Submarine - Wikipedia

3/5/2020 Submarine - Wikipedia
Submarine
A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of
independent operation underwater. It differs from a
submersible, which has more limited underwater
capability. It is also sometimes used historically or
colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and
robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels,
such as the midget submarine and the wet sub.
Submarines are referred to as "boats" rather than
"ships" irrespective of their size.[1]
Although experimental submarines had been built

before, submarine design took off during the 19th
century, and they were adopted by several navies. US Virginia-class submarine underway in Groton,
Submarines were first widely used during World War I Connecticut, July 2004
(1914–1918), and are now used in many navies large
and small. Military uses include attacking enemy
surface ships (merchant and military), or other
submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade
running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a
nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional
land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and
covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for
submarines include marine science, salvage,
exploration and facility inspection and maintenance. Russian Akula-class submarine of the Northern
Fleet
Submarines can also be modified to perform more
specialized functions such as search-and-rescue
missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are
also used in tourism and undersea archaeology.
Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a
vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as
well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the "sail" in American usage and "fin" in
European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the
main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at
the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may
deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the
amount of water and air in ballast tanks to change buoyancy for submerging and surfacing.
Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. They range from
small autonomous examples and one- or two-person subs that operate for a few hours to vessels that
can remain submerged for six months—such as the Russian Typhoon class, the biggest submarines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine 1/32
ever built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers.[2]
Modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving
bell.
Contents
History
Etymology
Early submersibles
18th century
19th century
Mechanical power
20th century
World War I
World War II
Cold-War military models
21st century
Usage
Military
Civilian
Polar operations
Technology
Submersion and trimming
Hull
Overview
Single and double hulls
Pressure hull
Propulsion
Diesel-electric
Air-independent
Nuclear power
Alternative
Armament
Sensors
Navigation
Communication
Life support systems
Crew
Women
Abandoning the vessel
See also
By country
References
Bibliography
External links
History
Etymology
Whereas the principal meaning of "submarine" is an armed, submersible warship, the more general
meaning is for any type of submersible craft.[3] The definition as of 1899 was for any type of
"submarine boat".[4] By naval tradition, submarines are still usually referred to as "boats" rather than
as "ships", regardless of their size.[5] In other navies with a history of large submarine fleets they are
also "boats"; in German it is an Unterseeboot[6] or U-Boot (under-sea boat)[7] and in Russian it is a
подводная лодка (underwater boat).[8] Although referred to informally as "boats",[9][10] U.S.
submarines employ the designation USS (United States Ship) at the beginning of their names, such as
USS Alabama.
Early submersibles
According to a report in Opusculum Taisnieri published in
1562:[11]
Two Greeks submerged and surfaced in the river

Tagus near the City of Toledo several times in the
presence of The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V,
without getting wet and with the flame they carried in
their hands still alight.[12]
Drebbel, an early submersible craft,
propelled by oars.
In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in
his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an
underwater navigation vehicle. A few years later the Scottish mathematician and theologian John
Napier wrote in his Secret Inventions (1596) that "These inventions besides devises of sayling under
water with divers, other devises and strategems for harming of the enemyes by the Grace of God and
worke of expert Craftsmen I hope to perform." It's unclear whether he ever carried out his idea.[13]
The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built
in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was propelled by
means of oars.[13]
18th century
By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in
England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of
a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the
craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In
1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had initially been proposed by
Giovanni Borelli in 1680. Further design improvement stagnated for over a century, until application
of new technologies for propulsion and stability.[14]
The first military submarine was Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the
American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person.[15] It was the first verified submarine
capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for
propulsion.[16]
19th century
In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by
American Robert Fulton, Nautilus. The French eventually gave up
on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later
considered Fulton's submarine design.
In 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's H.

L. Hunley became the first military submarine to sink an enemy
vessel, the Union sloop-of-war USS Housatonic. In the aftermath
of its successful attack against the ship, H. L. Hunley also sank,
possibly because it was too close to its own exploding torpedo. 1806 illustration by Robert Fulton
showing a "plunging boat"
In 1866, Sub Marine Explorer was the first submarine to
successfully dive, cruise underwater, and resurface under the
control of the crew. The design by German American Julius H. Kroehl (in German, Kröhl)
incorporated elements that are still used in modern submarines.[17]
In 1866, Flach was built at the request of the Chilean government, by Karl Flach, a German engineer
and immigrant. It was the fifth submarine built in the world[18] and, along with a second submarine,
was intended to defend the port of Valparaiso against attack by the Spanish Navy during the Chincha
Islands War.
Mechanical power
The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion
was the French Plongeur (Diver), launched in 1863, which used
compressed air at 180 psi (1,200 kPa).[19] Narcís Monturiol
designed the first air-independent and combustion-powered
submarine, Ictíneo II, which was launched in Barcelona, Spain in
1864. The French submarine Plongeur
The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the

development of the Whitehead torpedo, designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead, the
first practical self-propelled or 'locomotive' torpedo.[20] The spar torpedo that had been developed
earlier by the Confederate States Navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have
sunk both its intended target, and probably H. L. Hunley, the submarine that deployed it.
Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish
industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with
torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I, a 56-tonne, 19.5-metre (64 ft) vessel
similar to Garrett's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (130 nmi; 150 mi),
armed with a single torpedo, in 1885.
A reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the
advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by
Isaac Peral y Caballero in Spain (who built Peral), Dupuy de Lôme (who built Gymnote) and Gustave
Zédé (who built Sirène) in France, and James Franklin Waddington (who built Porpoise) in
England.[21] Peral's design featured torpedoes and other systems that later became standard in
submarines.[22][23]
20th century
Submarines were not put into service for any widespread or
routine use by navies until the early 1900s. This era marked a
pivotal time in submarine development, and several important
technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used
submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant
power system and equipment such as the periscope became
standardized. Countries conducted many experiments on
effective tactics and weapons for submarines, which led to their
large impact in World War I. USS Plunger, launched in 1902
The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine

in 1876 and a full-scale version in 1878, which were followed by a
number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896 he designed the Holland
Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion engine
power on the surface and electric battery power underwater.
Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent
Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Holland VI was purchased by
the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the Navy's
first commissioned submarine, christened USS Holland.[24]
Akula (launched in 1907) was the
Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric first Russian submarine able to
cruise long distances.
Narval employed the now typical double-hull design, with a
pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a
range of over 100 miles (161 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further
improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large
numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.
The Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness,
under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company from 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats
took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902.
Although the design had been purchased entirely from the US company, the actual design used was an
untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180 horsepower (130 kW) petrol
engine.[25]
These types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the
blockade at Port Arthur, the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905
there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet". The new
submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The first
confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the Russian submarine Som
was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[26]
World War I
Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War
I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First
Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for sinking
RMS Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted
submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the
entry of the United States into the war.[27] The German submarine SM U-9,
which sank three British cruisers in
At the outbreak of the war, Germany had only twenty submarines less than an hour in September
immediately available for combat, although these included vessels 1914
of the diesel-engined U-19 class, which had a sufficient range of

5,000 miles (8,000 km) and speed of 8 knots (15 km/h) to allow
them to operate effectively around the entire British coast.[28] By contrast the Royal Navy had a total
of 74 submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from
their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war
patrol in history.[29]
The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and
submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding
years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using
regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular
in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During
World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[30]
The British tried to catch up to the Germans in terms of submarine technology with the creation of the
K-class submarines. However, these were extremely large and often collided with each other forcing
the British to scrap the K-class design shortly after the war.[31]
World War II
During World War II, Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of the Atlantic,
where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could
replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and
armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the
strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major
innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This
allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly

known as "wolfpack"), but was also ultimately the U-boats'
downfall. By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175
warships, 2,825 merchantmen) had been sunk by U-boats.[32]
Although successful early in the war, ultimately Germany's U-
boat fleet suffered heavy casualties, losing 793 U-boats and about
The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-
28,000 submariners out of 41,000, a casualty rate of about 400-class submarine, the largest
70%.[33] submarine type of WWII
The Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of

submarines of any navy, including Kaiten crewed torpedoes,
midget submarines (Type A Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu classes),
medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and
long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the A model of Günther Prien's U-47,
highest submerged speeds during World War II (I-201-class German WWII Type VII diesel-
submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (I- electric hunter
400-class submarines). They were also equipped with one of the
most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled
Type 95. Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to use its submarines for fleet
warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and
well-defended compared to merchant ships.
The submarine force was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal. Submarines,
though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy,
including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US submarines also destroyed over 60
percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and
industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all
other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to
provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to
the Pacific.[34] When the Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in commission;
203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes were commissioned during the war. During
the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities.[35] US
submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels,[34] a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total
sunk).[36]
The Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade. Its major
operating areas were around Norway, in the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North
Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping
and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented
instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when
HMS Venturer engaged U-864; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution
against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of
modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost,[37] the
majority, forty-two, in the Mediterranean.
Cold-War military models

The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a
submarine occurred in July 1953, from the deck of USS Tunny, a
World War II fleet boat modified to carry the missile with a
nuclear warhead. Tunny and its sister boat, Barbero, were the
United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. In the
1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion.
Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water.
These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain HMAS Rankin, a Collins-class
submerged for weeks or months.[38][39] Most of the naval submarine at periscope depth
submarines built since that time in the US, the Soviet
Union/Russian Federation, Britain, and France have been
powered by nuclear reactors.
In 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service
by both the United States (George Washington class) and the Soviet
Union (Golf class) as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy.
During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large
submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet
Union lost at least four submarines during this period: K-129 was lost in
1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with the
Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in
1986, and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among
military submarines—1,000 m (3,300 ft)). Many other Soviet subs, such USS Charlotte, a Los
as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to Angeles-class submarine
reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The runs with submarines from
US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to partner nations during
RIMPAC 2014.
equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and
USS Scorpion due to unknown causes.
During India's intervention in the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor sank the
Indian frigate INS Khukri. This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War II.[40] During
the same war, Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk by the
Indian Navy. It was the first submarine combat loss since World War II.[41] In 1982 during the
Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by the British submarine
HMS Conqueror, the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war.[42]
21st century
Usage
Military
Before and during World War II, the primary role of the
submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would
attack either on the surface, using deck guns or submerged, using
torpedoes. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied
transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting
Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in
World War II.
German UC-1-class World War I
Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the submarine. The wires running up
20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. from the bow to the conning tower
Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert are the Jumping wires
agents and military forces in special operations, for intelligence
gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands,
where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the
submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo
through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other
submarines.
Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines

only on the surface, although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-
864 with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The EML Lembit in the Estonian
British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in Maritime Museum. The Lembit is the
WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the only minelayer submarine of its
series left in the world.[43]
homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion,
submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.
The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles

gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a
variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.
The primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean.
Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound
(much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from
long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced propeller
designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery help a submarine remain as
quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find
and attack modern submarines.
Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It
has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and
helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and is susceptible to counter-
measures.
A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to
waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage
was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine
HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano. After the sinking the Argentine Navy
recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface
fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at
sea.[44]
Civilian
Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines,
which are used for tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys. Some
are also used in illegal activities.
The Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it was not
a true submarine, as it ran on tracks and was open to the atmosphere.[45] The first tourist submarine
was Auguste Piccard, which went into service in 1964 at Expo64.[46] By 1997 there were 45 tourist
submarines operating around the world.[47] Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400–500
feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to
120 feet (30 to 37 m), with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers.
In a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them
into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or
artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is
marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support
craft.
A recent development is the deployment of so-called narco submarines by South American drug
smugglers to evade law enforcement detection.[48] Although they occasionally deploy true
submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains above
water at all times. In September 2011, Colombian authorities seized a 16-meter-long submersible that
could hold a crew of 5, costing about $2 million. The vessel belonged to FARC rebels and had the
capacity to carry at least 7 tonnes of drugs.[49]
Civilian submarines
Model of the Mésoscaphe Interior of the tourist

Auguste Piccard submarine Atlantis whilst
submerged
Tourist submarine Atlantis
Polar operations
1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice
off Newport, Rhode Island.[50]
1930 – USS O-12 operated under ice near Spitsbergen.[50]
1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under
ice in the Denmark Strait.[50]
1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the
Barents Sea to the Laptev Sea.[50]
1946 – USS Atule used upward-beamed fathometer in US Navy attack submarine
Operation Nanook in the Davis Strait.[50] USS Annapolis rests in the Arctic
Ocean after surfacing through three
1946–47 – USS Sennet used under-ice sonar in Operation
feet of ice during Ice Exercise 2009
High Jump in the Antarctic.[50]
on 21 March 2009.
1947 – USS Boarfish used upward-beamed echo sounder
under pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.[50]
1948 – USS Carp developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through
polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.[50]
1952 – USS Redfish used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.[50]
1957 – USS Nautilus reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.[50]
3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to reach the North Pole.[50]
17 March 1959 – USS Skate surfaced through the ice at the north pole.[50]
1960 – USS Sargo transited 900 miles (1,400 km) under ice over the shallow (125 to 180 feet or
38 to 55 metres deep) Bering-Chukchi shelf.[50]
1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under ice.[50]

1962 – Soviet November-class submarine K-3 Leninsky Komsomol reached the north pole.[50]
1970 – USS Queenfish carried out an extensive undersea mapping survey of the Siberian
continental shelf.[51]
1971 – HMS Dreadnought reached the North Pole.[50]
USS Gurnard conducted three Polar Exercises: 1976 (with US actor Charlton Heston aboard);
1984 joint operations with USS Pintado; and 1990 joint exercises with USS Seahorse.[52]
6 May 1986 – USS Ray, USS Archerfish and USS Hawkbill meet and surface together at the
Geographic North Pole. First three-submarine surfacing at the Pole.[53]
19 May 1987 – HMS Superb joined USS Billfish and USS Sea Devil at the North Pole.[54]
March 2007 – USS Alexandria participated in the Joint US Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007
(ICEX-2007) in the Arctic Ocean with the Trafalgar-class submarine HMS Tireless.[55]
March 2009 – USS Annapolis took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and
war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions.[56]
Technology
Submersion and trimming

All surface ships, as well as
surfaced submarines, are in a
positively buoyant condition,
weighing less than the volume of
water they would displace if fully
submerged. To submerge
hydrostatically, a ship must have
negative buoyancy, either by An illustration showing submarine controls
increasing its own weight or
decreasing its displacement of
water. To control their displacement, submarines have ballast
tanks, which can hold varying amounts of water and air.
For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward

and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled
with water to submerge or with air to surface. Submerged, MBTs
generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on
many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For USS Seawolf (SSN-21) Ship Control
more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Panel, with yokes for control
Depth Control Tanks (DCT)—also called hard tanks (due to their surfaces (planes and rudder), and
ability to withstand higher pressure), or trim tanks. The amount Ballast Control Panel (background),
of water in depth control tanks can be controlled to change depth to control the water in tanks and
ship's trim
or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (chiefly
water density) change. Depth control tanks may be located either
near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the
submarine body to prevent affecting trim.
When submerged, the water pressure on a submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa (580 psi) for steel
submarines and up to 10 MPa (1,500 psi) for titanium submarines like K-278 Komsomolets, while
interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which
decreases displacement. Water density also marginally increases with depth, as the salinity and
pressure are higher.[57] This change in density incompletely compensates for hull compression, so
buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having
a tendency to either sink or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation
of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces.[58][59]
Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired
trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks, changing
weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain
stability.
The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way
to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic
maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to
create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient
speed. The stern planes (hydroplanes in UK), located near the
propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the
trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while
other control surfaces may not be present on all submarines. The Sail of the French nuclear
fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, submarine Casabianca; note the
both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are diving planes, camouflaged masts,
used to control depth with less effect on the trim.[60] periscope, electronic warfare masts,
hatch, and deadlight.
When a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth
and trim methods are used simultaneously, together with
propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of
the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.
Hull
Overview
Modern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early
submarines, is sometimes called a "teardrop hull". It reduces the
hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the sea-
keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the
limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced
them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were
a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those
subs, usually well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for The US Navy Los Angeles-class
underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World War II, when USS Greeneville in dry dock,
technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and showing cigar-shaped hull
increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay
submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped again to reduce
drag and noise. USS Albacore (AGSS-569) was a unique research submarine that pioneered the
American version of the teardrop hull form (sometimes referred to as an "Albacore hull") of modern
submarines. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing
rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.
The occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as DSV Alvin are spherical instead of
cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is
usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific
instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.
A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can
include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early
classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or "conn", was located inside this tower, which
was known as the "conning tower". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the
submarine, and the tower is now called the "sail". The conn is distinct from the "bridge", a small open
platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface operation.
"Bathtubs" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal
cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed
because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help
prevent swamping the vessel.
Single and double hulls

Modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones,
usually have a single hull. Large submarines generally have an
additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull, which
actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull
(casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to
withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a
strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and
U-995, Type VIIC/41 U-boat of
has normal atmospheric pressure inside. World War II, showing the ship-like
lines of the outer hull for surface
As early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for travel, blended into the cylindrical
withstanding pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for pressure hull structure.
seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties
further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a
compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal
shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top,
bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further
with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully
enclosed inside the light hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that
were optimized for surface operation.
After World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on German
developments. All post-World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with a double
hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily single-hull
approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and
provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main

cylindrical hull section has only a single plating layer. Double
hulls are being considered for future submarines in the United
States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range.[61]
Pressure hull
The pressure hull is generally
Type XXI U-boat, late World War II,
with pressure hull almost fully constructed of thick high-
enclosed inside the light hull
strength steel with a complex
structure and high strength
reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several
compartments. There are also examples of more than two hulls in
a submarine, like the Typhoon class, which has two main pressure
hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and
steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main
hulls. In 1960, Jacques Piccard and Don
Walsh were the first people to
The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull explore the deepest part of the
thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard world's ocean, and the deepest
location on the surface of the Earth's
equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is
crust, in the Bathyscaphe Trieste
acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military designed by Auguste Piccard.
submarines.
WWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100-metre (330 ft) maximum depth. During WWII,
high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200-metre (660 ft) depths. High-strength alloy
steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250–400-metre (820–1,310 ft) depths,
which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed that limit,
a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is
not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which
developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several types of titanium submarines.
Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems must be redesigned to cope, so test
depth was limited to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) for the Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets, the
deepest-diving combat submarine. An Alfa-class submarine may have successfully operated at 1,300
metres (4,300 ft),[62] though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on
many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become brittle after
many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment
of titanium submarine construction as the Cold War ended. Deep-diving civilian submarines have
used thick acrylic pressure hulls.
The deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October 1959, Trieste departed
San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of
very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the
Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of
Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN.[63] This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned,
had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521
metres (37,799 ft), although this was later revised to 10,916 metres (35,814 ft) and more accurate
measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at 10,911 metres
(35,797 ft).
Building a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When
the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull
compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily strained.
Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one-inch (25 mm) deviation
from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently
dive depth.[64] The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be
welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different methods, contributing
to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each Virginia-class attack submarine costs
US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)
Propulsion
The first submarines were propelled by humans. The first
mechanically driven submarine was the 1863 French Plongeur,
which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion
was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a
solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to
generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also
providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not
employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a HMCS Windsor, a Royal Canadian
hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the Navy Victoria-class diesel-electric
experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval U-791 and hunter-killer submarine
type XVII submarines;[65] the system was further developed for
the British Explorer-class, completed in 1958.[66]
Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th-century submarines used batteries for
running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery recharging.
Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel, because
of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or
gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving
the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the
batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be
disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller. The motor could
have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and
in parallel for high speed (these connections were called "group down" and "group up", respectively).
Diesel-electric
Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching
between diesel engines for surface running, and battery-driven electric motors for submerged
propulsion.
In 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering

proposed a diesel-electric transmission. Instead of driving the
propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's
diesel drove a generator that could either charge the submarine's
batteries or drive the electric motor. This made electric motor
speed independent of diesel engine speed, so the diesel could run
at an optimum and non-critical speed. One or more diesel engines
could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine
continued to run on the remaining engine or battery power. The
Recharging battery (JMSDF)
US pioneered this concept in 1929, in the S-class submarines S-3,
S-6, and S-7. The first production submarines with this system
were the Porpoise class of the 1930s, and it was used on most subsequent US diesel submarines
through the 1960s. No other navy adopted the system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-
class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel
generators for low speed running.[67]
Other advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines
at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then
possible to isolate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter.
Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.
During World War II the Germans experimented with the idea of the schnorchel (snorkel) from
captured Dutch submarines, but didn't see the need for them until rather late in the war. The
schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while submerged at periscope
depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a degree of stealth.
It was far from a perfect solution, however. There were problems with the device's valve sticking shut
or closing as it dunked in rough weather; since the system used the entire pressure hull as a buffer,
the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from the boat's compartments, and the
crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 knots (15 km/h), lest the device snap
from stress. The schnorchel also created noise that made the boat easier to detect with sonar, yet more
difficult for the on-board sonar to detect signals from other vessels. Finally, Allied radar eventually
became sufficiently advanced that the schnorchel mast could be detected beyond visual range.[68]
While the snorkel renders a submarine far less detectable, it is not perfect. In clear weather, diesel
exhaust can be seen on the surface to a distance of about three miles,[69] while "periscope feather"
(the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the water) is visible from far off in calm
sea conditions. Modern radar is also capable of detecting a snorkel in calm sea conditions.[70]
The problem of the diesels causing a vacuum in the submarine when the head valve is submerged still
exists in later model diesel submarines, but is mitigated by high-vacuum cut-off sensors that shut
down the engines when the vacuum in the ship reaches a pre-set point. Modern snorkel induction
masts use a fail-safe design using compressed air, controlled by a simple electrical circuit, to hold the
"head valve" open against the pull of a powerful spring. Seawater washing over the mast shorts out
exposed electrodes on top, breaking the control, and shutting the "head valve" while it is submerged.
US submarines did not adopt the use of snorkels until after WWII.[71]
One new technology that is being introduced starting with the Japanese Navy's eleventh Sōryū-class
submarine (JS Ōryū) is a more modern battery, the lithium-ion battery. These batteries have about
double the electric storage of traditional batteries, and by changing out the lead-acid batteries in their
normal storage areas plus filling up the large hull space normally devoted to AIP engine and fuel tanks
with many tons of lithium-ion batteries, modern submarines can actually return to a "pure" diesel-
electric configuration yet have the added underwater range and power normally associated with AIP
equipped submarines.
Air-independent
During World War II, German Type XXI submarines (also known
as "Elektroboote") were the first submarines designed to operate
submerged for extended periods. Initially they were to carry
hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent
propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries
instead. At the end of the War, the British and Soviets
experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin)
engines that could run surfaced and submerged. The results were
German Type XXI submarine
not encouraging. Though the Soviet Union deployed a class of
submarines with this engine type (codenamed Quebec by NATO),
they were considered unsuccessful.
The United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an

experimental midget submarine, X-1. It was originally powered by
a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an
explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1
was later converted to use diesel-electric drive.[72]
Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably

Sweden uses Stirling technology on the Gotland-class and American X-1 Midget Submarine
Södermanland-class submarines. The Stirling engine is heated by
burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A
newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German
Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish S-
80-class submarines.[73]
Nuclear power
Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator.
By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the time that a submarine could remain submerged
was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh water distilled from
seawater. More importantly, a nuclear submarine has unlimited range at top speed. This allows it to
travel from its operating base to the combat zone in a much shorter time and makes it a far more
difficult target for most anti-submarine weapons. Nuclear-powered submarines have a relatively
small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use if the reactors must be shut
down.
Nuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the
high cost and large size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines
still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to smaller
submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French
Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear
submarines,[74][75] which is explained by the need for distant
operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear
submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines
for defense. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the
Battery well containing 126 cells on
limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology. USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-
powered submarine
Diesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their
nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from
coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels.[76] Some
nuclear submarines such as the American Ohio class can operate with their reactor coolant pumps
secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is
almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise
around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid-water to listen, leaving only the noise
from crew activity. Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they operate in
conjunction with a mother ship.
Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps.[77][78] The
Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people
were over-exposed to radiation.[79] The Soviet submarine K-27 reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9
fatalities and 83 other injuries.[77] The Soviet submarine K-431 accident in 1985 resulted in 10
fatalities and 49 other radiation injuries.[78]
Alternative
Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during World War I and later,
to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very
successful, however.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some submarines—such as the British Vanguard class—began to
be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Though these are heavier, more expensive,
and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, providing an important tactical
advantage.
Armament
The success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented by
Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago. Only
with self-propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war.
Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple "straight-running" torpedoes were required to
attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored on board, the number of attacks was limited.
To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as submersible gunboats,
using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and engage enemy warships. The
importance of guns encouraged the development of the

unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French Surcouf and
the Royal Navy's X1 and M-class submarines. With the arrival of
Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft, guns became more for
defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing
combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in
port.
The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly

led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World The forward torpedo tubes in HMS
Ocelot
War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose.
Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 5
Stonefish and Mark 6 Sea Urchin, can be deployed from a submarine's torpedo tubes.
After World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine-launched cruise
missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to
surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine-launched cruise missiles,
which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-109
Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface-to-surface anti-ship missiles such as
the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from
a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal
volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the external launch
tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal
pressure and outer streamlined hulls.
The strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 was taken up by submarine-launched ballistic
missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident
missiles.
Germany is working on the torpedo tube-launched short-range IDAS missile, which can be used
against ASW helicopters, as well as surface ships and coastal targets.
Sensors
A submarine can have a variety of sensors, depending on its missions. Modern military submarines
rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to locate targets. Active sonar relies on an
audible "ping" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine. Active systems are rarely
used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set into
the hull or trailed in a towed array, normally trailing several hundred feet behind the sub. The towed
array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by
operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed in addition to the towed array, as the towed array can't
work in shallow depth and during maneuvering. In addition, sonar has a blind spot "through" the
submarine, so a system on both the front and back works to eliminate that problem. As the towed
array trails behind and below the submarine, it also allows the submarine to have a system both above
and below the thermocline at the proper depth; sound passing through the thermocline is distorted
resulting in a lower detection range.
Submarines also carry radar equipment to detect surface ships and aircraft. Submarine captains are
more likely to use radar detection gear than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far
beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used, except for position
fixes and to verify a contact's identity.
Civilian submarines, such as the DSV Alvin or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active
sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. The human eye cannot detect sunlight below about 300 feet
(91 m) underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.
Navigation
Early submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have
a variety of navigation systems. Modern military submarines use
an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but
drift error unavoidably builds over time. To counter this, the crew
occasionally uses the Global Positioning System to obtain an
accurate position. The periscope—a retractable tube with a prism
system that provides a view of the surface—is only used
occasionally in modern submarines, since the visibility range is
short. The Virginia-class and Astute-class submarines use The larger search periscope, and
photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. the smaller, less detectable attack
These masts must still be deployed above the surface, and use periscope on HMS Ocelot
electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding,
and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the
mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water
and is much harder to detect visually or by radar.
Communication
Military submarines use several systems to communicate with distant command centers or other
ships. One is VLF (very low frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or
submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 feet (76 m). ELF (extremely low frequency)
can reach a submarine at greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and is generally used to call a
submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of
floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions by a deeply
submerged boat.
By extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a "burst transmission" technique. A burst
transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.
To communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a
sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers
into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving submarine. The range of this
system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard by the
enemy.
Civilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships
or other submersibles in the area.
Life support systems

With nuclear power or air-independent propulsion, submarines can remain submerged for months at
a time. Conventional diesel submarines must periodically resurface or run on snorkel to recharge
their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water
(using a device called an "Electrolytic Oxygen Generator"). Atmosphere control equipment includes a
CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste
pumped overboard. A machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide
(removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with
oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples
the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is
replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have
two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few percent
less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire risk.
Fresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh
water is to provide feedwater for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for
showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater is used to
flush toilets, and the resulting "black water" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard
using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The blackwater-
discharge system is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat U-1206 was lost with
casualties because of human error while using this system.[80] Water from showers and sinks is stored
separately in "grey water" tanks and discharged overboard using drain pumps.
Trash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit
(TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball
valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The top breech
door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and the
cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to
ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before closing the valve.
Crew
A typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80; conventional boats typically have fewer than 40.
The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation for long
periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid
detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been
lost in accidents.
Women
Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even

after they had been permitted to serve on surface warships. The
Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow women on
its submarine crews in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed
female submariners in 1988.[81] Others followed suit including
the Swedish Navy (1989),[82] the Royal Australian Navy (1998),
the Spanish Navy (1999),[83][84] the German Navy (2001) and the
Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal
Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to assume
command on a military submarine, HNoMS Kobben.[85] The interior of a British E-class
submarine. An officer supervises
On 8 December 2011, British Defence Secretary Philip Hammond submerging operations, c. 1914–
announced that the UK's ban on women in submarines was to be 1918.
lifted from 2013.[86] Previously there were fears that women were
more at risk from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the submarine.
But a study showed no medical reason to exclude women, though
pregnant women would still be excluded.[86] Similar dangers to
the pregnant woman and her fetus barred women from
submarine service in Sweden in 1983, when all other positions
were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Today,
pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in
Sweden. However, the policymakers thought that it was
discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that women Midshipmen learn to pilot USS West
Virginia.
should be tried on their individual merits and have their
suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further,
they noted that a woman complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant.[82] In
May 2014, three women became the RN's first female submariners.[87]
Women have served on US Navy surface ships since 1993, and as of 2011–2012, began serving on
submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy allowed only three exceptions to women being
on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most, women midshipmen
on an overnight during summer training for Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family members for
one-day dependent cruises.[88] In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretary of the Navy Ray
Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary
Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement women on submarines.[89] The US Navy
rescinded its "no women on subs" policy in 2010.[90]
Both the US and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines that deploy for periods of six
months or longer. Other navies that permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally
powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods—usually only for a few months.[91] Prior
to the change by the US, no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve on board.[92]
In 2011, the first class of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's
Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London.[93] Additionally,
more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the surface warfare specialty
attended SOBC as well, proceeding to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN)
submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011.[94] By late 2011,
several women were assigned to the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarine USS Wyoming.[95] On 15
October 2013, the US Navy announced that two of the smaller Virginia-class attack submarines,
USS Virginia and USS Minnesota, would have female crew-members by January 2015.[90]
Abandoning the vessel

In an emergency, submarines can transmit a signal to other ships.
The crew can use Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment to
abandon the submarine.[96] The crew can prevent a lung injury
from the pressure change known as pulmonary barotrauma by
exhaling during the ascent.[97] Following escape from a
pressurized submarine, the crew is at risk of developing
decompression sickness.[98] An alternative escape means is via a
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle that can dock onto the
disabled submarine.[99]
See also
Autonomous underwater vehicle
Coastal submarine
Depth charge
Fictional submarines A Submarine Escape Suit
Flying submarine
List of ships sunk by submarines by death toll
List of submarine actions
List of submarine classes
List of submarine museums
List of submarines of the Second World War
List of specifications of submarines of World War II
List of sunken nuclear submarines
Merchant submarine
Nuclear navy
Ohio Replacement Submarine
Semi-submersible naval vessel
Submarine films
Submarine power cable
Submarine simulator, a computer game genre
Supercavitation
By country
List of submarine operators
Australia – Collins-class submarine
Britain – List of submarines of the Royal Navy, List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
China – Submarines of the People's Liberation Army Navy
France – Submarines in the French Navy, List of submarines of the French Navy, List of French
submarine classes and types
Germany – List of U-boats of Germany
India – Submarines of the Indian Navy
Israel – Dolphin-class submarine
Japan – Imperial Japanese Navy submarines, List of combatant ship classes of the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force § SS : Submarine
The Netherlands – List of submarines of the Netherlands
Pakistan – List of active Pakistan Navy ships § Submarines
Romania – Romanian submarines of World War II
Russia – List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes, Future Russian submarines
Soviet Union – List of ships of the Soviet Navy § Submarines
Spain – List of submarines in the Spanish Navy
Turkey – List of submarines of the Turkish Navy
United States – Submarines in the US Navy, List of submarines of the US Navy, List of US
submarine classes, Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
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90. "Navy Names First Two Attack Boats to Have Female Crew" (http://news.usni.org/2013/10/15/nav
y-names-first-two-attack-boats-female-crew). USNI News. 15 October 2013. Retrieved 9 January
2014.
91. "Commander of the Submarine Fleet" (http://www.csp.navy.mil/).
92. Scott Tyson, Ann (26 September 2009). "Navy Seeks to Allow Women to Serve on Submarines"
(https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/25/AR2009092503385.html?hpi
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93. Enter your Company or Top-Level Office (19 July 2011). "OMA: Female Sub School Grads Say
They Fit Right In" (http://www.ct.gov/oma/cwp/view.asp?a=3422&q=483312). Ct.gov. Retrieved
27 December 2011.
94. Commander, Submarine Group 10 Public Affairs. "Navy Welcomes Women To Serve In
Submarines" (http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=52990). Navy.mil. Retrieved
27 December 2011.
95. "Report: 12 Sailors Implicated in Submarine Shower Scandal" (http://www.military.com/daily-news/
2014/12/12/report-12-sailors-implicated-in-submarine-shower-scandal.html?comp=700002343563
0&rank=4). Military.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
96. Frank, SJ; Curley, MD; Ryder, SJ (1997). "A Biomedical Review Of The US Navy Submarine
Escape System: 1996" (http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/8530). Naval Submarine Medical
Research Laboratory Technical Report. NSMRL-1205. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
97. Benton PJ, Francis TJ, Pethybridge RJ (1999). "Spirometric indices and the risk of pulmonary
barotrauma in submarine escape training" (http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2309). Undersea
and Hyperbaric Medicine Journal. 26 (4): 213–7. PMID 10642066 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
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99. Eckenhoff, RG (1984). "Pressurized Submarine Rescue" (http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/84
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Bibliography
General history
Histoire des sous-marins: des origines à nos jours by Jean-Marie Mathey and Alexandre Sheldon-
Duplaix. (Boulogne-Billancourt: ETAI, 2002).
DiMercurio, Michael; Benson, Michael (2003). The complete idiot's guide to submarines. Alpha.
ISBN 978-0-02-864471-4. OCLC 51747264 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51747264).
Culture
Redford, Duncan. The Submarine: A Cultural History From the Great War to Nuclear Combat (I.B.
Tauris, 2010) 322 pages; focus on British naval and civilian understandings of submarine warfare,
including novels and film.
Submarines before 1914
Gardiner, Robert (1992). Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The steam warship 1815–1905. Annapolis,
Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-774-7. OCLC 30038068 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/30038068).
1900/Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung; Peter Mickel (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese
Navy 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-893-4.
Olender, Piotr (2010). Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904–1905 Vol. 2 Battle of Tsushima.
Sandomierz 1, Poland: Stratus s.c. ISBN 978-83-61421-02-3.
Showell, Jak (2006). The U-Boat Century:German Submarine Warfare 1906–2006. Great Britain:
Chatham Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86176-241-2.
Simmons, Jacques (1971). A Grosset All-Color Guide WARSHIPS. USA: Grosset & Dunlap, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-448-04165-0.
Watts, Anthony J. (1990). The Imperial Russian Navy. London: Arms and Armour Press.
ISBN 978-0-85368-912-6.
World War II
Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan (https://archive.org/detai
ls/silentvictoryus00blai). Philadelphia: Lippincott. ISBN 978-0-397-00753-0. OCLC 821363 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/821363).
Lockwood, Charles A. (1951). Sink 'Em All: Submarine Warfare in the Pacific (http://catalog.hathitr
ust.org/Record/000493723). New York: Dutton. OCLC 1371626 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13
71626).
O'Kane, Richard H. (1977). Clear the Bridge!: The War Patrols of the USS Tang (https://archive.or
g/details/clearbridgewarpa0000okan). Chicago: Rand McNally. ISBN 978-0-528-81058-9.
OCLC 2965421 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2965421).
O'Kane, Richard H. (1987). Wahoo: The Patrols of America's Most Famous World War II
Submarine (https://archive.org/details/wahoopatrolsofam00okan). Novato, California: Presidio
Press. ISBN 978-0-89141-301-1. OCLC 15366413 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15366413).
Werner, Herbert A. (1999). Iron coffins: a personal account of the German U-Boat battles of World
War II. London: Cassell Military. ISBN 978-0-304-35330-9. OCLC 41466905 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/41466905).
Beach, Edward L. (1952). Submarine!. H. Holt. OCLC 396382 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3963
82).
Cold War
Hide and seek: the untold story of Cold War espionage at sea, by Peter Huchthausen and
Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons, 2008, ISBN 978-0-471-78530-9)
McHale, Gannon (2008). Stealth boat: fighting the Cold War in a fast attack submarine. Naval
Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-502-8. OCLC 216938657 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21693
8657).
External links
U.S. Patent 708,553 (https://www.google.com/patents/US708553) – Submarine boat
Role of the Modern Submarine (https://web.archive.org/web/20060218000124/http://www.submari
nehistory.com/21stCentury.html)
Submariners Association – UK Submariners site and Boat Database (http://www.submariners.co.u
k/index.php)
Video from 1955 giving a detailed description of boat systems (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=ouxBOsDZQ6Y) on YouTube
The Invention of the Submarine (http://www.vectorsite.net/twsub1.html)
U.S. submarine photo archive (http://www.navsource.org/archives/subidx.htm)
U.S. World War II Submarine Veterans History Project (http://www.oralhistoryproject.com/)
German Submarines of WWII, uboat.net (http://www.uboat.net/)
Record breaking Japanese Submarines (http://www.combinedfleet.com/ss.htm)
List of Naval Submarines on naval-technology.com (http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/cat
egory/submarines/)
The Fleet Type Submarine Online (https://web.archive.org/web/20071013034107/http://maritime.o
rg/fleetsub/index.htm) US Navy submarine training manuals, 1944–1946
The Home Front: Manitowoc County in World War II (http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.Hom
eFront): Video footage of submarine launches into Lake Michigan during World War II
American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional Safety. Submarine Accidents: A
60-Year Statistical Assessment. C. Tingle. September 2009. pp. 31–39. Ordering full article (http
s://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/indexes/2009.php); or Reproduction without graphics/tables
(https://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/12939133-1.ht
ml)
Historic film footage showing submarines in WWI at europeanfilmgateway.eu (http://www.europea
nfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914%20submarine/multilingual:1/showOnly:video/paging:dmlkZW8t
MS0xNi1pbWFnZS0xLTE2LXNvdW5kLTEtMTYtcGVyc29uLTEtMTYtdGV4dC0xLTE2)
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3/5/2020 Submarine - Wikipedia

Although experimental submarines had been built

Two Greeks submerged and surfaced in the river

In 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's H.

The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the

The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine

of the diesel-engined U-19 class, which had a sufficient range of

allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly

The Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of

Cold-War military models

Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines

The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles

Model of the Mésoscaphe Interior of the tourist

Tourist submarine Atlantis

1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under ice.[50]

Submersion and trimming

For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward

Single and double hulls

provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main

In 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering

The United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an

Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably

importance of guns encouraged the development of the

The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly

Life support systems

Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even

Abandoning the vessel

19. Pike, John. "Submarine History – The New Navy" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/s

42. Rossiter, Mike (2009). Sink the Belgrano (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004977305). London:

62. "Federation of American Scientists" (https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/deep.htm). Fas.org.

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