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Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect,
directly refers to one thing by mentioning another.[1] It may
provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities
between two ideas. Metaphors are often compared with other
types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole,
metonymy and simile.[2] One of the most commonly cited
examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the "All
the world's a stage" monologue from As You Like It:

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances ...
—William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7[3]

This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not

A political cartoon by illustrator S.D.
literally a stage. By asserting that the world is a stage,
Ehrhart in an 1894 Puck magazine
Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a
shows a farm woman labeled
stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the "Democratic Party" sheltering from a
world and the behavior of the people within it. tornado of political change.

According to the linguist Anatoly Liberman, the use of metaphors

is relatively late in the modern European languages; it is, in
principle, a post-Renaissance phenomenon.[4] In contrast, in the ancient Hebrew psalms (https://bib
lehub.com/psalms/) (around 1000 B.C.), one finds already vivid and poetic examples of metaphor
[the following example given is that of a simile, rather than the intended metaphor]such as, "...He is
like a tree planted by streams of water, yielding its fruit in season, whose leaf does not wither." At the
other extreme, some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.[5]

Contents
Etymology
Parts of a metaphor
As a type of comparison
Metaphor vs metonymy
Subtypes
In rhetoric and literature
As style in speech and writing
Larger applications
Conceptual metaphors
As a foundation of our conceptual system
Nonlinguistic metaphors
In historical linguistics
Historical theories
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See also
References
Bibliography
External links

Etymology
The English metaphor derived from the 16th-century Old French word métaphore, which comes from
the Latin metaphora, "carrying over", in turn from the Greek µεταφορά (metaphorá), "transfer",[6]
from µεταφέρω (metapherō), "to carry over", "to transfer"[7] and that from µετά (meta), "after, with,
across"[8] + φέρω (pherō), "to bear", "to carry".[9]

Parts of a metaphor
The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1937) by rhetorician I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two
parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle
is the object whose attributes are borrowed. In the previous example, "the world" is compared to a
stage, describing it with the attributes of "the stage"; "the world" is the tenor, and "a stage" is the
vehicle; "men and women" is the secondary tenor, and "players" is the secondary vehicle.

Other writers employ the general terms 'ground' and 'figure' to denote the tenor and the vehicle.
Cognitive linguistics uses the terms 'target' and 'source', respectively.

Psychologist Julian Jaynes coined the terms 'metaphrand' and 'metaphier', plus two new concepts,
'paraphrand' and 'paraphier'.[10] [11] 'Metaphrand' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'tenor',
'target', and 'ground'. 'Metaphier' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'vehicle', 'figure', and
'source'. In a simple metaphor, an obvious attribute of the metaphier exactly characterizes the
metaphrand (e.g. the ship plowed the seas). With an inexact metaphor, however, a metaphier might
have associated attributes or nuances – its paraphiers – that enrich the metaphor because they
"project back" to the metaphrand, potentially creating new ideas – the paraphrands – associated
thereafter with the metaphrand or even leading to a new metaphor. For example, in the metaphor
"Pat is a tornado", the metaphrand is "Pat", the metaphier is "tornado". As metaphier, "tornado"
carries paraphiers such as power, storm and wind, counterclockwise motion, and danger, threat,
destruction, etc. The metaphoric meaning of "tornado" is inexact: one might understand that 'Pat is
powerfully destructive' through the paraphrand of physical and emotional destruction; another
person might understand the metaphor as 'Pat can spin out of control'. In the latter case, the
paraphier of 'spinning motion' has become the paraphrand 'psychological spin', suggesting an entirely
new metaphor for emotional unpredictability, a possibly apt description for a human being hardly
applicable to a tornado. Based on his analysis, Jaynes claims that metaphors not only enhance
description, but "increase enormously our powers of perception...and our understanding of [the
world], and literally create new objects".[10]:50

As a type of comparison
Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. It is said, for instance, that a metaphor is 'a
condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar fashion' or are 'based on the
same mental process' or yet that 'the basic processes of analogy are at work in metaphor'. It is also
pointed out that 'a border between metaphor and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the difference between them
might be described (metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared'. A metaphor

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asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile merely
asserts a similarity through use of words such as "like" or "as". For this reason a common-type
metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.[12][13]

The metaphor category contains these specialized types:

Allegory: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.
Antithesis: A rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or
sentences.[14]
Catachresis: A mixed metaphor, sometimes used by design and sometimes by accident (a
rhetorical fault).
Hyperbole: Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a point.[15]
Parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral or spiritual
lesson, such as in Aesop's fables or Jesus' teaching method as told in the Bible.
Pun: A verbal device by which multiple definitions of a word or its homophones are used to give a
sentence multiple valid readings, typically to humorous effect.
Similitude: An extended simile or metaphor that has a picture part (Bildhälfte), a reality part
(Sachhälfte), and a point of comparison (teritium comparationis).[16] Similitudes are found in the
parables of Jesus.

Metaphor vs metonymy

Metaphor is distinct from metonymy, both constituting two fundamental modes of thought. Metaphor
works by bringing together concepts from different conceptual domains, whereas metonymy uses one
element from a given domain to refer to another closely related element. A metaphor creates new
links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on pre-existent
links within them.

For example, in the phrase "lands belonging to the crown", the word "crown" is a metonymy because
some monarchs do indeed wear a crown, physically. In other words, there is a pre-existent link
between "crown" and "monarchy".[17] On the other hand, when Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that the
Israeli language is a "phoenicuckoo cross with some magpie characteristics", he is using a
metaphor.[18]:4 There is no physical link between a language and a bird. The reason the metaphors
"phoenix" and "cuckoo" are used is that on the one hand hybridic "Israeli" is based on Hebrew, which,
like a phoenix, rises from the ashes; and on the other hand, hybridic "Israeli" is based on Yiddish,
which like a cuckoo, lays its egg in the nest of another bird, tricking it to believe that it is its own egg.
Furthermore, the metaphor "magpie" is employed because, according to Zuckermann, hybridic
"Israeli" displays the characteristics of a magpie, "stealing" from languages such as Arabic and
English.[18]:4–6

Subtypes

A dead metaphor is a metaphor in which the sense of a transferred image has become absent. The
phrases "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" use physical action as a
metaphor for understanding. The audience does not need to visualize the action; dead metaphors
normally go unnoticed. Some distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché. Others use "dead
metaphor" to denote both.[19]

A mixed metaphor is a metaphor that leaps from one identification to a second inconsistent with the
first, e.g.:

I smell a rat [...] but I'll nip him in the bud" — Irish politician Boyle Roche
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This form is often used as a parody of metaphor itself:

If we can hit that bull's-eye then the rest of the dominoes will fall like a house of cards...
Checkmate.

— Futurama character Zapp Brannigan.[20]

An extended metaphor, or conceit, sets up a principal subject with several subsidiary subjects or
comparisons. In the above quote from As You Like It, the world is first described as a stage and then
the subsidiary subjects men and women are further described in the same context.

An implicit metaphor has no specified tenor, although the vehicle is present. M. H. Abrams offers the
following as an example of an implicit metaphor: "That reed was too frail to survive the storm of its
sorrows". The reed is the vehicle for the implicit tenor, someone's death, and the "storm" is the vehicle
for the person's "sorrows".[21]

Metaphor can serve as a device for persuading an audience of the user's argument or thesis, the so-
called rhetorical metaphor.

In rhetoric and literature

Aristotle writes in his work the Rhetoric that metaphors make learning pleasant: "To learn easily is
naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, so whatever words create knowledge in
us are the pleasantest."[22] When discussing Aristotle's Rhetoric, Jan Garret stated "metaphor most
brings about learning; for when [Homer] calls old age "stubble", he creates understanding and
knowledge through the genus, since both old age and stubble are [species of the genus of] things that
have lost their bloom."[23] Metaphors, according to Aristotle, have "qualities of the exotic and the
fascinating; but at the same time we recognize that strangers do not have the same rights as our fellow
citizens".[24]

Educational psychologist Andrew Ortony gives more explicit detail: "Metaphors are necessary as a
communicative device because they allow the transfer of coherent chunks of characteristics --
perceptual, cognitive, emotional and experiential -- from a vehicle which is known to a topic which is
less so. In so doing they circumvent the problem of specifying one by one each of the often
unnameable and innumerable characteristics; they avoid discretizing the perceived continuity of
experience and are thus closer to experience and consequently more vivid and memorable."[25]

As style in speech and writing

As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination. This allows
Sylvia Plath, in her poem "Cut", to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a
million soldiers, "redcoats, every one"; and enabling Robert Frost, in "The Road Not Taken", to
compare a life to a journey.[26][27][28]

Metaphors can be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature.

Larger applications
Sonja K. Foss characterizes metaphors as "nonliteral comparisons in which a word or phrase from one
domain of experience is applied to another domain".[29] She argues that since reality is mediated by
the language we use to describe it, the metaphors we use shape the world and our interactions to it.
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The term metaphor is used to describe more basic or general

aspects of experience and cognition:

A cognitive metaphor is the association of object to an

experience outside the object's environment
A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is
systematic in both language and thought
A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an
individual's understanding of a situation
A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between two
nonlinguistic realms of experience A metaphorical visualization of the
A visual metaphor uses an image to create the link between word anger.
different ideas

Conceptual metaphors

Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively
important as well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors
are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common
definition of metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike
in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply
understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, called a "conduit metaphor". A
speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then send them along a conduit to a listener who
removes the object from the container to make meaning of it. Thus, communication is something that
ideas go into, and the container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give
several examples of daily metaphors in use, including "argument is war" and "time is money".
Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors suggest that
communication can be viewed as a machine: "Communication is not what one does with the machine,
but is the machine itself."[30]

Experimental evidence shows that "priming" people with material from one area will influence how
they perform tasks and interpret language in a metaphorically related area.[a]

As a foundation of our conceptual system

Cognitive linguists emphasize that metaphors serve to facilitate the understanding of one conceptual
domain—typically an abstraction such as "life", "theories" or "ideas"—through expressions that relate
to another, more familiar conceptual domain—typically more concrete, such as "journey", "buildings"
or "food".[32][33] For example: we devour a book of raw facts, try to digest them, stew over them, let
them simmer on the back-burner, regurgitate them in discussions, and cook up explanations, hoping
they do not seem half-baked.

A convenient short-hand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following:

CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called a
conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in
which one domain is understood in terms of another. A conceptual domain is any
coherent organization of experience. For example, we have coherently organized
knowledge about journeys that we rely on in understanding life.[33]

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Lakoff and Johnson greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a
framework for thinking in language, leading scholars to investigate the original ways in which writers
used novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking in conceptual
metaphors.

From a sociological, cultural, or philosophical perspective, one asks to what extent ideologies
maintain and impose conceptual patterns of thought by introducing, supporting, and adapting
fundamental patterns of thinking metaphorically.[34] To what extent does the ideology fashion and
refashion the idea of the nation as a container with borders? How are enemies and outsiders
represented? As diseases? As attackers? How are the metaphoric paths of fate, destiny, history, and
progress represented? As the opening of an eternal monumental moment (German fascism)? Or as
the path to communism (in Russian or Czech for example)?

Some cognitive scholars have attempted to take on board the idea that different languages have
evolved radically different concepts and conceptual metaphors, while others hold to the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis. German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt contributed significantly to this debate on the
relationship between culture, language, and linguistic communities. Humboldt remains, however,
relatively unknown in English-speaking nations. Andrew Goatly, in "Washing the Brain", takes on
board the dual problem of conceptual metaphor as a framework implicit in the language as a system
and the way individuals and ideologies negotiate conceptual metaphors. Neural biological research
suggests some metaphors are innate, as demonstrated by reduced metaphorical understanding in
psychopathy.[35]

James W. Underhill, in Creating Worldviews: Ideology, Metaphor & Language (Edinburgh UP),
considers the way individual speech adopts and reinforces certain metaphoric paradigms. This
involves a critique of both communist and fascist discourse. Underhill's studies are situated in Czech
and German, which allows him to demonstrate the ways individuals are thinking both within and
resisting the modes by which ideologies seek to appropriate key concepts such as "the people", "the
state", "history", and "struggle".

Though metaphors can be considered to be "in" language, Underhill's chapter on French, English and
ethnolinguistics demonstrates that we cannot conceive of language or languages in anything other
than metaphoric terms.

Nonlinguistic metaphors

Metaphors can map experience between two nonlinguistic

realms. Musicologist Leonard B. Meyer demonstrated how purely
rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.[36]
It is an open question whether synesthesia experiences are a
sensory version of metaphor, the "source" domain being the
presented stimulus, such as a musical tone, and the target
domain, being the experience in another modality, such as
color.[37]
Tombstone of a Jewish woman
Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a
depicting broken candles, a visual
painting, we "feel ourselves into it" by imagining our body in the
metaphor of the end of life.
posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For
example, the painting The Lonely Tree by Caspar David Friedrich
shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.[38][39] Looking at the
painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, evoking a feeling of strain
and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual and musical
art, as well as dance and other art forms.[40][41]

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In historical linguistics
In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic change
based on a similarity in form or function between the original concept and the target concept named
by a word.[42]

For example, mouse: small, gray rodent with a long tail → small, gray computer device with a long
cord.

Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.[43]

Historical theories
Friedrich Nietzsche makes metaphor the conceptual center of his early theory of society in On Truth
and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense.[44] Some sociologists have found his essay useful for thinking about
metaphors used in society and for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion
note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, and that it is impossible to think
sociologically about religion without metaphor.[45]

See also
Alliteration Origin of language
Camel's nose Origin of speech
Colemanballs Pataphor
Conceptual blending Personification
Description Reification (fallacy)
Hypocatastasis Sarcasm
Ideasthesia Simile
List of English-language metaphors Analogy
Literal and figurative language Tertium comparationis
Metaphor in philosophy War as metaphor
Misnomer World Hypotheses

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External links
History of metaphor (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00w227c) on In Our Time at the BBC
A short history of metaphor (https://web.archive.org/web/20070101145805/http://tscp.open.ac.uk/t
185/html/resources/r2history.htm)
Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech (http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/meta
phor.htm)

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Top Ten Metaphors of 2008 (http://www.metaphorobservatory.com/2009/07/top-ten-metaphors-of-

2008/)
Shakespeare's Metaphors (http://shakespeare-online.com/biography/metaphorlist.html)
Definition and Examples (http://literaryterms.net/metaphor/)
Metaphor Examples (categorized) (http://knowgramming.com/metaphors/metaphor_chapters/exa
mples.htm)
List of ancient Greek words starting with μετα- (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?
type=start&lookup=meta&lang=greek), on Perseus
Metaphor and Phenomenology (http://www.iep.utm.edu/met-phen/) article in the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Metaphors algebra (http://www.bentamari.com/metaphors)
Pérez-Sobrino, Paula (2014). "Meaning construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual
disintegration and metonymy" (https://www.academia.edu/7924477) (PDF). Journal of Pragmatics.
70: 130–151. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pragma.2014.06.00
8).

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