Graphs

Graphs
A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are numbers with a
not equal to zero.
The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a parabola. Parabolas may open upward or
downward and vary in "width" or "steepness", but they all have the same basic "U" shape. The
picture below shows three graphs, and they are all parabolas.
All parabolas are symmetric with respect to a line called the axis of symmetry. A parabola
intersects its axis of symmetry at a point called the vertex of the parabola.
You know that two points determine a line. This means that if you are given any two points in
the plane, then there is one and only one line that contains both points. A similar statement can
be made about points and quadratic functions.
Given three points in the plane that have different first coordinates and do not lie on a line, there
is exactly one quadratic function f whose graph contains all three points. The applet below
illustrates this fact. The graph contains three points and a parabola that goes through all three.
The corresponding function is shown in the text box below the graph. If you drag any of the
points, then the function and parabola are updated.
Many quadratic functions can be graphed easily by hand using the techniques of
stretching/shrinking and shifting (translation) the parabola y = x2 . (See the section on
manipulating graphs.)
Example 1.
Sketch the graph of y = x2/2. Starting with the graph of y = x2, we shrink by a factor of one half.
This means that for each point on the graph of y = x2, we draw a new point that is one half of
the way from the x-axis to that point.
Example 2.
Sketch the graph of y = (x - 4)^2 - 5. We start with the graph of y = x2 , shift 4 units right, then 5
units down.
Exercise 1:
(a) Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)2 - 3. Answer
(b) Sketch the graph of y = -(x - 5)2 + 3. Answer
Return to Contents
Standard Form
The functions in parts (a) and (b) of Exercise 1 are examples of quadratic functions in standard
form. When a quadratic function is in standard form, then it is easy to sketch its graph by
reflecting, shifting, and stretching/shrinking the parabola y = x2.
The quadratic function f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k, a not equal to zero, is said to be in standard form. If a
is positive, the graph opens upward, and if a is negative, then it opens downward. The line of
symmetry is the vertical line x = h, and the vertex is the point (h,k).
Any quadratic function can be rewritten in standard form by completing the square. (See the
section on solving equations algebraically to review completing the square.) The steps that we
use in this section for completing the square will look a little different, because our chief goal
here is not solving an equation.
Note that when a quadratic function is in standard form it is also easy to find its zeros by the
square root principle.
Example 3.
Write the function f(x) = x2 - 6x + 7 in standard form. Sketch the graph of f and find its zeros and
vertex.
f(x) = x2 - 6x + 7.
= (x2 - 6x )+ 7. Group the x2 and x terms and then complete the square on these terms.
= (x2 - 6x + 9 - 9) + 7.
We need to add 9 because it is the square of one half the coefficient of x, (-6/2)2 = 9. When we
were solving an equation we simply added 9 to both sides of the equation. In this setting we add
and subtract 9 so that we do not change the function.
= (x2 - 6x + 9) - 9 + 7. We see that x2 - 6x + 9 is a perfect square, namely (x - 3)2.
f(x) = (x - 3)2 - 2. This is standard form.
From this result, one easily finds the vertex of the graph of f is (3, -2).
To find the zeros of f, we set f equal to 0 and solve for x.
(x - 3)2 - 2 = 0.
(x - 3)2 = 2.
(x - 3) = ± sqrt(2).
x = 3 ± sqrt(2).
To sketch the graph of f we shift the graph of y = x2 three units to the right and two units down.
If the coefficient of x2 is not 1, then we must factor this coefficient from the x2 and x terms
before proceeding.
Example 4.
Write f(x) = -2x2 + 2x + 3 in standard form and find the vertex of the graph of f.
f(x) = -2x2 + 2x + 3.
= (-2x2 + 2x) + 3.
= -2(x2 - x) + 3.
= -2(x2 - x + 1/4 - 1/4) + 3.
We add and subtract 1/4, because (-1/2)2 = 1/4, and -1 is the coefficient of x.
= -2(x2 - x + 1/4) -2(-1/4) + 3.
Note that everything in the parentheses is multiplied by -2, so when we remove -1/4 from the
parentheses, we must multiply it by -2.
= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 1/2 + 3.
= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 7/2.
The vertex is the point (1/2, 7/2). Since the graph opens downward (-2 < 0), the vertex is the
highest point on the graph.
Exercise 2:
Write f(x) = 3x2 + 12x + 8 in standard form. Sketch the graph of f ,find its vertex, and find the
zeros of f. Answer
Alternate method of finding the vertex
In some cases completing the square is not the easiest way to find the vertex of a parabola. If
the graph of a quadratic function has two x-intercepts, then the line of symmetry is the vertical
line through the midpoint of the x-intercepts.
The x-intercepts of the graph above are at -5 and 3. The line of symmetry goes through -1,
which is the average of -5 and 3. (-5 + 3)/2 = -2/2 = -1. Once we know that the line of symmetry
is x = -1, then we know the first coordinate of the vertex is -1. The second coordinate of the
vertex can be found by evaluating the function at x = -1.
Example 5.
Find the vertex of the graph of f(x) = (x + 9)(x - 5).
Since the formula for f is factored, it is easy to find the zeros: -9 and 5.
The average of the zeros is (-9 + 5)/2 = -4/2 = -2. So, the line of symmetry is x = -2 and the first
coordinate of the vertex is -2.
The second coordinate of the vertex is f(-2) = (-2 + 9)(-2 - 5) = 7*(-7) = -49.
Therefore, the vertex of the graph of f is (-2, -49).
Return to Contents
Applications
Example 6.
A rancher has 600 meters of fence to enclose a rectangular corral with another fence dividing it
in the middle as in the diagram below.
As indicated in the diagram, the four horizontal sections of fence will each be x meters long and
the three vertical sections will each be y meters long.
The rancher's goal is to use all of the fence and enclose the largest possible area.
The two rectangles each have area xy, so we have
total area: A = 2xy.
There is not much we can do with the quantity A while it is expressed as a product of two
variables. However, the fact that we have only 1200 meters of fence available leads to an
equation that x and y must satisfy.
3y + 4x = 1200.
3y = 1200 - 4x.
y = 400 - 4x/3.
We now have y expressed as a function of x, and we can substitute this expression for y in the
formula for total area A.
A = 2xy = 2x (400 -4x/3).
We need to find the value of x that makes A as large as possible. A is a quadratic function of x,
and the graph opens downward, so the highest point on the graph of A is the vertex. Since A is
factored, the easiest way to find the vertex is to find the x-intercepts and average.
2x (400 -4x/3) = 0.
2x = 0 or 400 -4x/3 = 0.
x = 0 or 400 = 4x/3.
x = 0 or 1200 = 4x.
x = 0 or 300 = x.
Therefore, the line of symmetry of the graph of A is x = 150, the average of 0 and 300.
Now that we know the value of x corresponding to the largest area, we can find the value of y by
going back to the equation relating x and y.
y = 400 - 4x/3 = 400 -4(150)/3 = 200.Quadratic function

In algebra, a quadratic function, a quadratic polynomial, a polynomial of degree 2, or simply a
quadratic, is a polynomial function in one or more variables in which the highest-degree term is
of the second degree. For example, a quadratic function in three variables x, y, and z contains
exclusively terms x2, y2, z2, xy, xz, yz, x, y, z, and a constant:
{\displaystyle f(x,y,z)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+dxy+exz+fyz+gx+hy+iz+j,}
f(x,y,z)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+dxy+exz+fyz+gx+hy+iz+j,
with at least one of the coefficients a, b, c, d, e, or f of the second-degree terms being non-zero.
A quadratic polynomial with two real roots (crossings of the x axis) and hence no complex roots.
Some other quadratic polynomials have their minimum above the x axis, in which case there are
no real roots and two complex roots.
A univariate (single-variable) quadratic function has the form[1]
{\displaystyle f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0} f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0

in the single variable x. The graph of a univariate quadratic function is a parabola whose axis of
symmetry is parallel to the y-axis, as shown at right.
If the quadratic function is set equal to zero, then the result is a quadratic equation. The
solutions to the univariate equation are called the roots of the univariate function.
The bivariate case in terms of variables x and y has the form
{\displaystyle f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!} f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!

with at least one of a, b, c not equal to zero, and an equation setting this function equal to zero
gives rise to a conic section (a circle or other ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola).
In general there can be an arbitrarily large number of variables, in which case the resulting
surface is called a quadric, but the highest degree term must be of degree 2, such as x2, xy, yz,
etc.

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(b) Sketch the graph of y = -(x - 5)2 + 3. Answer

= (x2 - 6x + 9) - 9 + 7. We see that x2 - 6x + 9 is a perfect square, namely (x - 3)2.

f(x) = (x - 3)2 - 2. This is standard form.

= -2(x2 - x + 1/4 - 1/4) + 3.

= -2(x2 - x + 1/4) -2(-1/4) + 3.

= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 1/2 + 3.

= -2(x - 1/2)2 + 7/2.

Alternate method of finding the vertex

Find the vertex of the graph of f(x) = (x + 9)(x - 5).

Therefore, the vertex of the graph of f is (-2, -49).

The two rectangles each have area xy, so we have

total area: A = 2xy.

A = 2xy = 2x (400 -4x/3).

y = 400 - 4x/3 = 400 -4(150)/3 = 200.Quadratic function

{\displaystyle f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0} f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0

The bivariate case in terms of variables x and y has the form

{\displaystyle f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!} f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!

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