CE 320A – Lab 3

Lab Experiment 3
Hydrostatics
Objectives:
 To understand how hydrostatic pressures vary within a fluid body, and how hydrostatic forces
are exerted on submerged surfaces and objects;
 To understand and apply Archimede’s Principle of Buoyancy; and
 To evaluate the hydrostatic forces on a submerged pivoting gate.

Background:
Hydrostatics is the branch of hydraulics that deals with the behavior of fluids “at rest.”
We are surrounded by practical applications of hydrostatics in engineering as well as in the
everyday world. For example, the principles of hydrostatics are used to design massive concrete
dams and huge battleships. These very same principles also explain how barometers function and
why you are able to float in a swimming pool. Hydrostatics principles have been known for
millennia, having first been discovered and applied by the ancient Greeks.
We will divide our study of hydrostatics into three parts: (1) how hydrostatic pressures
vary within a fluid body; and (2) how hydrostatic forces are exerted on submerged surfaces; and
(3) how hydrostatic forces are exerted on submerged bodies. Each of these will now be treated
separately.

(1) Pressure Variation in a Fluid Body

The underlying idea behind hydrostatics is to recognize that fluids have weight, and that
weight creates pressure within a fluid body and also exerts pressure on objects submerged within
the fluid body. All of us have experienced hydrostatic pressure first hand when our “ears pop”
while driving down a mountain or landing in an aircraft. The sensation results from our
descending deeper into the “sea of air” known as the atmosphere, and the pop comes as our aural
(hearing) cavity seeks equilibrium as higher-pressure air rushes in. If you are a swimmer, you
have likely experienced a related hydrostatic phenomenon when diving deep into a swimming
pool. At depths below 10 feet, you notice a distinct sensation of pressure to your head and body.
To mathematically evaluate the effect of fluid weight, it is first necessary to define the
unit weight of a fluid, which is also known as the specific weight:
Specific Weight =  = g Eq. 1
where  is the specific weight of fluid (FL or ML T ),  is the density of fluid (ML-3), and g is
-3 -2 -2

gravitational acceleration (LT-2).

If we now consider a point within the fluid body at some depth z, it is possible to
compute the pressure due to the overlying fluid. As indicated in Fig. 3.1, fluid pressure increases
in proportion to the depth below the fluid surface. This linear relationship is known as
hydrostatic pressure variation, and the defining equation is:
p= z Eq. 2
where p is pressure at a point,  is specific weight of fluid, and z is depth below fluid surface.

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Fig. 3.1 –Hydrostatic Pressure Variation

An important question is in which direction does the hydrostatic pressure act? To answer
let us consider a fluid at rest in a global x-y-z coordinate system, and imagine a control volume, V
that is acted on from all sides by the fluid (see Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 – Hydrostatic Pressure Acting on a Control Volume

The average pressure stress acting on each surface of the control volume can be determined using
Eq. 2. If we shrink the control volume until it becomes infinitesimally small, it becomes clear
that
p1 = p2 = p3 = p4 = p5 = p6 Eq. 3a

That is to say, hydrostatic pressure acting at a point in a fluid is equal and opposite in all
directions. This simple but profound principle will be useful in the evaluating fluid pressure on
submerged surfaces and bodies.
As a final thought let us differentiate with respect to each of the coordinate axes, which
yields an important expression that fully defines the hydrostatic pressure variation within a fluid
body, namely
dp
  g Eq. 3b
dz
This relation is known as the Equation of Fluid Statics, and it simply says: the pressure within a
non-moving fluid varies as a function of depth only (i.e., the negative z-direction).

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(2) Hydrostatic Forces Acting on Submerged Surfaces

In civil engineering design we encounter numerous situations where fluids (usually
water) act on submerged surfaces. To solve such problems we extend the concept of pressure
variation at a point to a plane by the process of mathematical integration. That is, hydrostatic
force F acting against a surface is determined by summing the pressures acting on the surface:
F =  p dA Eq. 4
where F is total force due to the fluid, p is the pressure at depth, and A is the area.
Now let us apply this fundamental relation to the three common hydrostatic situations
shown in Fig. 3.3. The first situation shown in Fig. 3.3(a) involves hydrostatic force acting a
horizontally-oriented surface. Force F is then computed by substituting Eg. 2 into Eq. 4, namely,
F =  p dA = p  dA = pA =  z A or in summary,
Force on a Horizontal Plane = F =  z A Eq. 5
where z is the depth to the horizontal surface.
Now consider a planar surface that is either vertical or inclined at angle . Once again,
Eq. 4 is solved to create yet another useful form:
F =  p dA =  ( z) dA =   z dA =  zc A or in summary,
Force on a Vertical/Inclined Plane = F =  zc A Eq. 6
where now zc is the depth to the centroid of the planar area. When applying Eq. 6 in civil
engineering design, two situations commonly arise. The first is when the submerged planar
surface begins at the water surface and extends downward as shown in Fig. 3.3(b), and the
second is when the surface is more deeply submerged as shown in Fig. 3.3(c). Working
expressions for each of these common situations are easily derived and will now be presented:
For planes that extend to the water surface, the following approach is used:
F =  p dA =  ( z) dA =   z dA =  (½ h) (h b) = ½  h A or in summary,
Force on a Vertical/Inclined = F = ½  h A Eq. 7
Plane Extending to Water
Surface - Fig. 3.3 (b)
For planes that are fully submerged, the following can be derived:
F =  p dA = F1 + F2 =  h1 A + ½  h2 A or,
Force on a Vertical/Inclined = F =  h1 A + ½  h2 A Eq. 8
Plane on Fully Submerged
Surface - Fig. 3.3 (c)
When solving problems involving fully submerged surfaces, it also useful to determine
the resultant center of pressure, zcp , on the vertical or inclined planar surface. Distance zcp is
found by summing moments-areas:
F zcp = F1 z1 + F2 z2 Eq. 9
Solving for zcp. we obtain,
F1 z1  F2 z 2
z cp  Eq. 10
F
It is noted that an alternate expression for center of pressure zcp can be developed using the
parallel axis theorem (see your text).

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(a) –Hydrostatic Force on a Horizontal Plane

(b) –Hydrostatic Force on a Vertical Plane Extending to Surface

(c) –Hydrostatic Force on a Vertical Plane, Fully Submerged

Fig. 3.3 –Hydrostatic Forces on Planar Surfaces

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(3) Hydrostatic Forces Acting on Submerged Bodies (Buoyancy)

The concept of hydrostatic pressure can easily be extended to three-dimensional bodies.
This is done by integrating or summing the pressures acting on all sides of the submerged object
as shown in Fig. 3.4. The problem of hydrostatic forces on submerged bodies was originally
solved by Archimedes, a 3rd century B.C. genius who lived in the Greek city state of Syracuse.
Archimedes successfully related the buoyant force FB that acts on a submerged body to the
volume (V) and weight (W) of the body. Archimede’s discovery is known as the Principle of
Buoyancy, which may be simply stated as:
The buoyant force acting on a submerged solid body is equal to the weight of water
that it displaces.
We will now examine the physics behind Archimede’s principle and then verify it
mathematically.

Fig. 3.4 – Hydrostatic Pressure Acting on a Submerged Body

In order to visualize the buoyancy, imagine trying to submerge a beach ball below the
surface of a swimming pool. Further assume that the ball has a volume of one cubic foot.
According to the principle of buoyancy, the upward force acting on the ball will exactly equal to
the weight of one cubic foot of water, or 62.4 lbs. Given the fact that the ball weighs only a
pound or two, there will be approximately 60 lbs pushing upwardly (it is not an easy task to keep
it submerged). The very same principle explains why large ocean going vessels weighing many
thousand of tons can float. What happens is the hull of the ship sinks down into the water until it
displaces a volume of water that is equal to the total weight of the ship. At that point the ship is
in buoyant equilibrium and it floats. In fact, in the nautical world ships are rated according to
tons displaced (which also happens to equal their dry weight). For example the Queen Elizabeth
II is rated at “88,610 tons displacement”.
In applying the buoyancy principle to solve engineering problems, three different
conditions are encountered as shown in Fig. 3.5. The first is a neutral buoyancy condition, which
occurs when the submerged object has the same density as water. In this case the object neither
floats nor sinks, but instead “hovers” at whatever level it is placed. A second condition is when
the object is denser than water as in the case of the solid iron weight shown in Fig. 5. Clearly,
the iron does not float, but it does become lighter by a force that exactly equals the weight of
water that it displaces, which in this case is 1 lb. A third condition occurs when the object is less
dense than water as in the case of Styrofoam. Here the upward buoyant force exceeds the weight
of the object, so the object floats. Of the three conditions, probably the most important in civil
engineering applications is the second one: objects that are denser than water such as concrete,
steel, and soil still experience buoyancy, even thought they do not float. Failure to consider such

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buoyant forces in design calculations can lead to engineering disaster. For example buoyancy
principles are responsible for the development of “quicksand conditions” that may be encountered
in certain excavations below the water table.

Fig. 3.5 – Different Conditions of Buoyancy

Archimedes and the Gold Crown

One of the favorite anecdotes in the history of science involves Archimedes and the gold
crown. The story, which is generally considered to be historically accurate, is related by
Vitruvius, a 1st century Roman architect/engineer, in his book On Architecture. The anecdote
begins with King Hiero, ruler of the Greek city state of Syracuse, commissioning his royal
goldsmith to fabricate a new crown. A precise weight of pure gold is measured out and given to
the goldsmith for the task. After a period of time, the craftsman returns with the finished crown
and gives it to the king. The weight of the crown is checked, and sure enough it equals the
amount of gold that had been apportioned. However, King Hiero is suspicious that he might have
been cheated by the substitution of silver for some of the gold, which was a “skimming”
technique popular at the time. Since the methods of metallurgical analysis had not yet been
developed, the king consults Archimedes, who is a highly respected scholar of science and
mathematics living in Syracuse.
Initially, Archimedes is perplexed by the problem of the gold crown, so he decides to
visit the public bath. As he immerses his body into the water while still in a state of deep
contemplation, he happens to observe two things. First, he notices that the floating force, i.e., the
buoyancy, acting on his body increases the further he lowers himself into the water. The second
thing that he observes is that his body displaces water, which then overflows into the perimeter
drains. Then, in a flash of genius, Archimedes conceives of the concepts of specific gravity and
buoyancy that he will use to solve the problem of the gold crown. Excited about his discovery,
Archimedes quickly emerges from the bath and runs back home to begin working on the problem.
Comically, in his haste, Archimedes forgets to redress so he is seen by the citizens of Syracuse
running down the streets stark naked yelling “Eureka! Eureka!” which is Greek for “I have found
it! I have found it!”
Archimede’s solution was as simple as it was elegant. First, he secures a lump of pure
gold that was equal in weight to the crown. Next, he fills a bucket to the brim with water and
immerses the gold in order to determine its volume. In this manner he established the specific
gravity and density of pure gold. Then he does the same thing with an equal weight of pure

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silver, which he determine to be about one half as dense as gold. In the final step Archimedes
immerses the newly crafted crown into the overflow bucket to determine its specific gravity and
density. Unhappily for the goldsmith, Archimedes finds that the density of the crown is
intermediate between that of pure gold and that of pure silver, thus proving that King Hiero had
been cheated. In those days justice was swift and severe, and the royal goldsmith is promptly
executed.
Calculations associated with the principle of buoyancy are straightforward. The
following relations are useful:
Density =  = m/V = G w Eq. 11
Specific Weight =  = W/V = G w Eq. 12
Specific Gravity = G =  / w Eq. 13
Buoyant Force = FB = V w Eq. 14
Submerged Weight = W - FB = V ( - w) Eq. 15
Where  is the density of the solid, m is the mass of the solid,  is the specific weight of the solid,
W is the weight, V is the volume displaced, w is the density of water, w is the specific weight of
water, and G is specific gravity.
The principles of specific gravity can be applied to solids of mixed composition like King
Hiero’s crown. Such problems are solved using basic relationships for composites from Material
Science. Composite solids containing any number of different components can be analyzed as
follows:
c =  fii = f11 + f22 … Eq. 16
where: c = density of composite
i = density of one component
fi = volume fraction of one component

We can write a similar expression for mass by simply multiplying through by volume:
mc =  fimi = f1m1 + f2m2 … Eq. 17
where: mc = total mass of composite
mi = mass of one component

Problems involving composites are normally solved using simultaneous equations. In the case of
composites with two components that are in unknown fractions, the problem can be solved by
noting that
f1 + f2 = 1.0 Eq. 18
As a final exercise we will prove the principle of buoyancy with a simple calculation.
Consider a cube of concrete measuring 1 foot on each side as depicted in Fig. 3.6. If the concrete
cube is weighed in air, the scale will read say 150 lbs. Now if the same concrete cube is
immersed in a tank of water while still suspended from the scale, according to Archimede’s
principle the buoyant force and the submerged weight would be:
Buoyant Force = V w = 1.0 ft3 x 62.4 lb/ft3 = 62.4 lb
Submerged Weight = W - FB = 150 lb – 62.4 lb = 87.6 lb

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It is worthwhile to prove this result by integrating or summing all of the hydrostatic

forces acting on the six surfaces of the concrete cube. This is accomplished by applying the
equations previously derived for planar surfaces (Eqs. 6 though 10). Please note that hydrostatic
pressure always acts perpendicular surface, and it is necessary for this calculation to consider the
direction of each force (positive and negative). While is not normally necessary to go through
these computations for every buoyancy problem, it is satisfying to prove it “once and for all.”

NOW INTEGRATE THE FORCES ACTING ON THE CUBE:

DOES THE NET BUOYANT FORCE = 62.4 LB??

Fig. 3.6 – Mathematical Proof of the Principal of Buoyancy

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 CE 320A – Lab 3

Equipment:
Set of Metal Weights
Small Aluminum Overflow Vessel with Catch Bucket
Large Plastic Overflow Vessel
Balance
Various Measuring Cups and Cylinders
Hydrostatic Pressure Tank with Pivoting Gate
Rulers

Procedure:
Part 1 – Specific Gravity Determination of Metals
1. You are going to determine the specific gravity of the four metal weights using volumetric
displacement.
2. First zero the O’Haus Balance and determine the mass of each metal weight.
3. Carefully fill the small overflow vessel up to the plastic spout and position the catch bucket.
4. Slowly lower one of the weights into the water while suspended on a string.
5. Measure the volume of the water displaced using the 100 ml Graduated Cylinder.
6. Compute the density and specific gravity of the metal weight.
7. Repeat procedure for the other weights.
8. Identify each metal using appearance and the specific gravity results.

Part 2 – Archimede’s Analysis of “Gold Brick”

1. You are now going to analyze the composition of a GOLD BRICK provided by the instructor
to see check its purity (Actually, it is “aluminum bronze,” which means that it is composed of
an alloy of copper and aluminum).
2. Follow the same procedure as in Part 1 except you will have to use the large plastic overflow
bucket, the high capacity balance, and a larger measuring cup.
3. Apply the Equations for Composites to determine the composition of the brick (i.e., %
aluminum and % copper).

Part 3 – Hydrostatic Pressure on Submerged Pivoting Gate

1. You are now going to analyze the hydrostatic forces acting a submerged pivoting gate (See
Fig. 3.7). You can think of this device as a miniature version of the floodgate in a large dam
or tidal barrier.
2. Level the hydrostatic pressure device tank using the adjustable feet to center the bubble in the
spirit level on the base plate.
3. Level the pivot arm assembly by rotating the counterbalance weight on left end of arm to
center bubble in bubble level attached to the arm.
4. Close the drain valve of tank and begin filling using the water supply line along the wall. BE
CARFUL TO OPEN THE SUPPLY VALVE SLOWLY. The valve need only about 1/3
open.
5. Allow water to fill device tank until water level reaches a point somewhere around the middle
of the vertical end face of the buoyant chamber. You must add weight continuously to the
pan on right end of pivot arm in order to keep the assembly from rising too high.

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6. After you have stopped filling the tank, balance the pivot arm more precisely by adding
weights to pan.
7. Read and record values of W, H and h. Compute the wetted area A of the vertical end face.
8. Compute the theoretical F and zcp for this trial using some combination of Eqs. 5 through 10.
9. Now compute the experimental F using W, L, y, and the moment.
10. Now add additional water to the tank until the level is about 5 cm above the top of the vertical
end face of the chamber.
11. Repeat steps 5 through 9 above.

Fig. 3.7 – Schematic of Pivoting Gate Device

Questions for Discussion:

1. Perform the buoyancy proof shown in Fig. 3.6 and report your results.
2. Summarize the specific gravity values of the four metal weights. Consult the literature and
identify each metal based on its specific gravity and appearance.
3. What is the composition of Archimede’s Gold Brick? How accurate do you feel the
displacement method is for these kinds of analyses.
4. For the Submerged Pivoting Gate experiment, compare the experimental and theoretical
values of F. If there are differences offer possible explanations.
5. For the Submerged Pivoting Gate experiment, you should notice that the effects of the other
surfaces of the hollow chamber (e.g. arc surface A-D) were not included in the buoyancy
calculations. Why is this the case? Explain your answer with calculations.
6. Do you think that the center of pressure would change in the Submerged Pivoting Gate: (a) if
the fluid density changed; or (2) if the fluid viscosity changed?

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