CHAPTER 1 Unit and Dimension Cree Physics, technology and society, SI units, Fundamental and derived units. Least count, Accuracy and precision of measuring instruments, Errors in measurement, Significant figures. Dimensions of Physical Quantities, Dimensional analysis and its applications. Basic Mathematics. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ‘The quantities which can be measured by an instrument and by means of which we can describe the laws of physics are called physical quantities. Till class X we have studied ‘many physical quantities. For example, length, velocity, acceleration, force, time, pressure, mass, density etc. Physical quantities are of three types Fundamental or Derived ‘Supplementary Basic Quantities Quantities ‘Quantities Fundamental (Basic) Quantities ‘These are the elementary quantities which covers the entire span of physics. ‘Any other quantities can be derived from these. All the basic quantities are chosen such that they should be different, that means independent of each other. (i.e., distance, time and velocity cannot be chosen as basic quantities as v= d ). An International Organization named t CGPM: General Conference on weight and measures chose seven physical quantities as basic or fundamental. Langth Time Mate Temperature Electrical Luminous Amount of ©) current Intensity Substance (Ca) (mal) ‘These are the elementary quantities (in our planet) that’s ity chosen as basic quantities In fact any set of independent quantities can be ‘chosen as basic quantities by which all other physical quan- tities can be derived. ie, 4 9 8 8 A (Ca) (mo ‘Area Velocity Density Sp.Heat Resistance Luminous mole Capacity Can be chosen as basic quantities (on some other planet, these might also be used as basic quantities) 0 “ “ Length Area_—_Velocity cannot be used as basic quantities as ‘Area = (Length)? so they are not independent. But1.2. Chapter? Derived Quantities Physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of basic quantities (M, L, T...) ate called derived quantities. ie, Momentum P=my displacement time =(m) Mort Here [' L' T~!) is called dimensional formula of ‘momentum, and we can say that momentum has 1 Dimension in M (mass) 1 Dimension in Z (meter) and =1 Dimension in (time) “The representation of any quantity in terms of basic quan- tities (ML, 7...) is called dimensional formula and in the representation, the powers ofthe basic quantities are called dimensions. Supplementary Quantities Besides seven fundamental quantities two supplementary ‘quantities are also defined. They are + Plane angle (The angle between two lines) + Solid angle aa + Height, width, radius, displacement etc. are a kind of length. So we can say that their dimension is [2] (Height) ‘With (Radius) [Displacement] DIMENSIONS tw here [Height] can be read as “Dimension of Height” + Area [Area] = [Length] x [Width] =()x(] ‘Area [Area] = [2] [7] =O] =} Here zis not a kind of length or mass or time so 7 shouldn’t affect the dimension of Area. Hence its dimension should be 1 (M°L°7°) and we can say that itis dimensionless. From similar logic we can say that all the numbers are dimensionless. (200) a wer > dimensionless Bl * [Volume] = [Length] x [Height] xLxL =] For sphere Volume [Volume] = [S| rl =O) W1=) So dimension of volume will be always [L*] whether it is volume of a cuboid or volume of sphere. Dimension of a physical quantity will be same, it doesn’t depend on which formula we are using for that quantity. *+ Density = as volume mass] M _ yas Densit Mote (Densioh-Fvotume) ~ E i displacement + Velocity (v) time [displacement] _ 1. wir} [vime] 0 dv + Acceleration (a) = © ceeleration (a) = [aj = 22> kindof velocity Lr dt kindof time T + Momentum (P) = mV iT? (F1= [fa] [M] (LT) ML'T?} + Work or Energy = force x displacement [Work] = [force] [displacement] =(M'L'T?) [L] wer]T Dimensions of Angular Quantities + Angle (6) ie (Angular displacement) @= A radius t= ASL © — (421% (Dimensionless) {radius} Z + Anglaracseration (a) = 22 MET yep T [force] x {arm length] = (MLIT?] x [2] = [M77] Dimensions of Physical Constants Gravitational Constant ©; Ze@ If two bodies of mass m, and m, are placed at r distance, both feel gravitational attraction force, whose value is, nym Gravitational force F, = where G isa constant called Gravitational constant [Glo tm} iF, , . wy (tet =e) Fy [G=m'e Tr? Specific Heat Capacity To increase the temperature of a body by AT, Heat required isQ=ms aT Unitand Dimension 1.3 Here, s is called specific heat capacity. (O1= mi 1 47) Here Q is heat: A kind of energy so [0] = M27? WET?) = (4 111K) (S}= (277K) Coefficient of Viscosity If any spherical ball of radius r moves with velocity v in a viscous Liquid, then viscous force acting on itis given by xnrv Here 1 is coefficient of viscosity (F1= (621 [0 1b MLT?=() (WUT) t=Mur* Planck's Constant, Iflight of frequency vis falling, energy of a photon is given by E-hv Here h= Planck's constant [E1= (4 (0) 1 = frequency = 1 __ » mal Time Period : aoa [7] [Time Period] ~ LT so Some Special Features of Dimensions Suppose in any formula, (L + @) term is coming (where L is length). As length can be added only with a length, so a should also be a kind of length. So [a=] Similarly, consider a term (F'— 8) where F is force. A force can be added or subtracted with a force only and give rise to atthird force. So B should be a kind of force and its result (FB) should also be a kind of force.1.4 Chapter 1 Pesca a onmereel and ite dimension force = {6]=M'L'T? will leo be M'L'T? Rule No. 1: One quantity can be added / subtracted with a similar quantity only and give rise to the similar quantity. SOLVED EXAMPLES B neeé r x Find dimension formula for [a] and [8] (here ¢= time, F = force, v= velocity, x= distance) 1 Solution: Since [ry=M'er?, z v0 [4] suouts ao boast?r > x Bl yp pp i] (Bl=M'i'r? » 8 and |p + | will also have dimension M'L?7-° so el [7] [q=M'ert Mier? 2. Forn moles of gas, Van der Waal’s equation is (>) Find the dimensions of a and b, where Ps gas pressure, v= volume of gas 7= temperature of gas = nRT Solution: (V~b)=nRT t should bea should be a kind of pressure kind of volume So por MILT? vw) So w=2 fal yp? Blew tir wr = [aaa 2, Rule No.2: Consider a term sin (@) Pepe) 7 Here 0 is dimensionless and sind Hypoteneous also dimensionless. Whatever comes in sin (....) is dimensionless and entire [sin (...)] is also dimensionless. p Dimensionless => Dimensionless Similarly: Dimensionless: D => Dimensionless Dimensionless: p => Dimensionless p Dimensionless => Dimensionless Dimensionless p = Dimendionless Dimensionless. = Dimendionless Fr 3. a= sin ping (here v= velocity, F= force, Find the dimension of arand time) Solution: “5 oem) [F] Dimensionless =p) =1 (el=1T-) Dimensionless So [ay> tg (28) whew F=f = vest 4 a= Find the dimensions of orand B. Solution: Dimensionless, . tay= #1 a 5 QrltB) v7) OB) ° cr? > (al=27-? = [a] (tur yr?) wry = (a}=M'L'7° Uses of Dimensions (1) To Check the Correctness of the Formula Ifthe dimensions of the L-H.S and R.H.S are same, then we ccan say that this equation is at least dimensionally correct. So this equation may be correct. But if dimensions of L.H.S and R.H.S is not same then the equation is not even dimensionally correct. So it cannot be correct. ei A formula is given centrifugal force (where m= mass, v= velocity, r= radius) we have to check whether it is correct or not. Dimension of L.H.S is 1=(¢L'7?] Dimension of RLS is (m7) ETP _ yap io] w So this equation is at least dimensional correct. => We can say that this equation may be correct. SOLVED EXAMPLES 5. Check whether this equation may be correct or not, Pressure Unitand Dimension 1.5 Peas me aT ae distance) Solution: Dimension of L.H.S = [P,] = M'L'T? 3] (7) (1 (71 BI MET UETAY _ sayy (rit) wension of L.H.S and R.H.S are not same. So the relation cannot be correct. Sometimes a question is asked which is beyond our syllabus, then certainly it must be the question of dimensional analyses. 6. A Boomerang has mass m surface Area 4, radius of curvature of lower surface = r and it is moving with velocity v in air of density p. The resistive force on it should be 4 (a 224 woe 2) ® ar Z 2 ) (wy 204 woe(2") am 2 (© 2204 a r xm Solution: Only C is dimensionally correct. (2) We can Derive a New Formula Roughly If a quantity depends on many parameters, we can esti- mate, to what extent, the quantity depends on the given parameters! EON.) 7. Derive the formula of time period of simple pendulum if Time period of a simple pendulum ‘taponron [oy 1 4 Mass Langthot—_ravttna pendun —thesting — seauraton (mn) co @1.6 Chapter Solution: So we can say that expression of 7 should be in this form T= (Some Number) (m)* (%(g)° Mir = (1) MY LY Te (3) We can Express any Quantity in Terms of the given Basic Quantities EN uae 9. If velocity (v), force (F) and time (7) are chosen ser =e 7 Comparing the powers of M, L and T, so T= (Some Number) M°L'? g° T= (Some Number) & ‘The quantity “Some number” can be found experimen tally, Measure the length of a pendulum and oscillate it, find its time period by stopwatch. Suppose for ¢= 1m, we get T=2 sec. so = 8. Derive the formula of natural frequency in a closed pipe if it Depends on Length of the Density of Pressure of tube () air air(P) Solution: So we can say that f= (Some Number) (£)” (p) (P)° Equating dimensions of both the sides get So as fundamental quantities, express (i) mass and i) energy in terms of v, F and T Solution: Let ‘M= (Some Number) (v)" (FY (T° Equating dimensions of both the sides Mr? = (yer yer ry MIST = Mb 18? e-toc get a=-1,b=1,c=1 M = (Some Number) (v"! FT") = Wy=pt Fry Similarly we can also express energy in terms of v, FT Let [E] = [Some Number] [v]* [F}’ (TF = [MLT?}=(Meers] (Ly [MLT>Y [TY = LIT =e eres) = 1=bj1=a-2b+6;-2=-a-2b+e get aalsb=lse E= (Some Number) v'F'T" or =F IT} (4) To Find Out Unit of a Physical Quantity EN uae [Force] = ['L'T*] Solution: As unit of M is kilogram (kg), unit of L is meter (m) and unit of T is second (s) so unit force can be written as = (kg)' (m)! (sy * = kg m/s in MKS system. In CGS system, unit of force can be written as =(g)' (em)! (8) "= g emis.Limitations of Dimensional Analysis T= (Some Number) & g From Dimensional analysis we get so the expression of T'can be / or -an ft g “fE +) g 1, Dimensional analysis doesn’t give information about the “Some Number” The dimensional constant. 2. This method is useful only when a physical quantity depends on other quantities by multiplication and power relations. (ie, fax Pz) 3. It fails if a physical quantity depends on sum or differ- ence of two quantities (ie. =xty-2) i.e, we cannot get the relation Smut 5a? from dimensional analysis. 4. This method will not work if a quantity depends on another quantity as sine or cosine, logarithmic or expo- nential relation. The method works only if the depen- dence is by power functions. ‘We equate the powers of M, Land Thence we get only three equations. So we can have only three variables (only three dependent quantities) SI Units of Basic Quantities Unitand Dimension 1.7 So dimensional analysis will work only if the quantity depends only on three parameters, not move than that, EN. awia ed 11, Can Pressure (P), density (p) and velocity (v) be taken as fundamental quantities? Solution: , p and v are not independent, they can be related as pv’, so they cannot be taken as fundamental variables, To check whether the P, p, and v are dependent oF not, we can also use the following mathematical method =u (l=? 7) bi=itT}) Check the determinate of their powers: 1-1-2 13) 0/=1@)-CNe)-20) o 1-1 So these three terms are dependent. UNITS Unit Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an internationally accepted certain basic standard called unit. Sl units In 1971, an international Organization “CGPM"” (General Conference on weight and Measure) decided the standard units, which are internationally accepted. These units are called SI units (International system of units) ‘S1Units Base Quantity Name ‘Symbol Definition Length meter m The meters the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during atime interval of 1/289, 792, 458 of a second (1983) Mass. kllogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889) (Continued)1.8 Chapter ‘S1Units Base Quantity Name ‘Symbol Definition Time ‘second 3 “The second is the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom (1967) Electric Current ampere ‘A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10°” Newton per metre of length (1948) ‘Thermodynamic kelvin K The kelvin isthe fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature Temperature of the triple point of water. (1967) ‘Amount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains Substance ‘as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of ccarbon-12. (1971) Luminous Intensity candela Cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 10" hertz ‘and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/1683 watt per steradian (1979). Two Supplementary Units were also Defined Other Classification Ifa quality involves only length, then mass and time (quan- tities in mechanics), and its unit can be written in MKS, CGS or FPS system. + Force= ma Unit will be = (kg) x (mn/s*) =kg m/s called newton (N) N mealled joule (J) Unit = JVs called watt (w) Units of Some Physical Constants + Unit of “Universal Gravitational Constant” (G) MKS system CGS system FPS systern pe Semin) LIN IN IN “ meter fg 88M gram S82 F00t pot BOC kexm _ G(kg\(ke) + For MKS system: In this system Length, mass and ° im time are expressed in meter, kg and sec. respectively. m It comes under SI system, + For CGS system: In this system, length, mass and time are expressed in em, gram and sec. respectively. sounitof G= kgs? + Unit of specific heat capacity (S) ‘+ For FPS system: In this system, length, mass and time Q=ms AT are measured in foot, pound and sec. respectively. ‘SI Units of Derived Quantities + Velocity =P ime __ displacement —> meter ~~ second So unit of velocity will be m/s * Acceleration = ‘+ Momentum = my 80 unit of momentum will be = (kg) (m/s) = kg m/s Unit of Ho z change in velocity _ mis time se kg) (5) (K) Units of S= kg K + Unit of 4p Force per unit length between two long parallel wires Ho (AA) @ Wy Nem‘SI Prefix Suppose distance between kota to Jaipur is 3000 m. so 3000, 3x Kio) km (here k is the prefix used for 1000 (10°) Suppose thickness of a wire is 0.05 m 2080-5 contie) = 5 cm (here c is the prefix used for (10)) Similarly, the magnitude of physical quantities is over a ‘wide range. So in order to express the very large magnitude as well as very small magnitude more compactly, “CGPM” recommended some standard prefixes for certain power of 10 Power Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol of 10 of 10 10" exa E10" deci d 10% peta P 107 conti e 10% — tera T 10% mi m 10° giga @ 10% microm 10° mega M10 nano 10° kilo k 10" pico Pp 10° hector = h_S 10" femmto 10' deca da. 10" ato a SOLVED EXAMPLES 12, Convert all in meters (m): (A) 5m (B) 3 km. © 20mm (D) 73 pm (B) 7.51nm Solution: (0) 73 pm=73 x10" m (B) 7.5 nm =7.5 x 10° m 13. F=5.N convert it into CGS system Solution: Unitand Dimension 1.9 10° g)(100 em = (5) 10°00 em) =5x 10S (in CGS system) 11 kgm? 14. G= 6.67% 10-"" “82 convert it into CGS system. $ Solution: G= 667x101 KEM $ = (6.467 x 107") (1000 g) 200.) ¢ gem’ 2 = 6.67 107 15, = 2 gicm® convert it into MKS system Solution: p=2giem* 10° ky 10%)" =Q kg =2x 10 5. 16, v=90 km/hour convert it into m/s Solution: v=90 kmvhour (1000 m) (60x60s) ve 00) = 3600) “s = (90) y= 90x52 18s v=25 mis. G@)roins To REMEMBER kn om To convert A into 5 matty b hour Sek1.10 Chapter 1 17. Convert 7 pm into ym Solution: Let 7p (um 7 (10?) m= (x) x 10% m SI Derived Units, Named After the Scientist get So x=7x 10% Tpm=(7x 10) um ‘Some SI units of derived quantities are named after the scientist, who has contributed in that field a lot. ‘s1Unite Unit name Symbol of the Expression in terms of Expression in terms of SN. __ Physical Quantity unit other units base units 1. Frequency Herz He Oseilation (-3) si 7 2 Force Newton N - ka mis? =a) 3. Energy, Work, Heat Joule J Nm ka miss? 4 Pascal Pa Nit ko/ms? 5 Watt w ws kg miss? 6 Coulorn c ; As 7. Electtie Potential Vort v we kg miss? A env 8 q gt mr? Capactance (c Farad F ow Ast kg 9. Electrical Resistance Obm a vA kgm? ot w=iR) 10. Electrical Siemens sa av kg meat Conductance (emho) 1h c (e-9-v) 11. Magnetic fila Testa T Weim? ko stat 42. Magnetic fx Weber Wo Vs ora kgm? sa" 48. Inductance Henry H wera kgm? sta? 14. Activity of radioactive ——-Beequerel Bq Disintegration st ‘material ‘second‘Some SI Units Expressed in Terms of the Special Names and also in Terms of Base Units Stun interns of Interne of Physical Quantiy bese unite Torque (r= Fr) kg m/s* Dynamic Viscosity Poiseiulles (Pf) kg/m s. a ora (2-09) Impulse W=F 8 Ne kame Modulus of elasticity. Nim? kg/m s* stress (rm) ‘Surface Tension N/m or d/m® kg/s® Constant (-4) 7 ‘Specific Heat capacity Jikg K ms? Kt Geman (asin old unt» 22 9. °C. ‘Thermal conductivity. Wim K mkgs*K" (F-#3) ae Electric field Intensity Vim or NIC mkgs? a7 eat ¢ Gas constant (R) J/K mol mm? kgs? (PV = nF or moar on Heat Capacity (=r) Mat Change of Numerical Value with the Change of Unit Suppose we have stent t=T0m Tato eters, we ‘we can say that if the unit is increased to 100 times (em— m), the numerical value became L 7 —times (7 100 ( im) So we can say 1 ‘Numerical value = — unit wwe can also tell if in a formal way like the following, Unit and Dimension 1.11 Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Its Numerical value) (unit) =) Magnitude of a physical quantity always remains constant and it won't change if we express it in some other unit. So () (W)= Constant neh guy = ale 1 or ‘Numerical value e —— unit SOLVED EXAMPLES 18, Ifunit of length is doubled, the numerical value of area will be Solution: AS unit of length is doubled, unit of area will become four times, So the numerical value of area will become 1 one fourth, Because numerical value = ——. wnt 19. Force acting on a particle is SN. If unit of length and time is doubled and unit of mass is halved than the numerical value of the force in the new unit will be. Solution: Fore If unit of length and time are doubled and the unit of mass is halved. ‘Then the unit of force will be Hence the numerical value of the force will be 4 times. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Suppose you want to measure the length of a sheet of paper with an ordinary scale. Place the zero mark of the scale exactly at one end of the sheet and read the mark at other end. You may obtain a doubiful digit. It means that exact reading is not possible. It can be understood from the Fig. 1.1 shown below.1.12. Chapter 1 em Paper eige TTTYITTT] 28 Fig at ‘The end of the sheet lies between 27.9 and 28.0 cm, Then ‘you can estimate the distance between 27.9 cm and end of the sheet in this way. You mentally divide the 1 small divi- sion into 10 equal parts and guess on which part the edge is falling, You may note down the reading as 27.96 cm. In this, reading the digits 2, 7 and 9 are certain but 6 is doubtful. All these digits including doubtful digit are called significant digits, The rightmost or doubtful digit is called the least sig- nificant digit and the leftmost digit is called the most: icant digit. We can define in this way the reliable di the 1* uncertain digit which are called significant digits or significant figure, So we can say, significant figures indicate the precision of measurement and it depends on the least ‘count of the measuring instrument. The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures are as follows 1, All the non-zero digits are significant. Example: 156, 78 contains five significant figures. 2, All the zeros between two non-zero digits are sign feant no matter where the decimal point is Example: 108.006 contain six significant figures Ifthe number is less than 1, the zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left of 1* non-zero digit are not significant. Example: In 0,002308 the under lined zeros are not significant. 4, All the zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit (crating zeros) in a number without a decimal point are not significant, unless they come from experiment. Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures. The trailing eros are not significant. But if these are obtained from a measurement, they are significant. The trailing zeros in a number witha decimal point are significant. ‘The number 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures. Now note that choice of change of different units does not change the number of significant digits or figures in ‘measurement, 1. the length 2.308 em has four significant figures, but in different units, the same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 mm. All these number have the same number of significant figures. It shows that loca- tion of decimal point does not matter in determining, the number of significant figures. When there are zeros at the right end of the number, then there may be some confusion. 2. If length is 500 mm and we don't know least count of the measuring instrument, then we can’t be sure that last digits (zeros) are significant or not. Scientific Notation Ifthe scale had marking only at each meter, then the digit 5 can be obtained by eye approximation, So only 5 is signfi- cant figure, but if the markings are at each centimetre, then only 5,0 ofthe reading will be significant. Ifthe scale used have marking in millimetres, all three digits 5,00 are signif- icant. To remove such ambiguities in determining the num- ber of significant figures, the best way is to report every measurement in scientific notation, every number should ‘express as a x 10° where a is between 1 and 10 and b is any #ve oF -ve power of 10, and decimal is placed after the first digit ‘Now the confusion mention above can be removed. 4,700 m= 4.700 x 10° em = 4.700 x 10° mm. Here power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of sig- nificant figures. Significant Figure in Algebraic Operation ‘To know the number of significant figures after an algebraic ‘operation (Addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi- sion) certain rules can be followed which are as follows. 1, In multiplication or division, the number of significant, digits in the final result should be equal to the number of significant digits in the quantity, which has the min- imum number of significant digits, Example: If mass of an object measured is 4.237 gm (four significant figures) and its volume is measured to be 2.51 (three significant figure) cm’, then its density mass _ 4.237 Fl 4237 6486 gmiem’. Butit should be volume 2.57 ba up to three significant digits, Density = 1.65 gm/cm’ 2, In addition or subtraction the final result should retain, as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal place.Unit and Dimension 1.13 EN uaa ed 20. Suppose we have to find out the sum of the numbers 436.32 gm, 227.2 g and 0.301 gm by arithmetic addition, Solution: 436.32 272 0.301 663.821 But the least precise measurement (227.2) gm is cor rect to only one decimal place. So final should be rounded off to one decimal place. So sum will be 663.8 gm In subtraction also we follow the similar rule. Rounding Off the Uncertain Digit (Least Significant Digit) ‘The least significant digit is rounded according to the rules given below. 1, Ifthe digit next to the least significant (Uncertain) digit is more than 5, the digit to be rounded is increased byl 2. If the digit next to the rounded one is less than 5, the digit to be rounded is left unchanged. 3. If the digit next to the rounded one is 5, then the digit to be rounded is increased by 1 if it is odd and left unchanged if it is even. The insignificant digits are dropped from the result if they appear after the decimal point. Zero replaces them if they appear to the left of the decimal point EON ua ey 21, Suppose we have to round off three significant digits to 15462 Solution: In 15462, third significant digit is 4. This digit is to be rounded. The digit next to itis 6, which is greater than 5. The third digit should therefore be increased by 1. The digits to be dropped should be replaced by zeros, because they appear to the left of decimal point thus 15462 becomes 15500 on rounding to three significant figures. 22, Round of the following numbers to three significant digits (A) 14.745 Solution: (A) The third significant digit in 14.745 is 7. The num- ber next to it is less than 5. So 14.745 becomes 14.7 on rounding to three significant digits. (B) 14.750 will become 14.8 because the digit to be rounded is odd and the digit next to itis 5. (©) 14.650 x 10"? will become 14.6x 10"* because the digit to be rounded is even and the digit next to it is 5 (B) 14.750 (©) 14.650x 10? ERROR ANALYSIS IN MEASUREMENTS, Measurement is an important aspect of physics. Whenever we want to know about a physical quantity, we take its measurement first ofall, Instruments used in measurement are called measur- ing instruments. Error The measured value of the physical quantity is usually dif- ferent from its true value. The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument is an approximate number, which contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated quantity, which is based on meas- ured values, also has an error. Various Cause of Errors in Measurement Least Count Error The least count error is the error associated with the resolu- tion of the instrument. Least count may not be sufficiently small, The maximum possible error is equal to the least count. Instrumental Error This is due to faulty calibration or change in conditions (e.g, thermal expansion of a measuring scale). An instrument may also have zero error. A correction has to be applied. Random Error This is also called chance error, It makes to give different results for same measurements taken repeatedly. Accidental Error This error gives too high or too low results. Measurements involving this error are not included in calculations,1.14 Chapter 1 Systematic Error ‘The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in ‘one direction, either positive or negative. Errors due to air buoyancy in weighing and radiation loss in calorimetry are systematic errors. They can be eliminated by manipulation, Some of the sources of systematic errors are: 1, Instrumental Error 2. Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure 3. Personal errors Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error Mean of Observations Suppose the observations of a physical quantity are X,, Xs, Ny Xu Arithmetic mean of these observations Xpean is defined as, Xpean = (Xy +X 4X5 + 1 +X)In or Xx, ‘The arithmetic mean of these observations is taken as best, possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of measurement, Absolute Error ‘The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity and the individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement. (Arithmetic mean is taken as tue value of number of observations.) AX, = Xnean Xn The absolute error may be positive or negative. Absolute Mean Error ‘The average of the mod of errors is called the average or mean error, AX pean = (IAX)| + |AXG| + JAAS... |AX,I)/nt Relative Error ‘The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error AX pean 0 the mean value Xpeay OF the quantity measured, IX, Relative error = AX pean ‘Xp Percentage Error When the relative error is expressed in percent, itis called as percentage error Thus, percentage error = (AX peay ‘Xpean) * 100% Combination of Errors When we perform some experiment, different observations are used to get a result using algebraic operations like addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. ‘Now we need to calculate the errors in combination of various mathematical operations Errors in Sum or Difference Let X= AB Further, let A is the absolute error in the measure- ment of 4, AB the absolute error in the measurement of B and AX is the absolute error in the measurement of x Then, X+AX = (42 Ad)#(B* AB) =(4# B)#(Ad# AB) = X+(Ad# AB) or AX = 404408 The four possible values of AX (a4+AB),(A4—AB), (-A4—AB)and(-A4+AB) Therefore, the maximum absolute error in X is, AX = #(A4+ AB) i.e, the maximum absolute error in sum and difference of ‘ovo quantities is equal to sum of the absolute errors in indi- vidual quantities Eee 23. The original length of a wire is (153.7 + 0.6) em. Itis stretched to (155.3 + 0.2) cm. Calculate the elongation in the wire with error limits, Solution: Elongation (J) = 155.3 — 153.7 = 1.6 em Al=4(A1, +40) + (0.6 + 0.2) 0.8 em Elongation = (1.6 + 0.8) om, Errors in Product Let, X=AB(4-3) ‘Therefore maximum fractional error in product of two (or ‘more) quantities is equal to sum of fractional errors in the individual quantities. SOLVED EXAMPLE 24, ‘The measures of the lengths of a rectangle are ! = (3.00 +£0.01) om and breadth b = (2.00 + 0.02) em, What is the area of the rectangle? Area= Ib=3x2=6 cm? Bor =i6{ 22%. 22) oan mt ‘Area = (6.00 + 0,08) cm’, Errors in Division Unit and Dimension 1.15 (ose) or 12 SE i eM Ad AB Here, <<. is small quantity, so can be neglected. AK Ad, AB Therefore, xX 4B Possible values of Mare x (hee) ) oo, the maximum value of fractional error in division of ‘wo quantities is equal to the sum of fractional errors in the individual quantities. SOLVED EXAMPLES 25. ‘The change in the velocity of a body is (12.5 0.2) mis, in atime (5.0 0.3) Find the average acceleration of | the body within error limits Solution: Here 1=(6.0403)s v= (12.5 £0.2) mis; 1 Errors in Quantity Raised to Some Power Let x-# Then In(X)=nnln(4)-min(B)1.16 Chapter 1 In terms of fractional error we may write wd Ax) MAB 50 eae ao x4 Fay a ap From Therefore maximum value of“ =+(n 244 m 22 x 4°" R 26. The time period of oscillation of simple pendulum is given by = 2 Ji7g. What is the accuracy in the = determination of g if 10 em length is known to 1 mm accuracy and 0,5 s time period is measured from time = of 100 oscillations with a watch of 1s resolution? Solution: Here ALOt 710 error, “x 100 = + At= 1s, and time of 100 oscillations 1 = 100 x 0.5 =508 Maximum Maximum Operation Formula Abeokite Error ‘Relative Error Percentage Error ‘sum A+B very + + A+ AB (24222) 10 A+B A+B Difference Ace oA+a8 aAvaB A-B8 Mutipication = AxB. ‘Asa + BAA aA, 08 AB Division A BaAs AB aA, a8 a e A‘ S Power ” na aA MA A EXPERIMENTS Vernier Calipers Measurement of Length ‘The simplest method measuring the length of a straight line is by means of a meter scale. But there exists some limita- tion in the accuracy of the result: 1, The dividing lines have a finite thickness. 2. Naked eye cannot correctly estimate less than 0.5 mm For greater accuracy devices like (a) Vernier calipers (b) Micrometer scales (screw gauge) are used. Vernier scale Main scale M 1 ull! fb) Vernier capers.Unit and Dimension 1.17 om] [ot per] IAIN ini 0 Main scale (6) ‘5 10) Vernier scale (V) gegen em aP venir “o.dxem /atilon ah HHH TT i 510 Main] scale Vernier seale Reading a vernier with 4 avision Song % vaulted A HA er oohet ae % uly ules a ene oop ca It consists of a main scale graduated in cm/mm over which ‘an auxiliary scale (or Vernier scale) can slide along the length. The division of the vernier scale is shorter than the divisions of the main scale. Least Count of Vernier Calipers The least count or vernier constant (V. C) is the minimum value of correct estimation of length without eye estima- tion. IFN division of vernier coincides with (V1) division ‘of main scale, then N(VS)=(N-1) mis = 1vS=. Vernier constant = 1 mis ~ 198 = (- is aa N which is equal to the value of the smallest division on the main scale divided by total number of divisions on the vernier scale, N Length as Measured by Vernier Calipers ‘The formula for measuring the length is L = main scale reading + least count of vernier scale x vernier scale divi- sion coinciding with a main scale division Main scale reading is given by the zeroth the vernier scale as shown in the Fig. 1.2. ee 0 a \ Au a 5 “3.10 ae pei oeeaie oor Voniercalewilpttve ame wtogva tro eee a null full ub Ht ti oe 4 division 10) gh givision oan Soong Positive zero error Negative zare enor {40.04 em) (0.04 em) ‘and ite correction and its correction Fig Zero error If the zero marking of main scale and vernier calipers do not coincide, necessary correction has to be made for this error which is known as zero error of the instrument If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale the zero error is said to be positive and the correction will be negative and vice versa. The zero error is always subtracted from the reading to get the corrected value. If the zero error is positive, its value is calculated as we take any normal reading. If the zero error negative (the zero of vernier scale lies to the left of the zero of main scale), Negative zero error =—{Total number of vsd — vsd coincid- ing] x L.C. Do not try to read the main scale at the point where the lines match best. This has no meaning. Read from the vernier scale instead. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the best match of lines is for vernier marks 9, 0, or 1. Make your best estimate, but realize thatthe final result including the vernier must round off to the result you would choose if there was no vernier. If the mark is close to 3.20 on the ‘main scale, but the vernier reading is 9, the length is 3.19 cm. If the mark is close to 3.2 on the main scale and the vernier is 1, the length is 3.21 em. ‘Screw Gauge (or Micrometer Screw) In general vernier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 em and for greater accuracy micrometer screw devices1.18 Chapter 1 e.g. screw gauge, spherometer are used. These consist of accurately cut screw which can be moved in a closely fitting fixed nut by tuning it axially. The instrument is provided with two scales: Pp as-oM, 3, oly T Spindle) (sleeve Thimble ‘serew gauge Post m Spindle) (jggye Thimble Screw gauge with no zero ertor m : Pas “Es Line of ‘graduation LJ = Negative zero ertor (@ division error) i.e,-0.003 em Circular scale ho Is l0-=— Zero ofthe circular l95 scale is above the [902610 of main scale as Main scale. reference line pas DM, 5 co i ll Line of ‘graduation € Negative zero err (@ division error) ..,+0.002 om Circular scale is 10 \5 +— Zero of the circular lo scaleis below the los 2210 of main scale 20 Main scale referonce tne 1. The main scale or pitch scale M graduated along the axis of the screw. 2, The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the serew head. Constants of the Screw Gauge 1. Pitch: The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of the head. The pitch, of the instrument is the distance between two consec- utive threads of the screw which is equal to the dis- tarice moved by the screw due to one complete rotation of the cap. Thus for 10 rotation of cap = 5 mm, then pitch = 0.5 mm 2. Least count: In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to cone division on the head scale which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap divisions. Thus in the aforesaid, Illustration:, if the total cap division is 100, then least count = 0.5 mm/100= 0.005 mm 3. Measurement of length by screw gauge: L =n x pitch +f x least count, where n= main scale reading ‘caps scale readingZero Error: In a perfect instrument the zero of the heat scale coincides with the line of graduation along the serew axis with no zero-error, otherwise the instru- ‘ment is said to have zero-error which is equal to the cap reading with the gap closed. This error is positive ‘when zero line or reference line of the cap lies below the line of graduation and versa, The corresponding corrections will be just opposite. BASIC MATHEMATICS Algebra Quadratic Equation ax? +bx+e=0, where a#0 and a,b,ce R is called a ‘quadratic equation with real coefficients. * —4ac Discriminant, D = If D> 0 => Two roots are real and unequal If D=0= Two roots are real and equal If D<0=> Two roots are complex conjugate of each other. Roots are given by x= ie, x? (or Bx of Determinant Determinant isa square arrangement of numbers. They are represented by Aor D. SOLVED EXAMPLE 43 27. | isa determinant of order 2 as there are two rows and two columns, 4-12 6 8 3]isadoterminant of order 3, 140 Solution: Determinants can be simplified to a single number. ‘The method to simplify a second order determi- nant is as follows Unit and Dimension 1.19 ao f frat—ee For 3" order determinant: abe 4 e Jf |=alei-nf)—b(di- gf)+ (ah ge) gh ‘A determinant can be expanded along any row or any column, We have to adhere to a sing scheme. +--+ eH +- + For example if the same determinant is expanded along the 2" column, we get -b(di — gf ) + e(ai — gc) — haf - de) ar-|* 3 -4))-Me=20-21 75 4-1 2 A,=|6 8 3) 140 = 21(6)(4)—()(8)]-3104)(4) (XD) +0(4)(8)-@)(-D] (expanding along last column) =2(16)- 3(17)=32- 51=-19. Exponential Factor ne i is called the exponential factor. Its value is approximately 2.718 ... It is an irrational number, It is derived from the exponential series Logarithms The equation a® log, ¢= b-(a>0-a#1=9¢>0) When a= 10, itis called common logarithm. When a =e, itis called natural logarithm.(Also writ- tens Inc) We have the following results and rules: 1. log, 2 log, a in logarithmic notation is written as1.20. Chapter 1 ; eS) 5. ope! Zi ono? Zilog, 6. log,c= Tog.@ 7. tog,c= "2842 (pase change formula) log, a & ama Sequences and Series Arithmetic Sequence or Progression a,atd,a+2d,a+3d,.. (dis the common difference) General term, t, =a+(k-Id (A term) Sum to m terms, $, =5[2a+ (n—1)d] Arithmetic mean of two numbers @ and b is defined a+b ee) as 2 Geometric Progression a,ar,ar?,ar’, (ris the common ratio) General term, 1, =ar* (k term) ar" =1) Sum to infinite number of terms, Sum to nterm, 5, rel = nar S, = when ir Geometric Mean of two numbers a and b is defined as G=vab. Harmonic Progression aa 1 a’a+b'a+2da+3d" 1 General erm, f= SEG (term) Harmonic Mean of two numbers a and b is defined 2ab arb Series of Natural Numbers (n+l) 142434 PAPA te RONDE D Papass on [assy 2 Algebraic Identities 1. (a+b) =a? +6? +2ab 2. (ab)? =a? +b? -2ab 3. (a+b) + (aby = 2a" +5?) 4, (a+b) —(a-by = 4ab 5. (a+b) =(a—by +4ab 6 (a~by = (a+b) —4ab Trigonometry 1. Degree and Radian measure of angle ‘radians = 180 degrees i.e, = 180°, «In this formula @ is in 2. Angle= radians. 3. Signs of trigonometric ratios Al ratios are positive in 1* quadrant. Only sine and cosecant are positive in 2" quadrant. Radius ""r nly tangent and cotangent are positive in 3" quadrant. Only cosine and secant are positive 4" quadrant. 4. sin? x+ cos? sec? x-tan?x=1 cosec?x cot? 5, -Issinxs1 -1Scosxs1 coseex 2 lorcosee x —1 secx2 lorsecx S =I 6 seexand tan-xarenot defined for x = (2n41)%, ne Z. cosee x and tan x are not defined for x = n,ne Z. 7. sin(A+ B)= sin Acos B+ cos Asin B c0s( 4+ B) = cos Acos BF sin Asin B tan( 4+ y= nas on Tan d-tan B 8. 2sin Acos B=sin( A+ B)+sin( 4B) eos Asin B=sin( A+ B)-sin(A~ B) cos Acos B=cos( 4+ B)+-cos(A~ B) 2sin Asin B=cos( 4~ B)~cos( 4+ B)C+D. c-D cosC + cos D=2cos —* cos cos C-cos D = 2sin&*2 sin P=C 10, sin2A=2sin deos =2894- Tran? 4 1-2sin? A Trin? 2c0s? A-1 sin? 4 = £0874 ang cos? 4 = e082 5 5 wan24= 204 tan? d Calculus This is the most important tool in Mathematics and it has large number of applications in Physics and Chemistry. We shall here understand some basic concepts of Calculus. Its, basically the study of functions and operations performed ‘over them. It is split into two major divisions called as, differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential Calculus (dy/dx as Rate Measurer) ‘The derivative or differential coefficient of a function is the limit to which the ratio of the small increment in the func~ tion to the corresponding small increment in the variable (on which it depends) tends to, when the small increment in the variables approaches zero, y Instantaneous change of y with respect tox D tim de aso Ar It is also equal to the slope of the tangent drawn at the point where dyidr is to be calculated ay @ a tane a Formula for caleulating © due to diferent functions a Unit and Dimension 1.21 SOLVED EXAMPLES 28. Find “(x°) Solution: 2x a 29. Find 7-(ve) Solution: a 5. y=cotx; % =-cosec*x ax 4 6. y=secx; 2 = seextanx y= seer, So = sect 1. y= cose; ® = ~cosee xeotx , a Rules If y=k f(x), where kis a constant Then, fren EN sawed ay 31. If y=3sinx find 2 y= 3sinx find Solution: ® sco a1.22. Chapter 1 If y= constant a) ae Then, uct vw , where u,v and w are functions of x then, Sat tty te ae de ax de 32. If y=e ~cosx-+logx find & a Solution: Bet ssinxs as ¥ dy 33. If ye" —tanx+log, x find ’ Be rs Solution: Dae sect a . If yew Then, 34, If y=e* cosx find & a Solution: Boe sinx se" cos a If y=u/y ve _uiy Then, Ba de ae 35. if y= 9 fing & tan Ge Solution: , ay_(iana) —logx(sec? x) ax tan? x Examples Explaining Different Methods of Differentiation Function of Function - Chain Rule If y= f(x) and x is a function of some other variable z. Then s can be written as the product of two derivatives ove a ded SOLVED EXAMPLES 36. If y=os(log(s")}, Fina & by _~Sinllog 1 ot «x 37. If y= Yfin(logs, find It y= Yingioga), find Solution: dy _Veos(logx) 1 dx 2ysinlogx = Parametric Form Ss Y= LO) where, is a parameter Then, & _ wide ae dxlde Peed int x= acost Fing & a Solution: acost He asint oo asi by _dvldt ae dviar Double Differentiation or Second Derivative The second derivative of y with respect to x is defined as the derivative of the funtion (or the derivative of the is derivative) It is usually written “2 42) dk’ 2 Gelade Ped 39, x= HP sett, find Sang OE a ae Solution: Hayter; S642Application of Differentiation in Physics 1 locity cS |. Instantaneous velocity v= uy it av 2, Instantaneous acceleration a=" also a it ay ax dp gS ae aw aw stg pay a Ea da at 4, Instantaneous power = 5. Instantaneous current 14 (where F, = viscous force nA il ) 1. = 80; ure, F= conservative force) Ber : & crate of change of y wih respect to , called gradient ofy. Ee uaty 40. The position of a particle travelling along x-axis is i 4.26 (mm), Here ¢ is in yt 2 (im). Here ¢ given by equation x= seconds. Find (A) Initial velocity of particle. (B) Find acceleration of the particle when it at rest. (C) Find the velocity of the particle is when it is at equilibrium, Solution: dx ar (B) Rest means v= 0 a) 31+2 where ¢= 0, v=2 mis 3142-0 at. 43. Unit and Dimension 1.23 (F=0 = a=0 bx. Find the minimum PE (Minimum PE is at equilibrium) Solution: rae 5 -rax+b=0 3 x= 2? ds 2a At this position, PE is given by (a) ee 2a 4a . The radius of a circle is increasing at a rate of 1 ens. Find the rate of increase of its area, when its radius is 10cm, Solution: dA at a Sp =lemls (atr= 100m) Now, S fa r=10) = WX 2x10%1 = 1% 20= 201 em?/s, ‘Area of square shown increase at the rate of 100 cm’ /s Find the velocity of separation of A 8 (A) Aand B (B) AandC ‘when length of the its side becomes 20 cm. Solution: 4 ~ o0cm?/s at1.24 Chapter 1 A= 3 100= 20x a dt Vp = 2.5 ems Now, For 4 and C ay _ pat =v26 382 yar2l Fa v2e = 2x25 Vac = 3.6 emis, 44, A rod AB of length 5 m starts slipping such that B moves horizontally and A moves vertically. When OB =3 m, the velocity of 4 is 3 m/s. Find the velocity of B at that moment. Also find the relation between speed of 4 and the speed of B, when the rod makes an angle @ with horizontal Solution: ae speed of B a and v, = 2 = speed of A dr a 5d axa ay a dr kes Sx(-3) 45. Man of height 5 ft is walking away from a lamp post of length 10 ft find the rate at which length of his shadow will increase, ifthe speed of walking is 1 fis. A | Va Solution: fs. 46. Two cars A and B start from O simultaneously along (OX and OY, with constant speeds 3 m/s and 4 m/s. Find their velocity of separation. (given OX OY), Solution: “x ‘Smis. 47. Inthe previous problem, both 4 and B start simultane- ously from a point O. A with a constant speed of 2 mis and B in perpendicular direction from rest but with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s”. Find their velocity of separation at ¢= Solution: 8= P+ an? =v ear ya dS APB 6a Nae At 1=2 as Na ws Maximum and Minimum Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown in Fig. 1.3. It becomes maximum at x, and minimum at x3. At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel tothe x-axis and hence its slope is zero i.e, an = 0. But the slope of curve y—.x equals the rate of change of y with respect to x is. Thus, at a maximum or minimum a ay. thus value of y, s value of», 4 Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it is zero and just after the maximum it is dy negative, Thus © decrease at a maximum and hence4 rate of change of 4 is negative, at a maximum i.e, 4(2) xe ” Yoss A valeLinnpa NG FY) WOH) Now, (atx=1) (atx=2) Yon = 2 aetnell 2 3x2? 5 ru? : 49. Find y (maximum) and y (minimum) for the function. Now, d’y/dx? =1>0 =. (only minimum exists) Integration If y=FQ) and 2 = fx) f"ay= J sande = tol change in y as x changes from x, to x, = [Fale = Fe2)- FO)1.26 Chapter 1 Geometrical meaning of integration 0) ft) ‘Area under /(x) vs. x-graph from x, t0.%, Gr Application of integration Physics a Lev vee a Sn Soax Formulae in Integration ne x Jracef sc; ret a Jowr-dr=sinxec Jains-ar=-coss+c Jace? xae= tan cotx+C Joosec?x-de secx tanx d= seex+C Joosees cotx dr = -cosee r+ C fetac=-e'+c JV,de=og, x40 In the above formulae cis called constant of integration Rules for Integration Juv siyar=[vdes [vac [wae Jr (x)de=nf f(x)ae (where n= constant) SOLVED EXAMPLES $0. Find f° G9? 42040 Solution: 2M pyle 3 [Patsy 844+2)-(14141)=11 si Find [sinx dx Solution; 52, [scc(2x-+3)tan(2x + 3)dx (2x43) Solution: = 53. The instantaneous power delivered by an engine is given by P=(2+NC+)W Find work done by the engine between tals and =2s,54, 55. 56. Solution: wf parm [Zereiyesn = fOP + 2eerende= fer 3rd = [den] Farnell ~[Jate3aea)-(24301)-9 . 3) 372 6 Force experienced by a particle in terms of its position F = 3x? —2x. Calculate the work done in displacing the particle from x=1 to x=2 Solution: 2 e )' Gx? -2x)dr= (0 =x7)] = 44. Acceleration of a particle travelling along x-axis is given by a=(2+1)mis? Find its velocity at = 2 s if velocity at r= 1 s in 5 mis Solution: fra Perna 3 2 In the above problem, find the position at 1= 3 , if initially position is x= 10m, Solution: Unit and Dimension 1.27 -10=94249 2 Co-ordinate Geometry 1, The distance d between two points having coordinates (%.¥1) and (2, ¥2) is d= V(x, -4P +0; 2. The equation of a straight line as shown in Fig. 1.4. yeme+d m-=slope =tan8 Fig at Where 0 is the y-intercept and m is the slope of the line, 3. The equation of a circle or radius R centred at the origin is x?-+ y? = R°. 4. The equation of an ellipse having the origin at its centre as shown in Fig. 1.5 Figs where a is the length of the semi-major axis (the longer fone) and b is the length of the semi-minor axis (the shorter one). 5. The equation of a parabola the vertex of which is at y= bas shown in Fig, 1.6 is y= ax? +b y oe Fig, 11.28 Chapter 1 6. The equation of a rectangular hyperbola as shown in, Fig, 1.7 xy = constant USE OF VECTOR ANALYSIS Suppose a block of mass M is placed on a smooth horizon- tal surface, There are two forces F, and F; acting on the block as shown in the Fig. 1.8. Fie 1 ‘Now the question is in which direction will the block move? And what will be the net force on the block? You can answer it easily. The block will move towards left and net force will be (10 ~ 5) = 5 N towards left. Now think of the situation when these forces are neither in the same direction nor opposite to each-other. Suppose F, and Fare perpendicular to each other acting on the same block as shown in Fig. 1.9. Fe 10N Fig. 19 ‘We repeat the same question. In which direction will the block move and what will be the net force? It will be diffi- cult to answer. Why? Since, you do not know about vectors. Similar problems will be faced in other physical relations. We will now discuss vectors in detail, SCALARS AND VECTORS In the last lesson we have already discussed about physi- cal quantities. All physical quantities have been categorised into two parts. Physical quantities CT Scalars Vectors Scalars Scalars are those physical quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction. Examples: Density, time, temperature, energy, mass, distance, speed ete. Vectors Vectors are those physical quantities, which have both mag- nitude and direction and obey the vector law of addition. Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc. ‘A vector must obey the vector law of addition other- wise it will not be a vector although having both magnitude as well as direction Example: Current has both magnitude and direction, but it is not a vector. I is a scalar quantity because it does not obey the vector law of addition, which we will learn in this lesson, Representation of Vector Geometrical Method Geometrically @ vector is represented by the directed line segment ic, by a line to which a direction has been assigned with an arrow-head in the direction of the vector and whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. To represent a vector geometrically, a line is drawn parallel to the direction of the vector and put an arrow on the line along the direction of the vector, Now this directed line segment, namely, OP as shown in Fig. 1.10 represents the vector in magnitude and direction. Iti written as OF. O's called the “initial point’ of the vector and P, the “terminal pont oft. The vector OFis also writen as ie, we also write = OP. O. Fig. 110 To represent a physical quantity in a vector form, we put an arrow above the symbol of the physical quantity. For ‘example, velocity is denoted by v but in vector form it is represented as ¥ which is read as velocity vector. Magnitude of vector is called absolute value indicated by [¥" (modulus of velocity vector)Analytical Method In this method vector is represented in terms of unit vector Gi, j and &), which we will seein details later on. Different Types of Vector Like Vectors ‘Two of more than two Vectors having the same sense of direction are called like vectors or otherwise it is called unlike vectors, Example: Let body is moving toward cast and another body B is also moving in the same direction towards east, then these two velocity vectors are called like vectors. Collinear/Parallel Vectors ‘Vectors having the same line of action or having lines of action parallel to the same line are called collinear vectors. ‘They may have the same sense or opposite sense of direction. Coplanar Vectors ‘Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane oor they are parallel to the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar vectors. Zero Vector/Null vector ‘Vectors having zero magnitude are called zero or null vectors. It is denoted by 0. In case of a zero vector, its initial and the final point coincide and its direction is indeterminate In this case intial and terminal points coincide. 00, AA are zero vectors Examples: The velocity vector of a stationary particle and the acceleration vector of an object moving with uniform velocity is zero vector. Unit Vector A.unit vector isa vector of unit magnitude and points in a par- ticular direction, It is used to specify the direction only. Unit ‘vector is represented by putting a cap (") over the quantity. ‘The unit vector in the direction of F is denoted by # and defined by feta F Fl FF a To represent any value of force in this direction, we can use this unit vector. Like 2 is magnitude of force and we mul- tiply A with F, it will give force along the direction of F. ar Unit and Dimension 1.29 Negative of a Vector The vector whose magnitude is same as that of a but the direction is opposite to that of 7 is called the negative of 7 and is written as —7. Position Vectors Postion vector represents the postion of an object in a plane wit respect to a fixed-point hat in origin of «coor dinate system, Let O be the origin and P be any point then OP is called the postion vector of P with respec tothe origin O It can be represented by a single letter 7. OP = 7. The length of the vector 7 represents the magnitude of vector and its direction is the direction in which P lies as seen from O. yan ° axis Equal Vectors ‘Two vectors are said to be equal if 1, their magnitudes are equal 2. they are parallel and 3. they have the same sense of direction. They needn’t have the same initial point. In the Fig. 1.11 shown length of AB equal to length of CD and AB and CD have same sense of direction. 4B = CD So here 4B" and CB are two equal vectors. Properties of Vectors 1, Veetors can be bound: The vectors in which point of application and direction both are fixed. yp1.30. Chapter 1 is called bound vectors. 2. Vectors can be sl n sliding the point of applica- tion is shifted along the original line of action without any change in magnitude and direction. Shifted position of OA is shown in the Fig. 1.12. Z 3. Vectors can be moved freely: In free movement of vector its point of application can be changed without any change in magnitude and direction of the vector and is always parallel to the original line of action, ‘As OA has been shifted in a new position as shown in Fig. 1.13, 4 of ries It is worth noting that in this lesson that all vectors have been used as free vector. 4. Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are placed tail to tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (ic, 0S Sm. gg a é Ao ‘sv, * cost = =n 25+ 24 c0s0 25+24 cos 24 cos > cos (@ 4+B=7-B> Solution: (A) We know that [Fe Bi= fs 84248 cos |F-B\= (BP 248 cos and according to given problem |A? + B+ 2AB cos@ = yA’ + B’ ~2AB cos which on solving gives cos 8= 0 = 0=n2 i.e. the vectors Zand B are perpendicular to each other (B) given that 4+ B= A-B ie, 2B: i.e., B is a null vector. RESOLUTION OF VECTORS Itis the process of splitting a single vector into two or more vectors in different directions which together produce the same effect as is produced by the single vector alone. The vectors into which the given single vector is split are called component of vectors. In fact, the resolution of a vector is Just opposite to composition of vectors. Let there is force acting on a block, which is on a frictionless surface, at an angle 6 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 1.17, ‘Now due to this force it will move towards right and go some distance. We want to know the force, which is cause of right- ‘ward motion, It can be known by the components of the force F. The cause of horizontal motion is horizontal component which will be F cos 8, We can understand these things in this way Let force Fis acting from P to Q ‘We want to know the force in the direction PR and PS. Q wu D Peasy In right angle A POR PR _ Fon PO" Fro > PR=PQ cos 6 cos 0 For = Fos So, horizontal component = F cos® In right angle A POR1.34 Chapter 1 Fro = F'sino F rq = Fro sind So, vertical component = F sin @ Tn this way we resolve the vector in two perpendicu- lar directions, ‘We can remember it in this way, towards 9 the component will be a factor of cos 8 and other component Perpendicular to it and will be a factor ofsin 8 SOLVED EXAMPLE 59. A mass of 2 kg lies on a plane making an angle 30° to the horizontal, Resolve its weight along and perpen- dicular to the plane. Assume g = 10 ms’ Fr Solution: As shown in the Fig, 1.18, the component of weight along the plane = mg sin @ =2x 10x sin 30=10N. ‘The component of weight perpendicular to plane = mg cos 30° =2x 10x V3 /2=17.3N, Rectangular Components of a Vector in a Plane When a vector is resolved along the two axes of a reetangu- lar co-ordinate system (i.c., x and y axis), the components of the vector are called rectangular components of a vector. Let there isa vector from O to P at an angle @ from the x-axis. Component of along x-axis (@i) = 7 cos 8 Component of 7 along y-axis (3) =7 sin ‘These two components are called rectangular compo- nents of the vector @ yan, > Representation of Rectangular Components ‘These components are represented in terms of unit vector, _Unit vector along x, and y-axis are represented by i and j respectively as shown in Fig. 1.19. i kien these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other. i oF wax’ Fig. 119 Rectangular components of vector ain terms of unit vector ‘can be written as = a,i+a,) @=acos 61 +a sin Bj. Rectangular Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions Components, which we get on resolving a vector, lie in space along three mutually perpendicular directions (i.e.x, y and z axes) are called rectangular components or orthog- ‘onal components “The veetoris called non-coplanar (three-dimensional) vector Let there be a non-coplanar vector P from O to A as shown in Fig. 1.20. Taking O as origin and a rectangular parallelepiped with its three edges along the three rectangu- Jar axes ie., x,y and 2 axes, is constructed. Here P represent the diagonal of the parallelepiped whose intercepts along these axes are Px,Py and Pz respectively which are three orthogonal components of P.Let @, f and yare the angles between P and x, y and z-axis, respectively or, 5) ‘we can get these components in this way PB cos = P,=Pcosa cos P 5 FF PaPeosB P. = => P.=Peos I Y Here cos «cos f and cos are called the direction cosines of the vector P. Putting the values of P,P, P= P* cost a+ P* cost B+ P* cos? 7 or, P= P° (cos? a+ cos* B+ cos” y) cos and P, in (1.5), we get or, (cos’ a+ cos* B+ cos” y= 1 Itmeans that the sum of the squares of the direction cosines ofa vector is always unity. Representation of Rectangular Components or Orthogonal Components ‘These components are represented in terms of unit vector. __ Unit vectors along x,y, and z-axis are represented by by i, j and k respectively as shown in Fig. 1.21. Jl=lk ‘these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other. i Unit and Dimension 1.35 Fig. 121 Orthogonal components in terms of unit vector can be written as EON uia ed 60, 16 =25+4)-sk find (A) || and _ (B) the direction of cosines ofthe vector F Solution: (A) P= JP? +P? + PE Vor sar +s ADDITION OF VECTOR BY ANALYTICAL METHOD In this method, vectors are added when it is represented in terms of unit vector. At first coplanar vectors are resolved in two components and non-coplanar vectors are resolved in two three components, which are perpendicular to ‘each other, and all components in one direction are added together.1.36 Chapter 1 There are two co-planer vectors P and @ making angles a and fi respectively with x-axis as shown in the Fig. 1.22. Papiarj = Peosaii + Psinarj 9 =0,1+0,) = Qcosfi+-Qsinaj PHO = (RI+P,D+QI+O,)) P+ OI +P,+Q)] P40) +P 40, Let R’ be their sum R= (P,+O)1+(P,+0,)) +R, where R,=(,+ Q, and R, = (P,+Q,) ‘This method can be used in addition and subtraction for any ‘number vectors. EON 2a) 61. If f= 21437 -2é and O = 4]-2)+4, then caleu- late the magnitude of (A) P+ (B)P-F (©) 2P+ Solution: (A) P+ = (2 +3]-2k)+(41-2}+8) = 6i+j-i Magnitude = \S6e141 = V38 02. 63. @ P-G = +3)-26-i-2}+ 2i43}-28—4142)-# ai+5j-3k Magnitude = [4+25+9 = 38 (©) 2P+G =(41+6j-48)+ (41 -27+0, =8i44j-36 Magnitude = (64+16+9 = J85 If the positon vectors of P and Q be respectively (1+3}~7h) and (si -2}-+46 ), find PO Solution: Let O be the origin Given OF =143)-78 OG = si-2j-+4k By triangle law of vector addition, OF + PB- 06 P6-00-0F = (51-2) +48 F43)-7) = (4) -5j+ 1) rants ° axis Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of veotors 1+ 2)43k, + 2)+K and 3+ j Solution: Let 7 be the resultant of given vectors. Then = G42}438)+ Ci+2j++Gi+) = 3145) 44k (7 = VOr +67 +4" = 9425416 = V50 = 52Unit and Dimension 1.37 Now unit vector along we! eS St la) sv2 5V2° 52 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS Multiplication of Vector by Scalar When any vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity like with any real number, itis just multiplied like an algebraic product. Example: Let there be a vector 7” and a scalar quantity 2. After multiplication product will be 7” = a7 If Ais + ve, then 7” and 7will have same direction. If Ais —ve then 7” and V'will have opposite direction. Multiplication of Vectors 1. Scalar Product (Dot Product) 2. Vector Product (Cross Product) Scalar Product/Dot Product Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of smaller angle ‘between them It is always a scalar, so it i called as scalar product. Thos if Z end B are two vectors having angle @ between them, then ther salar (Dot) product writen as AB and read as A dot B is defined as Geometrical Meaning Let OA =a and OB =6 as shown in Fig. 1.23 and Z40B = 0 From B, we drop a perpendicular BL on OA. OL OB 8, OL= OB cos 8 By definition a5 =abcosé = (OA)(OB) cos 8 = (OA)(OL) @-B =(Mod of @) (Projection of bon a) Properties 1. It is always a scalar and it will be positive if angle between them is acute, negative ifangle between them is obtuse and zero if angle between them is 90° 2, Ikobeys commutative law 4: B= BT 3. It obeys distributive law (B+ G)= 18+ EE 4, By definition 4:B =| 4)|B| cos @ cos where Bis angle between two vectors. 5. Scalar (Dot) product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zer0 ie., (4B) = AB cos 90° = 0 6. Scalar (Dot) product will be maximum when = 0° ie. vectors are parallel to each other, (ZB) pax = (A118 7. 1t@ and Bare unit vectors then b\=1 anda: \a) 1.1 c0s@= cos 8 Dot product of unit vectors fj, & i Jjakk=1 ijapk=ki=0 9. Square ofa vector |a||a|cos@ = a? 10. If the two vectors 4 and B, in terms of their rectangular components, are Tea ia aie ab1.38 Chapter 1 BiB, 7+, ky then, i+ 4, 4.8 (B+ B+ Bb) FB AB+AB, +48, [using (9)] Example of dot product Work Work is the dot product of force and displacement Let Fe the force acting on block at angle @ with the hori- zontal and the block is displaced by this force from O to 0” Let 00-5 Work = F.S =|F | Si cos 0 EN 2a) 64, Find the angle between two vectors 4= 24+ j- ize ania ororor AB=Qi+j-b-G-’ =(2)()+ CI) C)=3 BaF BL a 3s Now, cos@= Vez Viz via = 30° 65, Provethatthe vectors A= 2-3)-& ana B= i+ jv are mutually perpendicular. Solution: ae ai-sjekG+ jrby = 2) (1) +3) (1) +0) (= 0 (as 440,840) 0= 90° or, the vectors 4 and B are mutually perpen Cross Product/Vector Product Cross Product/Vector Product of two vectors is defined as product of the magnitude of two vectors with sine of smaller angle between them, If and B are two vectors, then their vector product is written as Ax B’ and is read as 4 cross . It is defined as, AxB =|AV|B) sino and its direction is perpendicular tothe plane of the vectors and is in the sense of advancement of a right handed screw rotated from first vector to the second vector through the smaller angle between them. C=| Ai |B sinoa where fi is unit vector along the © eBxe uh Geometrical Meaning Let OACB be a parallelogram. Let O be the origin Let Od =a" and OB=5 Let Z40B = @ Area of parallelogram OACB = 2 area of triangle O4B _ 2 sone) 2 = ab sin@=|axb|Unit and Dimension 1.39 bj | bsino ol oe 5 a Thus, aX is a vector whose modulus is the area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors as the adjacent sides and direction is perpendicular to both Z and B. Properties 1. Cross product of two vectors is not commutative axbebxa axb=-bxa 2, eross product is not associative x@xo) # GxByxe 3. cross product obey distributive law Gx@tdheaxbeaxe J. Angle 8 should bein the interval (0°, 5. If 8=0 or rit means two vectors are collinear axb =0 Lo . and conversely, if @B=0 then the vector 7 and B are parallel provided @ and B are non-zero vectors. ‘This may be regarded as a test to decide whether the given two vectors are parallel or not. 6, 1f = 90°, then @xB=|a||b|sin90° =a) |b) i 7. The vector product of any vector with itselfis 0 axa= 8. 1f@%B=0, then T=0orb=00ra |b 9. If Zand B are unit vectors, then @xb=1.1 sind f= sin @ fi ceo. 10. Cross product of unit vectors i, jand k dx ‘These results can be remembered easily with the help of following method Around a circle placed 7, j and & in anticlockwise direc- tion as shown in Fig, 1.24, "Now cross product of any two unit vectors will give third unit vectors and it will be +ve iff on this circle given ‘wo vectors are in anticlockwise direction otherwise it will be-ve Vector Product in Terms of Component La Taal +hjrak F =ai+hjtot BeB = (ai +h eqhyx (ai + by) teh) It can be found by the determinant method las be, = F(bye,— 26) ~ F (aiea + & (qb ~ayh) Application and Example Moment of force is the cross product of position vector of the point of application and the force. Torque ()= 7x F When 7*is position vector of point of application. F is force vector.1.40 Chapter 1 EN 2a) B= FE both Solution: As we have read, = ZF isa vector perpendicular to both Zand B. Hence, a unit vector fi perpendicular to 4” and B can be written as Here, F@4n+Ja-2) +8 -2-3) = 4i-j-sk Further, |x B= Yay? 1? +3) = VD 67. :. The desired unit vector is (4i-j-sby Var Let a force F be acting on a body free to rotate about a point 0 and let F the position vector of any point P on the line of action of the force. Then torque (2) of this force about point O is defined as Given, F=(2i +3, Find the torque of this force. Solution: Pp k F-7xFl1 “1 6 23-4 = fa-19}+ j02++kG+2) or, F=(-177413)+58) NemBRAIN MAP Unit and Dimension 1.41 ‘Addition of two vactors RAs IRl= IAP + IB? + 2/Alllcos 0 Als iBleose tL ‘Subtraction of two vectors ‘Multiplication of two vectors, Scalar multiplication B= \ala|cos 0 Where 0 is the angle between ‘wo vectors. Vector multiplication Axé = |AlBlsin on Where fis a unit vector perpendicular to A’and 5. pmaton oun ota Mtpesen Axe own A Powe a a8 ANB + BOA ge BAA + ANB BA+ SB a AB , aA PATA ne1.42. Chapter 1 EQ) 1, If we change unit of a physical quantity then (A) its dimension changes. (B) its dimension remain same. (©) it may change or may not change. (D) its magnitude changes. 2, The least count of a stop watch is 1/5 s. The time of 20, oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be 25 s. The minimum percentage error in the measurement of time will be (A) 0.1% (©) 1.8% (B) 08% () 8% 3. Energy due to position of a particle is given by, aly , where dand flare constants, yis distance vtB The dimensions of (cx B) are () err) ®) (Ww? 71r>] © Wer) (D) (M77) 4. A wire is of mass (0.3 + 0,003) gm. The radius is (0.5 0.005)mm and length is (6.0 + 0.06) em then 4% error in density is ®3 B84 ©6 M2 5. The equation of state of some gases can be expressed as (peS)r-0) RT. Here, P is the pressure, V the volume, 7 the absolute temperature, and a, b,R are constants. The dimensions of a are (A) (MET? ] (B) [ME"'T?] (© (er) (D) (M°LT") 6. We have error in the measurement of length, radius, mass and current of a wire are 2%, 3%, 2% and 1% then error in its density will be (A) 11% —(B) 8% ~— ©) 10% + (D) % 7. A physical quantity x depends on qualities y and z as follows: x = Ay++ BtanCz, where 4, B and C are con- stants. Which of the following do not have the same dimensions? (A) xand B (B) Cand (© yand BIA (D) xand A 8 The force F is given in terms of time f and displace- ment x by the equation F = Acos Bx+Csin Dt. The dimensions of 2 are 10. 1. 2 3B. ry 15, (a) M°L'r? (© MrT? (B) MPT" ©) MrT ‘The diameter of a wire is measured with a screw gauge having 50 divisions on circular scale and by one complete rotation of circular scale, main scale moves 0.5 mm. If reading of screw gauge is 0.250 cm. The ‘minimum percentage error in the reading will be Ao4 608 ©4 @s5 ‘The length, width and thickness of a block are (100.0 £0.1) em, (10.00 + 0.01) cm and (1,000 + 0.001) cm respectively, The maximum possible error in its vol- ume will be (A) £0111 em* m (B) £0.012 m* (©) + 0.03 em’ (D) None of these The dimensional formula of magnetic ux is (A) (MET? AY (B) [MPT?A*] © (ML?r? 4?) (D) (MTA) Error in the measurement of radius of sphere is 2%. Then error in the calculation of volume will be (A) 1% B) 5% 3% (D) 6% The velocity of water waves may depend on their wavelength 2, the density of water p and the accelera- tion due to gravity g. The method of dimensions gives, the relation between these quantities as (B) vx ga @) ga? ‘A dust particle oscillates in air with a time period which depends on atmospheric pressure P, density of air d and energy of the particle E, then time period is proportional to sia (a) Vedg tpt (C) v« agp 1 (B) P2aE? (a) P aE? (© P3are? (D) P?a2e Which of the following group have different (A) Potential difference, EMF, voltage (B) Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus (©) Heat, energy, work-done (D) Dipole moment, electric-Alux, electric field16. Ifa copper wire is stretched to make its radius decrease by 0.1%, then the percentage increase in resistance is approximately (A) 0.1% (B) 02% (© 0.4% (D) 0.8% 17. Two resistances of 400 2 and 800 © connected in series with a 6 volt battery of negligible internal resis- tance, A voltmeter of resistance 10,000 is used to measure the potential difference across 400 ©. The error in the measurement of potential difference in volts approximately is (A) 0.01 (B) 0.02 (C) 0.04 (D) 0.05 18, If there is a positive error of 50 % in the measurement of velocity of a body, then the error in the measure- ment of kinetic energy is (A) 25% (B) 50% (© 100% (D) 125% 19, The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100, divisions on its circular scale. When nothing is put in between its jaws, the zero of the circular scale lies 4 divisions below the reference line. When a stee! wire is placed between the jaws, two main scale divisions are clearly visible and 67 divisions on the circular scale are observed. The diameter of the wire is (A) 2.71 mm (B) 2.67 mm (©) 2.63 mm (D) 2.65 mm 20. Charge on the capacitor is given by Q= Jae where wand Bare constant, f= time, I= current, AV= Potential difference then, dimension of ® is same as dimension of a 1 to = @) Moe () ioe & If the speed of light (c), acceleration due to gravity (g) and pressure (p) are taken as fundamental units, the dimensional formula of gravitational constant (G) wil be (A) &gp? B) cg’ p (©) eg? p* ©) eg? p? (a) © Hoe 2. 22. The dimensions of are Voto (A) MrT) (B) (PMA! (©) UereteM') (D) (MELT) What are the dimensions of electrical permittivity? (A) ML? 17g? ® Lrg? OM Ere (D) Mr?g? 23. 24, 28, 26. 27. 28, 29, 30. 3. Unit and Dimension 1.43 The torque of force F=(2i-3j+4%) newton acting at the point F=(3i+2j+3%) metre about origin is (in N-m) (A) 61-6)+128 © ~6f+6j-12k @) 17i-6)-138 (©) ~17i+6}+138 I a unit vector is represented by 0.5/+0.8)-+c8 the value ois «1 (B) Volt (© voor () 0.39 ‘The vector sum of two forces is perpendicular to their vector differences. In that case, the forces (A) are not equal to each other in magnitude (B) cannot be predicted. (©) are equal to each other. (D) are equal to each other in magnitude. ‘Two vectors and B are such that 4+ B=C and #4 BP =C If @ isthe angle between positive direction of A’and 3° then the correct statement is (A) O=% @) 0-78 (© @=0 ©) 6-5 Given that P+ 0+ R= 0, Two out ofthe three vectors are equal in magnitude, The magnitude of the third vector is V2 times that ofthe other two. Which ofthe following can be the angles between these vectors? (A) 90°, 135°, 135° (B) 45°, 45°, 90° (C) 30°, 60°, 90° (D) 45°, 90°, 135° The angle between P+ Gand PO will be (A) 90° (B) Between 0° and 180° (C) 180° only (D) None of these If the vectors P= ai-+aj+3é and Q= ai -2)-é are perpendicular to each other, then the positive value ofais (A) Zero (B) 1 2 (3 ‘The angles which the vector A= 3/+6j+2k makes ith the co-ordi (D) None of the above1.44 Chapter 1 32, Unit vector parallel to the resultant of vectors i +8) will be 12i+55 B @) (D) None of these 33. The value of m so that vectors 2/-+3)-26, Si +nj+k and ~i+2j+3k may be coplanar, will be (A) 18 (B) 28 oo (D) 36 I, Zand, are wo vectors then the value of (+B)x(a-B) is (A) 26a) 34. (B) 26a) (©) Bxa (D) axd 35. The component of vector A= 2/+3) along the vector isjis w+ (8) 102 v2 © v2 (D) 5 36. Three vectors satisfy the relation 4°B=0 and A.C =0, then 7 is parallel to AC BF OBC MFC 37, if] Ax B |= V3 4B, then the value of| +B] is (A) (4? +B? + 4B)? (B) (# +B © +B) (D) (4°48? + 5.48)" 38, IF the angle between the vectors Zand B is 0, the value ofthe product (Bx 2)- 4" is equal to (A) BA cos8 @) BA sind (C) BA? sin@cose (D) Zero 39, The ( 7,2) co-ondinates of two points A and 3 are given respectively as (0, 3,1) and (-2, 6,4). The dis- placement vector from A to Bis given by (a) -2i+6j+48 (B ~2i43}+38 (© 2is3j+5k (©) 2i-3)-sk 40, Calculate the areg of the triangle determined by the two vectors A= 3/44) and B= -31+7}. al. 42, 43. 44, 4s. 46. 47. 48 (a) Bsqami ) Ssqumi oO Sq unit (D) 15 sq. unit Determine that vector whic when added to the resul- tant of = 3i-5j+7h and B=21+4}-3% givesa unit vector along the y-direction, (A) Si+2j-46 (B) -51+2j-46 (©) Si-2j-4k (D) None of these The vectors 4=3/-2j+k, B=i-3)+5h and C= 2i+j-4k form a triangle, then the triangle is (A) right angled triangle (B) lateral triangle (© isolated triangle (D) None of these From Fig. 1.24, the correct relation is (A) TBE @ C-B--7 (C) B+ E-€: (D) All of the above The ratio of maximum and minimum magnitudes of the resultant of two veetors a and B is 3 : 1. Now [Z| is equal to (a) [5] 8) 215) © 3/5 (©) 415) The projection of a vector 7= 3i+j+2k on the x-y plane has magnitude (A) 3 (B) 4 © V4 @) Vio ut |F6B|=|4]=[B], then the angle bereen Aand B is (A) 20 B) 6 — 9 DO Given [&i]=24i|=3 and [41+ Z3|=3, Find the value of (Ai +2 43)-(3 Ai-442) 4 BO C0 Wo In going from one city to another, a car travels 75 km north, 60 km north-west and 20 km east. The magni- tude of displacement between the two cities is (take 1V2=0.7) (A) 170 km (©) 119 km (8) 137 km. (D) 140 kmUnit and Dimension 1.45 49, Given A= 21+ pj-+ gh and B= 5i-+7)+38, AE, then the values of p and q are, respectively, 46 46 (a) Sand 2 @) Sands 1 6 C) 2 ana O; 3 3 t (D) > and + © 4 4 50. If 6=31+4j anda=i—j, the vector having the same magnitude as that of B and parallel to @ is co B) OF @) sé+ ee) © sé-j) S51, Mark the correct statement a [a+ ]2[a]+{5] ® [a3] <|a}+]5] © [a-Blz|a|+[6] (©) Allofthe above 52, Two forces F=S0ON due east and F, = 250N due north have their common initial point. F; — Fis 53. (A) 250V5N, tan“!(2)W of N (B) 250N, tan“'(2)W of N © Zero (D) 750N, tan“'(3/4)N of W Ina two-dimensional motion of a particle, the particle moves from point A, with position vector, to point B, with position vector 7s. Ifthe magnitudes ofthese vei tors are, respectively, 5, =3 andr, = 4 and the angles they make with the x-axis are @, = 75° and 8, = 15°, respectively, then find the magnitude of the displact ment vector. (A) 15 6) V3 ov @) Vis 4 z 8 byte More than One Option Correct Type 54, Which of the following having same dimension? (A) Electric flux, electric field, electric dipole moment (B) Pressure, stress, young’s modulus (©) Electromotive force, potential difference, electric voltage (D) Heat, potential energy, work done. 55. The ratio of the dimension of Planck's constant and that of moment of inertia is the dimension of (A) Time (B) Frequency (©) Angular momentum (D) Velocity 56. Out of the following pairs, which one does not have the same dimensions? (A) Angular momentum and Planck's constant, (B) Impulse and momentum, (©) Moment of inertia and moment of force. (D) Work and torque. 57. Parsec is the unit of (A) Time (© Frequency (B) Distance (D) Angular acceleration 58, 59, 60, 61. (A) Specific gravity of a fluid is a dimensionless quan- tity (R). It is the ratio of density of fluid to density of water. (A) Both 4 and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A (B) Both 4 and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of (©) Ais correct but R is false (D) Both 4 and R are false ‘A force Fis given by F'= at + b? where tis time, what are the dimension of a and b? (a) (MET, MLT, (B) (MET, MP4] (© [Mrs MET") (D) (ML°7, MLT™“] Which of the following is not a unit of Young's modulus? (A) Nm (© Dyne em* (8) Nm? (D) Mega pascal If M is mass of the earth and R its radius, the ratio of the gravitational acceleration and the gravitational constant is1.46 Chapter 1 2. 63. 64. 65. 66. or. 68. 0. R M ay py Wa @e 2 M MR p) © OF A hypothetical experiment conducted to find Young's modulus Y a © where ris torque and J is length then find x Mo ®1 O©2 M3 Find the dimensions of 2 : Ho (A) MET? (B) MET! (©) ML*r? (D) MET? While printing a book a printer made certain mistakes in the following relation. Find the correct relation, (A) y=A sin @@ (B) A sin (ca + 8) © y=Asin(or+Ox ——(D) y= Asinar +0 The velocity of surface waves depends upon surface tension, coefficient of viscosity and density, The rela- tion is 3 pn 1 e Which of the following pair has different dimensions? (A) Electric pressure, energy density (B) Intensity,e, Zc (C) Reynold’s number and time constant (D) Work, Torque A chocolate cookie is a circular disk of diameter 8.50 + 0.02 cm and thickness 0.050 + 0.005 em. The average volume in em’ is (A) 283 + 03 (©) 1135 # 12 a (B) © ©) sre sie (B) 2.38 + 0.27 (D) 9314 1.12 The fastest commercial airline service is 1450 mi/h Find the speed in kmh and ms (A) 1938 kmh, 618.3 ms”! (B) 2030 kmh”, 623.1 ms (C) 2334 kmh", 647.5 ms (D) None Two capacitors C, = 5.2 mF and 0.1 uF and y= 12.2 UF are joined (i) In series (ii) In parallel, Find the net capacitance in these two cases. (A) 28%, 1.23 % (B) 3.6 %,1.31% (© 34%, 13% (D) 3.9%, 115% 70. n. 2. 2B. 4 5. 16. 1" stands for (A) electric flux. (C) electric field density. (B) electric pressure, (D) capacitance ‘A spherometer has 20 threads per cm. Its circular scale has 100 divisions. Find the least count of spherometer. (A) 5 um (8) 50m (©) 05 um (D) 05 um Which of the following are dimensionally correct? (ay n= Teese ®) ve Pre Pe a _ pri = [net © 5 o r=" fogs tuett (ovicancasnay cone (Sen eae et (D) cannot say. eee (3) © sm(2) ‘Two vectors A and B have magnitude 3 each. 4 xB = -k+2i, Find angle between A and B (A) sin (B) cos” (D) cos"! (A) cos @) tan" 9 () (© sin” (D) sin“ A particle moving eastwards with 5 m/s". In 10 s the velocity changes to 5 m/s" northwards. The average acceleration in this time is (A) Jy mis" towards Northeast 7 (®) } mis*towards North 1 (C) =e mis* towards Northwest (D) Zero77. Ifa vector 2i+3j+8k is perpendicular to the vector 4j—4i-+ark then the value of is “a ®>; O1 (D) -1 78. If the angle between the vectors A and B is6, the value of the product. (2° 4) 4° equals (A) BAPsin @ (B) BA*cos@ sind (©) B&Pcos@ (D) Zero A river is flowing from W to E with a speed 5 m/min. ‘A man can swim instill waters ata velocity 10 m/min. In which direction should a man swim to take the shortest path to reach the south bank? (A) 30° East of South (B) 60° East of North (C) South (D) 30° West of North 79. 80, Electrons in a TV tube move horizontally South to North. Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field points down. The electron is deflected towards (A) West (B) No deflection (C) East (D) North to South 81. 1f-B =B-C then (A) T=Zatways (B) £4 Calways (©) F may not be equal oC (D) None of these 82. A = 3/+4] find a vector perpendicular to A in the plane of 7 wk (© 47-3 83. Finda vector ¥ which is perpendicular to both A” and B boat has magnitude equal t that of 8. Rule: Interchange coef of 7 and 7 and change sign of one ofthe vectors Fa3i-2}k Bodiv3j—2h “ goles ® 7 © PE w (2 Gnoj+ni) 10) +17) 85. 86. 87. 89. 990, Unit and Dimension 1.47 Rain is falling vertically with 3 ms and a man is moving due North with 4 ms. In which direction he should hold the umbrella to protect himself from rains? (A) 37° North of vertical (B) 37° South of vertical (©) 53° North of vertical (D) 53° South of vertical ‘A man is moving on his bike with 54 kmh", He takes 4 u-turn in 10 s and continues to move with the some velocity. Find average acceleration during ths time. (A) 3.0 ms? (B) 1.5ms? ©o (©) -15ms? ‘A man starts from O moves 500 m turns by 60° and ‘moves 500:m again turns by 60° and moves 500 m and 0 on. Find the displacement aftr (i) Sth turn, (i) 3rd turn (A) 500 m, 1000 m (©) 1000 m, 50/3 m (B) 500 m, $00 V3 m (D) None of these BAF then a wa 1 Bz © 4 (D) Indeterminate The acceleration ofa particle as seen from two frames '$, and S; has equal magnitude 5 ms~. (A) The frames must be at rest with respect to each other. (B) The frames may be moving with respect to each other but neither should be accelerated with respect to the other. (C) The acceleration of frame S, with respect to S, be 0 or 10 ms. (D) The acceleration of S, with respect to S, lies between 0 and 10 ms”. Aman running on a horizontal road at 8 ms finds rain. falling vertically. If he increases his speed to 12 ms, he finds that drops make 30° angle with the vertical. Find velocity of rain with respect to the road. (A) 4V7 mst (8) 8V2 mst (© 3 mst (D) 8ms* In Fig, 1.25 (A) shown find the velocity of block m if both the rope ends are pulled with a velocity v. y (A) 2080 os cosé ’ wv © D we) 2cos@ wy cos1.48 Chapter 1 a. 92. 93. 94, 95, 96. Which of the following cannot be in equilibrium? (A) 10N, 10N, SN (B) 5N,7N, 9N (C) 8N, 4N, 13N_ (D) 9N, 6N, SN H=3144}+2h, B =61—j+3k.. Find a vector paral- Jel to 4” whose magnitude is equal to that of B wy fBbiait) — w FS (a- iss) © [2 Girsie2i) (D) None @, B, @ are three coplanar vectors. Find the vector @=4)-7,0 =-31+29,0=-39 (A) V5, 297° (By V5 ,63° (© V3,297° (D) V5, 63° ‘A block of mass m is connected to three springs, each of spring constant kas shown in Fig. 1.26. The block is pulled by x in the direction of C. Find resultant spring constant. Ak (B) 2k 3k Ox OF Fig. 1.26 A particle moves in the x ~ y plane under the action of a force Fsuch that the value of its linear momentum pat any instant is p = 2 (costi + sint j). The angle @ between F and p is (A) 60° (By 45° (C) 30° (D) 90° Consider a collection of large number of particles, each moving with a speed v. The direction of velocity is randomly distributed in the collection, The magnitude of the relative velocity between a pair of particles aver- aged over all the pairs in the collection (Ayy (B) 2 oF oy 2 97. A steamer is moving due east with 36 km/h, To a man in the steamer the wind appears to blow at 18 km/h due north, Find the velocity of the wind, (A) 55 ms" tan! ENorth of East (B) Sms" tan 2 North of East (©) 5N5 ms tan 2 North of East (D) Sims"tan Noth of East 98. The position vector of a particle is ¥ = afcos wri + sinor j]. The velocity ofthe particle (A) parallel to position vector. (B) directed towards origin (C) directed away from origin. (D) perpendicular to position vector. 99, A force 61+3)+% Newton displaces a particles from (0, 3,2) 10 B(S, 1, 6). Find the work done, (a) 103 (B) 225 (© 325 () 413 100. Wind is blowing NE with 18 2 km hr! and steamer jis heading due west with 18 km hr!. In which direc- tion is the flag on the mast fluttering? (A) North West (B) North (© South West (D) South 101. The resultant of two forces equal in magnitude is equal to either of two vectors in magnitude. Find the angle between the forces. (A) 60°) 45° ©) 90° 102, A man goes 100 m north then 100 m east and then 20 m north and then 100 v2 m south-West. Find the displacement. (A) 20m West (©) 20mNorth (D) 120° (B) 20m East (D) 20m South 103, If force, length and time are fundamental quantities, then find the dimensions of density is FL"? (8) FL“? © FLT? ©) FrUnit and Dimension 1.49 Ae id 104, Dimensions of <-, where symbols have their usual meaning are £2003) (a) 7) ® wry © WT") (D) (LT) 105, The physical quantities not having same dimensions are [2003] (A) torque and work, (B) momentum and Planck's constant. (C) stress and Young’s modulus. (D) speed and (149 )""?. 106, Which one of the following represents the correct dimensions of the coefficient of viscosity? [2004] @ WT?) ®) (Mer) © wry ©) (ML7r?] Which of the following units denotes the dimensions [ML /Q"}, where Q denotes the electric charge? [2006] (B) Henry (H) (D) Weber (Wb) 107. (A) Whim? (C) Him? 108. The dimensions of magnetic field in M, L, T and C (Coulomb) is given as [2008] (A) [MLTC*) (B) (MT?C7)} © (uric) (D) [ur?c"'} 109. The respective number of significant figure for the numbers 23.023, 0.0003 and 2.1x10"° are [2010] A) 44,2 (B) 5,1,2 © 5,15 (D) 5,5,2 110. Resistance of a given wire is obtained by measuring the current flowing in it and the voltage difference applied across it. Ifthe percentage errors in the mea~ surement of the current and the voltage difference are 34% each, then error in the value of resistance of the wire is (2012) (A) 6% (D) 3% (B) Zero (C) 1% 111. Let [€9] denote the dimensional formula of the per- mittivity of vacuum. If M= mass, L= length, T= time and A= electric current, then (2013) m2, 113. 14, us. (A) [eo] = IMP a] B) [eg]=[WO ET A] (© [eo]=[Mt ET A] (D) [e]=(M LT? A] ‘The current voltage relation of diode is given by 1=(e1000 V/T - 1) mA, where the applied voltage V is in volts and the temperature T is in degree Kelvi Ifa student makes an error measuring + 0.01 V while ‘measuring the current of 5 mA at 300 K, what will be the error in the value of current inmA? [2014] (A) 0.2 mA (B) 0.252 mA (©) 0.5 mA (D) 0.05 mA to I mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using a wrist watch of 1 resolution. The accuracy in the determination of g is (2015) (A) 3% (BY 1% (OC) S%@_—(D) 2% ‘A student measures the time period of 100 oscilla- tions of a simple pendulum four times. The data set is 90s, 91 s, 95 s, and 92 s. If the minimum division in the measuring clock is 1 s, then the reported mean time should be: (2016) (A) 9245.08 (B) 9241.88 (©) 92438 (D) 92425 ‘A screw gauge with a pitch of 0.5 mm and a circular scale with 50 divisions is used to measure the thick ness ofa thin sheet of Aluminium. Before starting the ‘measurement, itis found that when the two jaws ofthe serew gauge are brought in contact, the 45" division coincides with the main scale line and that the zero of the main scale is barely visible. What is the thickness of the sheet if the main scale reading is 0.5 mm and the 25" division coincides with the main scale line? [2016] (A) 0.80 mm (©) 0.50 mm (B) 0.70 mm (D) 0.75 mm