. a different family would not their skills
and their character not have been pretty
Educational Implication: much the same in the long run? Questions
such as these form the basis of what has
It is evident that the social growth of become known as the ‘nature versus
children is a significant process which nurture’ debate.
cannot be ignored by the teachers and
the parents. Although knowledge can be shared
between professionals, the knowledge
For proper social development following base and the various associated theories
suggestions can be taken into of development have emerged from
consideration: different academic disciplines, such as
psychology and neuroscience. Academic
a. The school should endeavor to provide debates concerning aspects of
adequate and ample opportunities development exist both within and
favorable to the social growth of the between different disciplines. For social
children. workers, it is helpful to understand some
of these debates and appreciate the
b. The school should aim at creating such extent to which development is viewed as
a healthy atmosphere in and outside the an interaction between environmental,
classroom that children feel it convenient, social, and hereditary influences. This
pleasant and desirable to develop reflects one of the fundamental debates
satisfying social relations with all those concerning the extent to which human
with whom they come in contact. development is influenced by either
nature (inherent characteristics) or nurture
c. The general attitude of a class teacher (the care given by others). At the simplest
must aim to promote a feeling of security level this debate involves two separate
in the minds of children. explanations:

d. Each student should be stimulated to Nature refers to the process of biological

participate in group activities in and out of maturation inheritance and maturation.
the class room. One of the reasons why the development
of human beings is so similar is because
our common specifies heredity (DNA)
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

guides all of us through many of the same psychology that attempt to explain how
developmental changes at about the same people change through the course of their
points in our lives. People’s development lives, where the continuity theory says that
and their behaviors, qualities and someone changes throughout their life
identities can be explained by their along a smooth course while the
biological or genetic make-up. Behavior is discontinuity theory instead contends that
caused by innate characteristics. All people change abruptly. These changes
possible behaviors are said to be present can be described as a wide variety of
from conception. Genes provide the someone's social and behavioral makeup,
blueprint for all behaviors; some present like their emotions, traditions, and beliefs.
from birth, others pre-programmed to
emerge with age.  

Nurture refers to the impact of the Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity

environment, which involves the process disagree with one another in how they
of learning through experiences, social assess the changes that someone
relationships, and surrounding culture. undergoes throughout the course of their
People’s development and their behaviors, life. The continuity theory examines the
qualities and identities can be explained way someone changes in a quantitative
by the physical and emotional and continuous respect. Discontinuity
environments in which they grow up. An theory, on the other hand, looks at these
individual’s behavior is determined by the changes through the lens of a qualitative
environment the things people teach analysis with an emphasis on the
them, the things they observe, and discontinuous nature of how someone
because of the different situations they changes.  Developmental psychology
are in.  Determinist view proposes all encompasses a very wide array of
human behavior is the result of observations related to how people think,
interactions with the environment. behave and interact with their
environment as well as other people.
Even today, different branches of
psychology often take a one versus the  
other approach. For example, biological
psychology tends to stress the importance Continuity and discontinuity are defined in
of genetics and biological the literature on aging and on human
influences. Behaviorism, on the other development Discontinuity in human
hand, focuses on the impact that the development usually signifies some form
environment has on behavior. of change, whereas continuity implies
maintaining the status quo. Continuity
In the past, debates over the relative and discontinuity include descriptions of
contributions of nature versus nurture and explanations for behavior, which are
often took a very one-sided approach, not necessarily undivided. They also relate
with one side arguing that nature played to a qualitative level referring to essence
the most important role and the other and to a quantitative level referring to
side suggesting that it was nurture that more or to less. A gerontological
was the most significant. Today, most approach relates to internal and external
experts recognize that both factors play a continuity and discontinuity in aging.
critical role. Not only that, but they also Internal refers to self and identity, whereas
realize that nature and nurture interact in external refers to relationship structures
important ways all throughout life. and social behavior. A lifespan perspective
of human development in general and of
a.     Continuity versus Discontinuity aging in particular suggests a meta-model
(SOC). It suggests that people select goals
  and activities that allow them to function
in an optimal way and to compensate for
Continuity and discontinuity are two losses along the life span using strengths
competing theories in developmental that remain. As such, SOC views change as
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

adaptation rather than growth. A more

recent approach is an innovation theory of
successful aging. This is based on
empirical findings that internal continuity
of self-preservation and striking out in an
entirely new direction are possible in old
age. Such an approach leaves room for
continuity and adaptation as well as for
growth.

b. Stability versus Change

It deals with the issue of whether or not

personality traits present during present
during infancy endure throughout the
lifespan. The stability-change debate
describes the developmental psychology
discussion about whether personality
traits that are present in an individual at
birth remain constant or change
throughout the life span. The stability vs.
change debate is one of the fundamental
questions in developmental psychology
along with nature vs. nurture.  Change
theorists argue that personalities are
modified by interactions with family,
experiences at school, and acculturation. 
Studies of children have often revealed
impressive stability over time in aspects of
development such as the attachment to
their parents or in personality. However,
there is evidence which suggests a
contrary view, that change is both
possible and indeed, is likely under
appropriate conditions.