Violoncello (Cello) .: Bass Violin
Violoncello (Cello) .: Bass Violin
BIBLIOGRAPHY
STEPHEN BONTA (introduction, I), SUZANNE
WIJSMAN (II), MARGARET CAMPBELL (III, 1–2), BARRY
KERNFELD, ANTHONY BARNETT (III, 3)
Violoncello
I. Origins and history to c1700
1. The instrument.
The history of the bass violin has yet to be thoroughly traced,
primarily because of the confusion arising from the many names
applied to the instrument and the great variety of sizes it took in
pictorial sources throughout its early years. In Italy, until the early
years of the 18th century and with the exception of Venice, the term
‘violone’ probably indicated bass violin. (From the 1660s Venetians
seem to have applied this term to a contrabass instrument.)
Depending on time and place in Italy, the terms ‘violetta’ and ‘viola’
could apply either to alto or bass instruments. What seems certain is
that the bass violin first appeared and attained its present size, name
and tuning south of the Alps.
The earliest-known evidence of the instrument's existence is found in
Agricola's Ein kurtz deudsche Musica (Wittenberg, 1528), where
the Geige appears as the bass member of a newly emergent, four-
part violin consort. The earliest-known pictorial representation
appears in an ‘Angel Concert’, painted by Gaudenzio Ferrari in
1534–6 on the dome of the sanctuary of the Madonna dei Miracoli in
Saronno (fig.1).
The history of the instrument, before it was called violoncello, may
have been directly related to the material used for its strings (see
also String, §3). Originally, all four were made solely of sheep gut.
Numerous illustrations of early bass and contrabass instruments
demonstrate how great was the disparity in thickness between top
and bottom strings (fig.2). Thick strings, regardless of material, are
afflicted by inharmonicity (the overtones are badly out of tune,
resulting in a poor quality of sound). Moreover, the volume of sound
produced with thick gut strings is much less than with thin strings.
Longer strings could be thinner and hence better sounding, so string
length on early bass violins was made as long as the maker dared
without exceeding the reach of the fingers of the left hand in first
position; hence one of the commonest names for the early bass violin
was ‘violone’.
Development of the wirewound string, produced by winding a fine
wire around a gut core, provided a solution to several of these
problems by increasing the density of the strings, allowing them to be
made much thinner and also shorter. Two pieces of evidence
pinpoint the time and place of this development: a notice in the fourth
edition of Playford's Introduction (C1664), mentioning that wirewound
gut or silk strings, a ‘late invention’, sounded ‘much better and lowder
than the common Gut strings’; and a request in 1701 for
reimbursement for a set of four strings purchased for a violone by
Andrea Mauritij, a viola player at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, who
specified of the bottom string: ‘la quarta coperta d'Argento di
Bologna’.
The cumbersome violone could thus be cut down in size – many
literally were so – and the name ‘violoncello’ emerged. Two bass
violins, made by Gaspar Borbon and now in the Musée des
Instruments de Musique of the Brussels Conservatory, illustrate the
drastic results of these operations. One, dating from 1702, was
unaltered and hence retained its original, larger size. In contrast to a
typical modern cello, whose sounding string length is 68–69 cm and
body length 75–76 cm, this instrument has a sounding string length
of 73 cm and a body length of 80 cm. The other instrument, of 1670,
has been altered in a rather drastic and unsightly fashion. Among the
operations performed on it was the relocation of the f holes. The
original ones were filled in with pieces of wood whose grain
necessarily differed from what was found in the original belly; the
holes were subsequently recarved at another, higher location.
Fig.3 shows the earliest known representation (1681) of a wirewound
bass string. Significantly, the two smaller string instruments, a viola
and violin, do not have wirewound strings.
The early bass violin existed in two sizes with different families of
higher and lower tunings. Instruments with the higher tunings are
somewhat older. It is possible that such an instrument is pictured in
the fresco by Ferrari (fig.1). Agricola (C1529) and Ganassi (Lettione
seconda, Venice, 1543/R) were the first to mention a three-string
bass instrument tuned F–c–g. Hans Gerle (Musica teusch,
Nuremberg, 1532) was the earliest to describe a four-string cello, and
gave the tuning that is used today: C–G–d–a. Praetorius (Syntagmu
Musicum, ii, 2/1619) was the next to give this tuning. However in the
intervening years, and even later, the tuning of the bass violin was
most often one step lower, B '–F–c–g, given by Lanfranco (C1533),
Jambe de Fer (C1556), Zacconi (C1592), Cerone (El melopeo y
maestro, Naples, 1613), Mersenne (Harmonie Universelle) and
Playford (C1664). This tuning continued the downward progression
based on fifths established for the violin, the common note between
soprano and bass instruments being g.
Later writers give one or another version of a higher family of tunings,
adding a fourth string to the treble end of Agricola's tuning: Zacconi
and Praetorius both give F–c–g–d', Banchieri (Conclusioni nel suono
dell'organo, Bologna, 1609) gives G–d–a–e'. An instrument probably
intended for one of the higher tunings belongs to the
Gemeentemuseum, The Hague; made by Jan Boumeester in 1676, it
has a sounding string length of 52 cm and a body length of 53 cm.
An analysis of the tessitura used by Monteverdi favours the tuning
of C–G–d–a. Other composers, such as Giovanni Valentini, (Musiche
concertate, 1619), wrote bass lines that call for B '. The tuning based
on B ' was in use in France and England until the 18th century;
Corrette (Méthode … pour apprendre … le violoncelle, 1741) stated
that the tuning based on C was introduced to France around 1710,
and J.F. de la Fond's A New System of Music indicates that by 1725
it was in use in England.
Although the term ‘violoncello’ was increasingly used in publications
in the latter years of the 17th century, the earlier name for this
instrument, ‘violone’, persisted well into the 18th century. Corelli used
the term ‘violone’ for the bass string instrument in all his prints. The
partbook for the bass string instrument in G.A. Silvani's Il secondo
libro delle litanie op.14 (Bologna, 1725) was entitled ‘Violone o
tiorba’. Ten years later, G.A. Perti's Messa e salmi concertati op.2
was published in Bologna, including a partbook entitled ‘Violoncello o
violone di ripieno’.
Andrea Amati and his descendants in Cremona (c1511–1740), and
Gasparo da Salò (1540–1609) and his successor G.P. Maggini
(c1580–?1630/1) in Brescia, were among the earliest makers of bass
violins. Other somewhat later makers included Francesco Rugeri
(c1630–1698) and members of the Guarneri family (1623–1744) in
Cremona, G.B. Rogeri (fl c1670–c1705) in Brescia, and members of
the Grancino family (1637–c1726).
It appears that the neck on the early bass violin was, like that on the
early violin, directly aligned with the belly of the instrument, requiring
a wedge under the fingerboard to make it parallel with the strings.
One unaltered example with this construction, made by Egidius
Snoeck in 1736, survives in the Musée des Instruments de Musique
of the Brussels Conservatory. By installing a neck that canted
backward the downward force on the bridge is increased, thereby
conveying more energy from the strings to the instrument and
producing the louder sound needed for an instrument expected to
compete with an orchestra in a concerto. By the early years of the
18th century Stradivari had established a body length of 75–6 cm,
which has served as the standard ever since, although some makers
continued to make larger sizes into the 1750s.
2. Technique and performers.
The early bass violin rested on the floor while being played (fig.4).
This position was still used as late as the 1750s, as can be seen in a
drawing by P.L. Ghezzi (fig.5). Towards 1700 it became usual for the
player to raise the instrument off the floor, supporting it with the
calves, in the traditional posture of the bass viol player. This higher
position made it easier for the performer to explore more demanding
fingering and bowing techniques. Published tutors for the instrument
do not exist before the 18th century. It is clear that the performer in
Metsu's painting (fig.4) holds the bow as a viol player, using an
underhand position, although other pictures (e.g. fig.1) show an
overhand grip.
Little is yet known about performers on the instrument, especially
those north of the Alps. In the last decades of the 17th century, three
men made reputations as solo cellists performing in and around
Bologna: Petronio Franceschini (c1650–80); Domenico Gabrielli
(1651–90), and Giuseppe Maria Jacchini (c1663–1727). All three
were cellists at S Petronio.
3. Repertory.
The only repertory for the early bass violin that has thus far been
investigated with any thoroughness is music that was used in the
Roman Rite. Among the earliest surviving prints of pieces with a part
for the bass violin (called ‘violone’ in each instance) are two
published in Milan. The first, a motet entitled O salutaris
hostia in Motetti à due, & tre voci op.2 (1609) by Caterina Assandra,
a nun at the convent of S Agata, Lomello, near Milan, has a violone
part with a very limited range, F–c', and could be performed in first
position on either size of bass violin or on some kind of bass viol
(ex.1). The second, the Concerti ecclesiastici by G.P. Cima, was
published the following year, and contains a Sonata per violino e
violone. Here the writing is somewhat more demanding in terms of
fluency of execution (ex.2). The range of Cima's part for violone C–d'
indicates that at least one of Assandra's contemporaries may have
been writing parts for an instrument tuned C–G–d–a. Certainly
Legrenzi was writing for an instrument with this tuning when he
published his Sonate op.2 (1655) in Venice (ex.3).
In 1665, the year following Playford's announcement of the
development of the wirewound string (see §I, 1, above), Cazzati's
semiquaver broken octaves in the violone part of his Sonate op.35
require greater bow control than the previous examples as well as e'
(ex.4). G.C. Arresti's Sonate op.4 appeared in the same year and
was the earliest print to call for the ‘violoncello’. G.M. Placuzzi's
violoncello part in his Suonate op.1 (1667) (ex.5), and
Cazzati's Capriccio detta il Lambertini, in his Varii, e diversi
capricci op.50 (1669) (ex.6), both contain rapid broken octaves. In
Ferrara, Sebastian Cherici published his Inni sacri op.1 (1672),
including a bass part labelled Violetta, with a range of D–e' (ex.7).
Evidence that in late 17th-century Italy the violone had become
distinct from the violoncello appears in G.A. Perti's Messa à 5
concertate con instromenti (c1675–85), which includes partbooks for
violoncello, violone and contrabasso (ex.8). The range of the
violoncello part is D–c'.
The appearance of the term ‘bassetto’ adds to the confusion: the title
of Andrea Grossi's op.1 (1678) reads Balletti … a tre, due violini e
violone, and Giorgio Buoni's op.2 (1693) is entitled Suonate a due
Violini, e Violoncello, yet in each case the bass partbook is labelled
‘Bassetto’.
Other early Italian composers for the bass violin (using various
terminology) include (published in Venice): Claudio Monteverdi (viola
da brazzo), Vespro della Beata Vergine (1610), Selva morale (1641),
and Messe à 4 et salmi (1650); Alessandro Grandi (violone), Il
secondo libro de motetti (1613) and (viola) Motetti a una, et due voci,
libro III (1629); Giovanni Priuli (violone), Missae [8vv] (1624) and
(viola), Delicie musicali (1625); Tarquinio Merula (violone), Libro
secondo de concerti spirituali (1628), Canzoni overo sonate (1637),
and Il quarto libro delle canzoni da suonare (1651); G.B.
Buonamente (basso da brazzo), Il quinto libro di varie sonate
sinfonie, gagliarde, corrente, & ariette (1629) and Sonate et canzoni
… libro sesto (1636); Maurizio Cazzati (violone), Canzoni op.2
(1642), Sonate op.8 (1648). Composers who published in Bologna
include Cazzati, Sonate op.35 (1665), and Varii, e diversi
capricci op.50 (1669); Cherici (violetta), Inni sacri (1672) and
(bassetto), Harmonia di devoti concerti op.2 (1681)
and Compieta op.3 (Bologna, 1686). The following composers,
publishing in either Bologna or Venice, specified ‘violoncino’ as the
bass: G.B. Fontana, Sonate (1641); Domenico Freschi, Messe e
salmi op.1 (1660); Simpliciano Olivo, Salmi di compieta op.2 (1674);
Francesco Cavalli, Musiche sacre (1656) and Gasparo
Gaspardini, Sonate op.1 (1683).
Violoncello
II. 18th and 19th centuries
1. Organological development.
2. Technique.
3. 18th-century use, performers and repertory.
4. 19th century.
Violoncello, §II: 18th and 19th centuries
1. Organological development.
(i) 18th century.
Although there is evidence that Maggini, Francesco Rugeri and
members of the Amati family manufactured a small type of cello
before 1700, Antonio Stradivari is credited with standardizing and
perfecting its dimensions in about 1707 with his smaller model,
labelled ‘forma B’ and ‘forma B piccola’ on original patterns found in
Stradivari’s workshop. The ‘forma B’ body length measured 75–6 cm,
and its maximum width was 44·5 cm, being both shorter and
narrower than at least 30 cellos that he made between 1680 and
1701. The most famous extant example of his older, larger model is
the ‘Servais’ cello of 1701 (whose proportions have not been altered
except for the modern neck, bridge and fingerboard) which measures
79 cm in body length and 47 cm in width. By the end of the 18th
century, however, Stradivari’s ‘forma B’ dimensions, exemplified by
his ‘Duport’ and ‘Mara’ cellos (both of 1711), had become accepted
as the norm.
Some makers, such as the Austrian-born David Tecchler
(b 1668; d after 1747) in Rome, were still making larger cellos
(known as ‘church basses’ in England) into the middle of the 18th
century. In his treatise on playing the flute (Versuch, Berlin, 1752),
J.J. Quantz also mentions the need for cellos of two sizes: the larger
with thick strings for orchestral (ripieno) playing, and the smaller with
thin strings for solos.
During the course of the 18th century, many of these larger, late
17th- and early 18th-century instruments were cut down in size to
conform to the smaller dimensions established by Stradivari. This
reconstruction often also included a new, stronger bass bar and a
longer, thinner neck. At the time, such ‘repairs’ were considered
desirable by players, but the unfortunate results of such alterations
were often detrimental to the integrity of an instrument's acoustic
design. Very few examples remain today of early cellos with original
body dimensions, neck, fingerboard or bass bar. Those that have
survived in original condition point to an early 18th-century cello with
a fingerboard pitch (upwards angle from the plane of the table) giving
a bridge height of at least 7·6 cm, achieved by inserting a wedge
under the fingerboard. This degree of fingerboard pitch is high when
compared with that of contemporaneous examples of violin
construction, on which the fingerboard is generally closer to the
parallel with the table of the instrument.
The earliest documented measurements for the neck and fingerboard
of a cello are those of James Talbot (c1695) who gives 10 inches
(25·4 cm) as the length of the neck (nut to shoulder) and 13 inches
(33·8 cm) from the nut to the end of the fingerboard, allowing for a
range of stopped notes to approximately a'. A string length, from nut
to bridge, of around 68·8 cm was standard by the middle of the 18th
century. The fingerboard gained length as the range of hand
positions demanded by players increased during the 18th century to
encompass four octaves, and playing in thumb position became
more widely used. Iconographical and documentary evidence
indicates that the standard fingerboard length was about 60·7 cm by
the early 19th century. Frets were still used on some cellos in the
mid-18th century, as observed by Quantz (1752), and advocated by
Robert Crome in his tutor (C1765). (For a discussion of use of
the Endpin and other methods of supporting the cello, see §II, 2(i),
below.)
(ii) Five-string and piccolo cellos.
Although cellos with four strings predominated in Italy by the end of
the 17th century, cellos with more than four strings were still used
elsewhere. The advent of thumb position fingerings (the technique in
which the whole hand is put on top of the strings with the thumb
placed across and perpendicular to them, functioning as a moveable
nut in relation to the other fingers) may have caused the redundancy
of cellos with more than four strings at the beginning of the 18th
century. However, five-string cellos were used in Germany into the
middle of the 18th century. In addition to J.S. Bach’s solo cello suite
no.6 bwv1012, written for a five-string cello, the cello part of his
cantata Gott ist mein König bwv71, requires a range extended
to c'' (f'' in Bach’s original, unorchestrated version), suggesting that
an E string would have been required for the execution of this part.
Five-string cellos also appear in numerous Dutch, Flemish and
German paintings and etchings from the 17th and 18th centuries.
(see fig.2).
The correct definition of the violoncello piccolo has been widely
debated. At least eight of Bach’s cantatas written between 1724 and
1726 have obbligato parts designated as such. The
term piccolo means ‘small’. An original cello pattern of Antonio
Stradivari is labelled forma B piccola di violincello but it is likely that
Stradivari sought simply to distinguish this new smaller pattern from
his earlier larger instruments. But these violoncello piccolo parts by
Bach imply that a four-string cello tuned G–d–a–e' was used.
A late 18th-century account by E.L. Gerber (whose father was a
student of Bach) claimed that Bach invented a special sort of small
cello or large viola – called a viola pomposa – to facilitate the
execution of rapid obbligato parts in the bass (see W. Neumann and
H.-J. Schulze, D1972, p.469). Dreyfus (D1987) has suggested that
this instrument may have been the same as the Viola da
spalla (‘shoulder-viola’) mentioned by J.J. Walther in
his Musicalisches Lexicon (Leipzig, 1732), which was tuned like a
cello but with an added fifth string and held over the shoulder by a
strap. However, there is evidence of the earlier existence of both
small and large four- and five-string instruments (Stradivari,
apparently, also made a five-string viola), and it seems doubtful that
this was actually Bach's invention. Rather, it reflects the broad variety
of instrument sizes and types still being used in Germany around
1720, and the terminological amibiguity associated with them.
(Surviving instruments that may be examples of the viola
pomposa, viola da spalla, or violoncello piccolo are listed by M.M.
Smith, B1998.)
(iii) 19th century.
The basic design of the cello changed very little in the 19th century
from that established in the 18th century. 19th-century cello
manufacture continued to rely principally on older Italian models,
especially Stradivari's model ‘B’. However, crude alterations to older
cellos at the beginning of the 19th century were very common.
Exhortations against these practices occur frequently in 19th-century
treatises and literature on violin-making, and suggest that efforts to
establish more firmly the standard dimensions of the cello at this time
occurred in response to the damage to many fine old instruments
caused by these ‘repairs’.
The German cellist B.H. Romberg (1767–1841) experimented with
minor modifications to the cello’s set-up and was responsible for
inventing the practice (known as the ‘Romberg’) of slightly scooping
out and angling the upper surface of the bass side of the fingerboard
to accommodate the wide vibrations of the C string; this is especially
necessary when played in high positions. It is clear from
contemporary accounts that this invention, as well as alterations to
the neck, did not meet with universal approval until the end of the
19th century.
It is possible that the two sizes of cello continued to be used into the
19th century. Two different terms were still used in the Paris
Conservatoire Méthode (1805): violoncelle to describe the solo
instrument, and basse for the accompaniment and orchestral
instrument.
(iv) Makers.
The high demand for cellos in Italy during the period 1680-1740 was
reflected the growing output of Italian makers. In addition to
Stradivari, other North Italian makers of good cellos in the late 17th
and early 18th centuries included Domenico Montagnana, Sanctus
Seraphin, Pietro Guarneri and Matteo Goffriller in Venice; Francesco
Rugeri, G.B. Rogeri and Andrea and Guiseppe Guarneri in Cremona;
P.G. Guarneri in Mantua; the Grancino and Testore families in Milan;
and (slightly later) G.B. Guadagnini in Turin. The Gagliano family in
Naples made cellos from about 1700 for well over a century. An
important 19th-century maker was Giuseppe Rocca in Turin (later in
Genoa).
Jacob Stainer (c1617–1683), worked in Absam in the Austrian Tyrol
but may have been trained as a luthier in Italy. Tyrolean cellos are
distinct in their high arching and square upper bouts. Stainer’s
influence can be seen in the prevalence of these characteristics in
cellos of successive Austro-German makers, particularly the Klotz
family (founders of the Mittenwald School), and in the instruments of
early English makers.
In addition to Stainer, 17th- and 18th-century English violin-making
was influenced by the Brescian school of Maggini. The earliest cello
identifiable as ‘English’ was made by William Baker in Oxford in
1672. Other important early makers of cellos in London were Barak
Norman (1651–1724), Nathaniel Cross (c1689–1751) and Peter
Wamsley (fl 1725–45). Succeeding generations produced a large
number of excellent makers of cellos. Among these were Benjamin
Banks, Richard Duke, Thomas Kennedy, Vincenzo Panormo, and the
Betts, Dodd, Forster and Hill families. Makers in the second half of
the 18th century were influenced by the work of Stradivari and the
Cremonese school, although features of the earlier English style
were retained, such as high arching of the back and belly, and
square bouts.
In France the documented ownership of good Italian instruments by
prominent 18th-century French cellists, such as J.L. Duport, suggests
that fine Italian cellos were readily available and preferred over
locally manufactured instruments. However, French makers later
achieved high standards in the production of cellos, such as the
Lupot family in the second half of the 18th century, and Vuillaume in
the 19th.
(v) The bow.
The evolution of the cello bow in the 18th century was influenced by
that of both the violin and viola da gamba. Early cellists used bows of
many different sizes; measurements of pre-Tourte, 18th-century
bows range from approximately 67 cm to 74 cm in length and weigh
from 65 to 86 grams. Italian players were known to use thicker
strings and correspondingly heavier bows that produced more sound.
Quantz also provides evidence that cellists may have used different
types of bow hair: coarser black hair on a heavier bow for orchestral
use and white hair on a lighter bow for solo playing.
Experiments with violin bow design in the second half of the 18th
century affected cello bow manufacture. The technical requirements
of repertory composed by cellists associated with Mannheim, such as
Anton Fils (1733–60) and Peter Ritter (1763–1846), suggest the use
of a concave rather than convex bow in Germany as early as 1760,
because of the leverage required to make many passages in thumb
position on the thick lower two strings sound well.
François Tourte perfected his bow design by 1786. J.L. Duport
(1749–1819) discussed the merits of different bow lengths, weights
and hair tightness in his Essai (c1806), and specifically
recommended Tourte’s bows, stating that ‘there is no one who has
succeeded better in our day in the manufacture of bows than Mr
Tourte jr’, and that Tourte’s pre-eminence as bowmaker was
generally acknowledged at the time. With the perfection of the
modern bow design by Tourte, most players began using the
concave bow because of its strength of tone and capacity to sustain
a legato line. The length of the stick of Tourte’s cello bows ranged
between 72 cm to 73·6 cm, with the hair length 60 cm to 62 cm. The
balance point of the bow was approximately 18·2 cm from the end of
the frog.
There were relatively few changes to bow design after Tourte’s, and
these were mainly concerned with increasing the power of the bow or
affording the player greater convenience. The leading French makers
of cellos bows in the mid-19th century were F.N. Voirin and
Dominique Peccatte, both of whom worked in the Parisian workshop
of Vuillaume and whose bows often bear his stamp. Other fine
French makers of cello bows included A.J. Lamy, E.F. Ouchard and
Pierre Simon. The Dodd family produced excellent bows in London in
the early 19th century, although some bear the stamp ‘Forster’,
representing the shop where they worked (see Bow, §I, 3–4).
Violoncello, §II: 18th and 19th centuries
2. Technique.
(i) Holding the cello.
Although all treatises and tutors of the 18th and early 19th centuries
advocate supporting the cello by holding it solely with the legs,
iconographic and documentary evidence indicates that endpins,
stools and boxes were used by cello players, probably for reasons of
acoustic enhancement or comfort, throughout the 18th century. The
use of a wooden peg to support the cello is mentioned by Robert
Crome in his Compleat Tutor (Cc1765) and by Corrette in
his Méthode (C1741), as an aid for cellists when they were required
to stand.
J.-L. Duport (C1806) noted that the cello could be held in varying
ways according to the ‘habits and stature of persons’. He stated that
the usual method of supporting the cello was to sit very far forward
on a chair with the left foot forward and the right drawn back, so that
the left-hand corner of the cello falls into the hollow of the right knee
with the weight of the cello resting against the left leg. The right leg
steadies the instrument against the lower right side of the cello.
Etchings from 18th and 19th century treatises often show the right
calf enveloping the top of the lower right bout, probably for stability.
Romberg (C1839) emphasized the importance of maintaining good
posture when sitting with the cello, warning against slumping:
‘stiffness in the arm generally proceeds from bending the body too
much forward, and raising the elbows too high. This defect may be
also avoided in playing the violoncello, by sitting quite straight, and
taking care not to raise the shoulders’.
The endpin re-emerged only at the end of the 19th century. Its use
was recommended for the first time in print only from 1882, by Jules
de Swert (The Violoncello, London, 1882), a pupil of A.F. Servais.
Servais began to use an endpin to support his cello about 1860,
when he became too portly to hold his large-sized Stradivari cello
solely with his legs. Being such a prominent performer and teacher,
he has been erroneously credited with its invention because he
promoted its use. Since cellists in the 19th century did not generally
use endpins, his adoption of this manner of supporting the cello was
considered innovative at the time.
Other cellists in his circle followed suit, probably encouraged by his
example and relishing the greater comfort it afforded, especially
when playing in high positions. The adjustable endpin was introduced
after 1890. An increase in the number of women cellists in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, especially in England, may reflect the
greater freedom the endpin offered, allowing the cello to be held in a
side-saddle manner that did not conflict with prevailing rules of
decorum. Lisa Cristiani (1827–53) was the only notable female cellist
before the late 19th century.
Various types of endpin material – such as wood or metal – were
thought to have special acoustic properties; Hugo Becker (1864–
1941) apparently used not only a wooden endpin, but rested it on a
box to enhance and augment his cello’s tone. Many prominent late
19th-century cellists, such as Alfredo Piatti (1822–1901) and Robert
Haussmann (1852–1909), never used an endpin. Haussman was
closely associated with Brahms and known to produce a very
powerful tone. A photograph of the young David Popper from 1861
shows him holding the cello in the older manner, without an endpin.
(ii) Left-hand technique and fingering.
According to John Gunn in his Theory and Practice of Fingering on
the Violoncello (C1789), earlier cellists held the neck of the cello with
the fingers of the left hand at a slanted, oblique angle and the thumb
behind the first finger (fig.6). This position, a diatonic fingering
system adapted from the violin, was adopted by English cellists,
probably following Italian models, and is documented elsewhere as
being used by some late 18th-century cellists, such as J.B. Janson
(1742–1803), J.B. Tricklir (1750–1813), and Romberg as late as
1839.
The earliest French cellists, who were usually trained as viol players
(such as Martin Berteau), adapted the left-hand technique of the viol,
which is based on semitones, to the cello. In this technique the
fingers are perpendicular to the strings and fingerboard, with the
thumb opposite the second finger of the left hand. Corrette also
advised placing the thumb opposite the second finger, stating that
‘those who play the bass viol learn the neck of the cello more easily
than do the others. They already possess the finger technique and
almost the positions of the cello’. Duport was quite specific in his
instruction that the thumb should be placed exactly between the first
and second fingers of the left hand, and parallel with them. This
system, as developed and systematized by Duport, was widely
accepted by cellists at the beginning of the 19th century and provides
the basis of modern left-hand technique. Romberg stated that an
oblique left-hand position in the higher positions of the neck, with
rounded fingers, afforded the player greater power in the left hand,
and he commented on the relative lack thereof in Duport’s position,
although being more perpendicular to the fingerboard, the latter
allowed greater relaxation of the palm and base joints of the left
hand.
Virtuoso left-hand techniques, such as the use of thumb position,
were developed early in the 18th century by Italian cellists such as
Salvatore Lanzetti (c1710–80). The origins of thumb position are
unclear, although it may be linked to the technique of playing the
trumpet marine, on which harmonics were produced by placing the
left thumb lightly on the string and drawing forceful bow strokes.
Corrette’s Méthode contains the first documented reference to the
use of thumb position, although earlier cello compositions indicate
that thumb position was already being use by Italian cellists at this
time. French cellists, beginning with Berteau, used harmonics as a
technical effect, and works written by prominent 18th-century French
cellists such as Jean Barrière, J.-B.-A. Janson, J.-P. Duport and J.B.
Bréval often feature passage-work in the highest positions. 18th-
century German virtuosos favoured thumb position fingerings for
passage-work, using stationary, ‘blocked’ hand positions with
fingerings across the strings, thus avoiding frequent position
changes. They also had a propensity to use the fourth finger in
thumb position. French cellists avoided using the C string until the
early 19th century, possibly because of the lower pitch standard in
Paris and the resulting lower tension of the string.
(iii) Vibrato.
Vibrato is mentioned in a few 18th- and 19th-century treatises. Called
the ‘close shake’ or ‘tremolo’, Dotzauer (C1832) referred to it as
being practiced primarily by Italian players, and suggested that it
should be used to intensify long notes. Romberg gave examples with
specific notation for vibrato on long notes, but stated that it should
occur only at the beginning of the note and not be sustained. Both
Dotzauer and Romberg recommended using vibrato judiciously.
Romberg comments ‘formerly, the close shake was in such repute
that it was applied indiscriminately to every note of whatever
duration. This produced a most disagreeable and whining effect, and
we cannot be too thankful that an improved taste has at length
exploded the abuse of this embellishment’. Later cellists, such as O.-
C. Vaslin (1794–1889) and Bernhard Cossmann (1822–1910), also
seem to have used vibrato sparingly and commented that its over-
use was in poor taste. It is likely that cellists of the French school
used little, if any, vibrato, focussing instead on nuances of bowing for
beauty of tone and expression.
(iv) Bowing.
The bow was held in a variety of ways by 18th-century cellists. The
underhand grip, derived from viol technique, was still used towards
the end of the 18th century by some players, such as Antonio
Vandini (c1700–73) and J.G. Schetky (1737–1824). Quantz makes
reference to its frequent use in Germany in the mid-18th century
(see fig.4 above).
The most common way of holding the lighter, convex bow was the
violin-influenced overhand grip, above the frog, with the thumb under
the stick (fig.7). Corrette (C1741) reported that Italian players held
the bow in this manner, although he gave two alternative overhand
grips that he considered to be equally good: one as that described
above, but with the thumb under the hair; and the other with the
thumb underneath the frog.
Tourte’s perfecting of the concave bowstick design greatly affected
cello bowing technique and tone production. Duport advocated
holding the bow with a flat thumb on the stick above the frog,
between the second and third fingers, with the little finger balancing
the movements of the hand and bow. He also recommended that the
second finger should bear on the hair, and suggested that mobility in
the fingers of the right hand on the stick is necessary to facilitate
expression in the bow. The use of the bow grip above the frog is
documented in France, England and Spain to the end of the 19th
century.
French bowing in the 18th and 19th centuries was characterized by
use of regulated bow strokes and varied bowing styles. The custom
of holding the bow above the frog allowed for development of light
and off-the-string virtuoso bowing techniques, such as slurred
staccato.
In Germany, Romberg and his pupils, including Friedrich Dotzauer
(1783–1860), held the bow on the frog, allowing for increased
leverage and bowing power. It is possible that this manner of holding
the bow developed when concave sticks began to be used in
Mannheim in the third quarter of the 18th century, although this
manner of using the bow was not univerally adopted in Germany. It
was consistent with bowing technique of the French violin school of
Viotti, whom Romberg greatly admired. Romberg advocated holding
the bow very firmly in the hand, with a straight thumb and fingers, in
a position which he stressed should remain constant while bowing,
irrespective of direction. The arm should remain low and relaxed,
hanging close to the body. He admonished the student:
it is only by placing the hand firmly on the bow, that a
strong, powerful tone can be drawn from the instrument
… if the strength of the tone proceed from the arm, the
instrument must be played with the arm held stiff; which
entirely prevents a fine execution, and this is the cause
that so few players arrive at perfection, they play with the
arm and not with the hand.
The pervasive influence of the Dresden school, originating with
Romberg’s pupil Dotzauer (see §II, 4(ii)(a), below), can be seen in
19th-century German and Russian cello technique, and throughout
the 20th century; today the frog-held bow is the standard practice of
most modern cellists.
(v) Clefs.
In the early 18th century, when Italian cellists dominated the field,
vocal clefs were most commonly used, i.e. bass (F4) clef, combined
with movable c clefs to notate passages in high positions. In the
middle of the century, this practice changed and passages not written
in bass clef were written in g2 clefs, both at pitch and transposed one
octave below. By the latter part of the century, it was common
practice for high solo passages in cello music to be notated in the g2
clef an octave above the actual pitch played, although
accompaniments and lower parts were still written in bass and tenor
(c4) clefs.
(vi) Accompaninent.
The art of accompaniment was a special skill, the importance of
which was emphasized in 18th- and early 19th-century cello methods
(e.g. Baudiot, Baumgärtner, Corrette, Gunn, Kauer, Mozart, Quantz,
Schetky). The accompanying cellist was seen as a subordinate
partner to the principal melodic voice, instrumental or vocal, in aria,
melody and recitative. Required skills for the cellist in this role
included the regulation of time (rhythm, metre and tempo) in an
ensemble, and the expressive articulation of musical character
through the sensitive and appropriate use of bow strokes. There is
some disagreement about adding ornaments to the bass in early
sources, although this apparently was practised by the English cellist
Robert Lindley well into the 19th century. J.B.
Baumgärtner’s Instructions de musique … à l'usage du
violoncelle (Cc1774) provides detailed advice for cellists about how
to accompany recitatives and harmonically embellish a bass line,
with arpeggiated chords and double stops. Several 18th-century
writers advocated using larger-sized instruments for the purpose of
accompaniment (e.g. Gunn, Quantz).
Violoncello, §II: 18th and 19th centuries
3. 18th-century use, performers and repertory.
(i) Italy.
(ii) Austria and Germany.
(iii) Britain.
(iv) France.
Violoncello, §II, 3: 18th-century use, performers and repertory
(i) Italy.
Notwithstanding the terminological ambiguity associated with the
larger members of the violin family, lasting well into the 18th century,
there is ample iconographic and musical evidence to show that the
cello was firmly established as a member of the continuo group in
Italy by the beginning of the 18th century. At that time the cello
played an important role in the opera orchestras of Venice and
Naples as an obbligato instrument in vocal accompaniment. The
orchestra of the Teatro S Carlo in Naples had a well-fortified bass
section in the mid-18th century, with two to three cellos, and an equal
or larger number of double basses as the century progressed.
Benedetto Marcello’s comments (1720) about the excessive
improvisational liberties taken by cellists when accompanying singers
is indicative of both the players’ high skill and the soloistic nature of
their role in both arias and recitatives. In chamber ensembles the
cello was the most common bowed instrument in the continuo group
by the beginning of the 18th century. Italian compositions for solo
cello increased in the early 18th century with the growing importance
of the solo cellist in the orchestra and chamber ensemble (see §3(iv)
below).
Numerous cellists were employed at the Basilica of S Marco in
Venice in the late 17th century and the 18th as maestri de’
concerti or as instrumentalists. Some of these were notable
composers as well, such as Antonio Caldara (c1670–1736). Caldara
is of special interest because of his migration to the Hofkapelle in
Vienna after about 1700 and the resulting spread of Italian influence.
His extant works include a collection of 16 cello sonatas and a
chamber concerto. His manuscript Lezioni (A-Wn EM 69), consisting
of 44 two-part pieces (alongside over 100 similar, though unattributed
works), are among the earliest pedagogical works for the cello. Other
significant Venetian repertory includes the six sonatas for cello and
basso continuo by Benedetto Marcello (Amsterdam, c1734), and a
large number of pieces for cello by Vivaldi, including nine extant
continuo sonatas, and 27 concertos. Domenico Della Bella was a
cellist and maestro di capella at Treviso (c1700–15) whose
compositions include four cello sonatas and a set of sonate da
chiesa (Venice, 1704). These are characterized by contrapuntal
writing and virtuoso solo parts, including multiple stopping.
Naples became an important centre of cello playing in the early 18th
century, probably due to the rise of Neapolitan opera and the need
for good cellists to accompany singers. Francesco Scipriani (1678–
1753) wrote one of the earliest known instruction manuals: Principij
da imparare a suonare il violoncello e con 12 toccate a solo (undated
MS, I-Nc). His Sonate a 2 violoncelli e basso also require advanced
fingering technique. The famous conservatories in Naples produced
internationally recognized virtuosos in the early 18th century, such as
Francesco Alborea (1691–1739) and Salvatore Lanzetti (c1710–80).
Alborea, known popularly as ‘Francisc(h)ello’, was the most famous
and admired virtuoso of the early 18th century, and his skill on the
cello remained legendary for later generations of musicians including
Quantz, Geminiani (as quoted by Burney) and Benda, although little
documentary or musical evidence of Alborea’s career has survived.
From Naples he travelled to Rome and abroad, and in 1726–39 was
employed as solo cellist to the Hofkapelle in Vienna, where he was
the highest paid cellist there in the 18th century. Two attractive
sonatas in manuscript are attributed to him.
Lanzetti, also became a touring cello virtuoso. He made his way to
Paris and London, where he resided for an extended period until
about 1754. He then went to Germany and returned to Italy, where
he was employed in the royal chapel in Turin from about 1760.
His Principes is among the earliest instruction manuals to pay special
attention to fingering. Lanzetti’s technical skill and innovative
approach can be seen in his cello sonatas, which are some of the
most interesting pieces for the instrument from this period. His
Sonatas op.1 (Amsterdam, 1736) contain unusual and imaginative
special effects, both musical and technical, and extend the upper
range to b''. Thumb position is used extensively in these works, along
with double, triple and quadruple stopping, rapid string crossings and
passage-work and slurred staccato bowings.
Luigi Boccherini (1743–1805) was possibly the greatest cellist of the
late 18th century. Evidence of Boccherini’s virtuosity can be seen in
his many technically challenging and attractive solo and chamber
works for the cello, written in an elegant rococo style. The range is
extended as high as b ''' in his sonatas, and florid passages in the
highest positions abound. Boccherini wrote 11 cello concertos, 34
sonatas for cello and basso continuo, and dozens of string quintets
with two cellos.
Although a violinist, Francesco Geminiani (1687–1762) wrote six
remarkably original and technically challenging continuo sonatas for
cello (Paris, 1746), which he later transcribed for the violin. Other
significant 18th-century Italian works for the cello include sonatas by
Boni, Vandini, Platti, Porpora, Antoniotti, Bononcini, Pergolesi, J.-B.
Canavas, Caporale, Cervetto, and Graziani. There are two concertos
by Cirri, six by Leo, one each by E.F. Dall’Abaco, Porpora and
Vandini, and 20 by Platti.
Violoncello, §II, 3: 18th-century use, performers and repertory
(ii) Austria and Germany.
In Austria and Germany the cello appears to have been used
primarily in dance music, or as a part of the continuo group to
reinforce the bass or to play obbligato parts. It did not gain a more
independent role until the second half of the 18th century.
In 1730 J.S. Bach’s orchestra at Leipzig had two cellists and one
violone player. By the second half of the 18th century, the number of
cellists in German court orchestras began to increase to balance the
expanding wind and brass sections. In the orchestra of the Prussian
court at Berlin, for example, the ratio of cellos to basses were,
respectively, 4:2 in 1754, 6:3 in 1783, and 8:4 in 1787. The
orchestras at Mannheim in 1782 and Dresden in 1783 had slightly
more modest sections with four cellos and three basses. At the same
time, the numbers in Haydn’s orchestra at Eszterháza remained
relatively small: still only two cellos and two basses in 1783.
The six solo suites by J.S. Bach, along with the numerous obbligato
parts in his cantatas and Brandenburg concertos, are anomalous in
German music of the period, since music written specifically for solo
cello before the middle of the 18th century is extremely rare.
Composed at Cöthen about 1720, the technical demands of the
suites suggest they were written for a player of high skill, either
Christian Ferdinand Abel (according to the supposition of Spitta,
although it is by no means certain that he played the cello) or C.B.
Linike (1673–1751). Characteristic of the suites are complicated
bowing patterns, the use of batteries, bariolage, arpeggios, multiple
stopping, chords and a high degree of left hand virtuosity in the
positions of the neck. Suite no.5 uses scordatura tuning. These
demands are associated more with contemporary violin and viol
performing practice than contemporary German cello technique as
represented in obbligato and continuo cello parts. The sixth suite
uses a five-string cello.
The Mannheim court was an important centre of cello playing in the
1750s. Anton Fils wrote numerous works for cello while employed at
the Kapelle in 1754–60, including four concertos, sonatas and
chamber works. They show an innovative approach to left-hand
technique in the use of stationary, blocked hand positions for virtuoso
passage-work, especially in thumb position. He also used thumb
position on the G and C strings as a technical effect for contrasting
registers. The Mannheim tradition was continued by Peter Ritter
(1763–1846), who composed many solo works for the cello, as well
as operas and chamber works.
Early Viennese works for the cello include concertos by M.G. Monn
(1745) and G.C. Wagenseil (1752 and 1763). These show an
emerging virtuosity in the Austrian school, the range employed by
each composer extending to d'' and e'' respectively. Special
techniques, such as batteries, brisure, double stopping and
arpeggios are also used.
The cellists in the employ of the Kapelle of Prince Esterházy at the
time of Haydn’s association with the court provided the stimulus for
an expanding repertory of significant works for the cello, and the
emergence of a role distinct from its traditional bass line
accompaniment function in ensembles. Already in the op.20 string
quartets (1774), Haydn explored the concept of equal four-part
writing and treated the cello as a principal melodic voice like that of
the violin. His Concerto in C (c1761–5) is the first cello concerto by a
major composer of the Classical period, although Haydn’s interest in
exploring the cello's technical possibilities in a concertante role can
be seen already in several of the early symphonies (nos.6, 7, 8, 15,
31 and 45). Written for Joseph Weigl, then principal cellist at
Eszterháza, the Concerto in C is a musical masterpiece and a
virtuoso showpiece for the cellist. It uses techniques similar to those
employed by Fils in his concertos: fast passages implying the use of
horizontal thumb position fingerings across three strings in blocked
hand positions, arpeggios, batteries, brisure, double stops alternating
with lower open strings, and lower-register sonorities. The range of
the cello part extends to a''.
The Concerto in D (1783) was written for the Bohemian cellist, Anton
Kraft (1749–1820), principal cellist at Eszterháza from 1778 to 1790.
It was erroneously attributed to Kraft in Schilling’s Lexikon der
Tonkunst (1837), leading to a century of doubt about its authenticity
until Haydn’s autograph was found in Vienna in 1951. Its style and
special technical effects give ample opportunity for virtuosity and
expressiveness, suggesting that a high degree of collaboration
between Kraft and Haydn may have occurred in the compositional
process. Kraft’s own compositions for the cello include virtuoso
sonatas, duos, salon pieces and concertos for cello. These works, as
well as the cello part of Beethoven’s Triple Concerto op.56, written
for Kraft, show his technical fluency. Techniques such as lower string
octave passages, double stops in thumb position, brisure, passages
specifically intended to be played on lower strings,
arpeggios, bariolage, batteries, and bowing sul ponticello, are
employed in these works. His playing was noted for its power and
expressiveness, and he performed the premières of numerous works
of Beethoven.
Beethoven demonstrated an early interest in writing for the cello. The
two sonatas op.5 represented an experiment with a new type of
ensemble: cello alone with piano. Written for performance by
Beethoven and Duport in 1796 at the royal court at Berlin, these
works incorporate technical effects characteristic of Duport’s style
and give the cello an unprecedented equality with the piano part.
The interest of 18th-century Prussian monarchs in music, and the
cello in particular, provided the stimulus for a large number of good
compositions for the cello. In addition to the works by Beethoven,
C.P.E. Bach wrote three concertos for cello, and Boccherini, as court
composer to Friedrich Wilhelm II, dedicated numerous pieces to the
king. The cello also has a prominent part in chamber works written
for this monarch, such as Mozart’s three ‘Prussian’ Quartets k575,
589 and 590, and Haydn’s Quartets op.50.
Other prominent expatriate Bohemian cellists of the 18th century
include J.B. Mara (1744–1808), whose dissolute lifestyle ruined his
promising career, Josef Reicha (1752–95), who was employed as
musical director at the court in Bonn from 1787, and Jan Šťastný
(c1764–c1826), whose works for the cello have retained a place in
the repertory.
Violoncello, §II, 3: 18th-century use, performers and repertory
(iii) Britain.
Although it is possible that the cello came to England in the first half
of the 17th century, the earliest cello identifiable as ‘English’ was
made by William Baker in Oxford in 1672. This date corresponds with
the rising popularity of Italian-style opera and chamber music in 17th-
century England, which would have called for a cello rather than a
bass viol. The cello, sometimes known as the ‘church bass’ or even
‘bass viol’ in this context, also had an important role in 18th-century
England as the favoured continuo instrument in those parishes which
used an instrumental ensemble to accompany the church choir,
instead of an organ (see Bass viol; this practice carried on in the
British and US churches well into the 19th century). The cello in
England also has associations with the aristocratic class: both
Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales (1707–51; see Mandolin, fig.2), and
George IV (1762–1830) played the cello. Numerous instruments
were commissioned by the royal family from contemporary makers
(e.g. the younger William Forster’s ‘Royal George’ cello, c1782). The
instrument’s popularity undoubtedly was enhanced by the large
number of tutors and music published during the 18th century for the
amateur market, and by the London performances of Italian and
French cellists, beginning early in the century.
It was migrating Italian cellists, such as Lanzetti, Giovanni Bononcini
(1670–1747) and Giacobbe Basevi Cervetto (1680–1783), Andrea
Caporale (fl mid-18th century), Guiseppe Dall’Abaco (1662–1726)
and Pasqualini de Marzis (fl 1740s), who established cello playing in
England in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Many of these
produced works for the burgeoning English music publishing market.
Cervetto’s son, James (1748–1837), and John Crosdill (1751–1825)
were the leading English cellists of the latter half of the 18th century
and both men enjoyed highly successful performing careers. Robert
Lindley (1776–1855), a pupil of James Cervetto, exceeded his
master in ability and reputation.
John Gunn’s Theory and Practice in Fingering on the
Violoncello (C1789) is the most comprehensive English treatise of
the 18th century on cello technique and the history of stringed
instruments. Aimed at the musically literate amateur, it provides a
detailed glimpse into technical practices and musical aesthetics in
England at the time. Gunn’s discussion of fingering includes
reference to the Italian oblique left hand position as being ‘formerly
much in use’ (fig.6). It is not clear what caused the old-fashioned,
consecutive diatonic system of fingering to be superseded by the
semitone system of finger spacing, although it may be indicative of
French influence on the English school, possibly through Crosdill,
who studied with J.-P. Duport.
Violoncello, §II, 3: 18th-century use, performers and repertory
(iv) France.
Although the cello was used for the basso continuo in Italy by the
middle of the 17th century, supplanting the viol, in France the latter
remained the favoured chamber music instrument into the 18th
century. Hubert Le Blanc’s Defense de la basse de viole contre les
entreprises du violon et les prétensions du violoncel (C1740)
colourfully expresses the resistance with which the cello, along with
other Italian influences, was greeted by musical conservatives in
France. Le Blanc wrote that the cello, ‘a miserable dunce, hated, & a
poor devil … now flatters himself that in place of the bass viol, he will
receive many caresses’, and compared its tone quality to the trumpet
marine. However, from the late 17th century there is clear evidence
that the cello was preferred to accompany the violin. The penetrating
tone of the violin and cello was better suited to public concerts, such
as the Concert Spirituel, which was inaugurated in the 1720s.
In his Méthode (C1741), the earliest dated instruction manual on
playing the cello, Michel Corrette described the cello as the ideal
bass-line instrument, attributing to it excellent sonority, capacity for
volume, articulate and clean tone, and versatility as the bass
instrument in different types of ensembles. Other testimony to the
rapid rise in the cello’s popularity in France is the fact that the
Parisian music publisher Le Clerc produced at least 26 volumes of
French and Italian cello sonatas between 1738 and 1750. A relatively
large number of low string instruments were used in the orchestra of
the Paris Opéra: eight basses (combined) in 1713, eight cellos and
four double basses in 1763, and 12 cellos and five basses in 1790.
Four sets of cello sonatas were published by Jean Barrière (1707–
47) between 1733 and 1739. A member of the Académie Royale de
Musique from 1730, he was noted for the precision of his playing. His
works require an advanced command of left-hand and bowing
techniques, and show a strong Italian influence in style, possibly due
to Barrière's sojourn in Italy, 1726–9. They are unusual in that the
accompaniments are sometimes written with separate parts for
keyboard and a second cello, often as elaborate as that of the solo
part.
Corrette’s Méthode was directed at both the beginner and the viol
player taking up the cello for the first time. Martin Berteau (1708–71)
was one such player who, according to legend, abandoned the viol
for the cello after hearing Francischello (Francesco Alborea) play,
and became the founder of the French school of cello playing. Of his
cello compositions, only a set of six violoncello sonatas (Paris, 1748)
and one study attributed to him (no.6 in J.-L. Duport’s 21
exercices, c1813) are extant. However, his influence as the teacher
of a small but important group of Parisian cellists had a profound
impact on the development of cello playing. Berteau’s noteworthy
students included François Cupis (1732–1808) and his nephew
Jean-Baptiste (b 1741), J.-P. Duport (1741–1818), J.-B.-A.J. Janson
(1742–1803) and J.B. Tillière (c1740–90). Tillière published a cello
tutor in 1764 which was followed by a more detailed method by Jean-
Baptiste Cupis in 1772, but the most highly regarded of Berteau’s
pupils was Jean-Pierre Duport. Among Duport's distinguished pupils
were his brother Jean-Louis Duport, John Crosdill, Nikolaus Kraft
(1778–1853), Peter Ritter and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of
Prussia. The players of the French school were distinguished by
smoothness and purity of tone, and a high degree of left-hand skill,
especially in high positions.
J.-L. Duport’s Essai (C1806), which credited Berteau with the
development of technical principles for the cello, is an advanced
exposition on both left-hand and bowing techniques. Although it is
unknown how many students he taught, the methodical, thoroughly
tested principles presented in the Essai shows Duport’s extensive
experience as a teacher. His systematic standardisation of fingering
and bowing principles, and the 21 exercices (Paris, c1813) that
comprise the second part of the Essai, influenced successive
generations of cellists and remain an important part of the advanced
study repertoire to the present day.
J.-B.S. Bréval (1753–1823), a student of Cupis, was a cello virtuoso,
a prolific composer and a teacher. However his comprehensive
technical method, the Traité du violoncelle op.42 (C1804), was
overshadowed by the publication of Duport’s Essai. Bréval’s works
for solo cello include seven concertos and several sets of continuo
sonatas. When the Paris Conservatoire was founded in 1795, Janson
and J.-H. Levasseur (1764–1823) were appointed as cello
professors. The official Méthode (C1804) of the Conservatoire was
co-written by Levasseur, C.-N. Baudiot, C.-S. Catel and Pierre
Baillot. Although it preceded the Duport Essai in date of publication,
the professors of the new Conservatoire, particularly Levasseur,
were already heavily influenced by Duport’s teaching.
Violoncello, §II: 18th and 19th centuries
4. 19th century.
(i) Use and repertory.
The role of the cello in large and small ensembles in the 19th century
followed the practice established in orchestral and chamber
compositions of the last decades of the 18th century. The increasing
number of cellist-composers enlarged the solo repertory, developing
with it an expanded range of virtuoso techniques for both the left
hand and the bow, although many compositions written by cellists for
their own concert performances have failed the test of time.
A number of first-rate works by pre-eminent early 19th century
composers feature the cello prominently. Works with piano include
three later sonatas by Beethoven (opp.69 and 102), two by
Mendelssohn (opp.45 and 58), and one sonata (op.65) and several
shorter pieces by Chopin. The cello’s capacity for cantilena playing in
the tenor register, as well as for playing accompanying bass and
tenor lines, is exploited by Romantic composers for dramatic and
melodic effect in chamber works. Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann,
Mendelssohn, Brahms, Tchaikovsky and Dvořák all wrote string
quartets, quintets, trios and other works that contain prominent cello
parts.
The core of the late 19th-century repertory for solo cello and
orchestra consists of Schumann’s Concerto in A minor op.129, the
Brahms Double Concerto op.102, Dvořák’s Concerto in B minor
op.104, Tchaikovsky’s Rococo Variations, Lalo’s Concerto in D minor
and the first (in A minor) of two concertos by Saint-Saëns. There are
numerous significant works for cello and piano from this period,
including two sonatas each by Brahms and Mendelssohn, sonatas by
Strauss, Grieg and Saint-Saëns, the Fünf Stücke im Volkston by
Schumann and the Fauré Elégie. Short salon pieces also abound.
In the operatic literature the cello section was often divided (e.g.
Rossini’s Guillaume Tell, Verdi’s Otello, Puccini’s La bohème), and
many 19th-century operas have solo cello passages. In other
orchestral works a solo cellist is often given important obbligato
parts, for example the piano concertos in B and A by Brahms and
Liszt respectively, Le carnival des animaux by Saint-Saëns and Don
Quixote by Strauss. Romantic composers also wrote section solos
for the cellos in the symphonic repertory.
As the size of wind and brass sections of the symphony orchestra
increased, the size of the cello section more than doubled for some
large-scale works. Even as early as 1814, Beethoven’s Seventh and
Eighth Symphonies were performed using 12 cellos and seven
basses, compared with two of each for his Symphonies nos.4–6. The
Ninth Symphony reportedly had 12 of each, matching the double
winds. Berlioz recommended the use of at least 11 cellos and nine
basses for the Symphonie fantastique, and 29 cellos and 18 basses
for his Requiem. Richard Wagner’s orchestra at Bayreuth in 1876
had a relatively modest bass sections, consisting of 12 cellos and
eight basses, the same numbers of players used by Richard Strauss
for his major orchestral works, such as Ein Heldenleben. The
Gewandhaus Orchestra, Leipzig, had three cellos and three basses
in 1802, increasing to ten of each by 1890.
(ii) Performers and schools of playing.
At the beginning of the 19th century distinct schools of cello playing
existed in Austria and Germany, France, and England, with those of
J.-L. Duport in France and Bernhard Romberg in Germany
dominating. As a result of the migrations during the French
Revolution there was interaction between the various schools. Duport
and Romberg shared an orchestra desk in Berlin for a brief period
and other important cellists of the time also had contact with them.
Romberg’s powerful, expressive style of playing and technical
prowess earned him the pre-eminent place among cellists of the
early 19th century. He travelled extensively in Europe, giving
concerts. His cantilena playing was particularly admired and many
other sought to emulate his style of playing. His Violoncell-
Schule (C1839) contains a comprehensive treatment of cello-playing
and is an excellent source of information on early 19th-century
performing practice in Germany, including elementary and advanced
techniques, aspects of instrument set-up (including life-sized
diagrams), elements of general musicianship, phrasing and
expression, ensemble playing and musical style.
(a) Germany and the Dresden school.
The ideas of Duport and Romberg were synthesized by Dotzauer,
who studied with Duport’s student, J.J. Kriegk (1750–1814), and later
with Romberg himself in Berlin. Although Dotzauer was well-known
as a performer and composer in his own time, he is best
remembered for his contribution to cello pedagogy as the founder of
the ‘Dresden school’. His Violoncell schule (1832) predated
Romberg’s by seven years, and was the first significant method to
appear by a German cellist. Dotzauer’s many students included F.A.
Kummer, K.L. Voigt, Karl Drechlser and Carl Schuberth, through
whom the principles of Dotzauer’s teaching were preserved and
disseminated to other regions, including (through Schuberth) Russia.
Kummer succeeded Dotzauer in Dresden in 1852, both as solo cellist
in the orchestra and professor at the Conservatory. Kummer was
renowned for his natural technique and elegant musical style. His
pedagogical works are among the most musically interesting from
this period and have remained in the étude repertory to the present
day. The systematic and progressive instruction contained
his Violoncell-Schule (c1839) remains an invaluable resource for
teachers and shows the musical emphasis which he placed on the
teaching of technique. Kummer taught several significant 19th-
century cellists, among them Julius Goltermann (1825–76), later
professor at the Prague Conservatory, and Bernhard Cossmann.
Karl Drechsler (1800–73) was based in Dessau, where he served as
principal cellist and professor. His students included Cossmann, and
Friedrich Grützmacher (1832–1903). Grützmacher’s influence
dominated the Dresden school in the latter half of the 19th century.
Hugo Becker (1864–1941), Diran Alexanian (1881–1954), and Julius
Klengel (1859–1933), among the most influential cellists and
teachers around the turn of the century, are all linked directly or
indirectly to Grützmacher.
(b) France and Belgium.
The technical principles of the French school, as outlined by Duport
in his Essai and the Paris Conservatoire Méthode, were
disseminated by his pupils and those of Janson. J.-M.H. Lamare
(1772–1823) and Louis Norblin (1781–1854) were among the early
graduates of the Paris Conservatory who became prominent cellists
and teachers. N.J. Platel (1777–1835), a student of Lamare,
eventually founded the Belgian school of playing when he was
appointed professor at the Conservatory in Brussels in 1826.
Platel’s student, A.F. Servais (1807–66), known as the ‘Paganini’ of
the cello, rose to prominence because of his technical brilliance,
graceful style and beautiful tone. Servais was a prolific composer for
the cello, writing many works for his own concert performances,
which contain innovative and arresting technical effects. Servais is
credited with developing left-hand technique to new heights of
virtuosity. His Six Caprices op.11 (Mainz, ?1854) features much
passage-work in thumb position and double stops including octaves
and 10ths. He performed extensively in Europe, including numerous
concert tours to Russia, where his performances were an important
catalyst for interest in the cello in the emerging Russian school.
Servais succeeded Platel in the cello professorship at the Brussels
Conservatory in 1848, where he instructed cellists such as Jules de
Swert (1843–1891), Joseph Hollmann (1852–1927) and Ernest De
Munck (1840–1915).
Auguste Franchomme (1808–84), a pupil of Norblin and Levasseur at
the Paris Conservatoire, inherited the mantle of Duport. Highly
successful as a solo cellist and known for his impeccable
musicianship and beautiful cantilena, Franchomme was a close
associate of Chopin and the dedicatee of the Sonata op.65. In 1846
he was appointed principal professor at the Conservatoire, a position
he held until his death. His pupils included L.A. Vidal (1820–91) and
Louis Hegyesi (1853–94).
(c) Italy.
After Boccherini, no internationally prominent Italian cellist emerged
until Alfredo Piatti (1822–1901), a pupil of Gaetano Zanetti and
Merighi. Early concert successes led to an active career as both
performer and teacher. His playing was greatly admired for its
musical integrity, technical virtuosity and beauty of tone. His 12
Caprices (Berlin, 1875), explore a broad range of virtuoso
techniques, such as slurred staccato, sautillé, ricochet, double and
triple stopping, octaves and passages in thumb position.
(d) The English school.
Robert Lindley was England’s leading cellist for most of his life and
taught at the RAM. His desk partner F.W. Crouch (c1808–44) was
also an accomplished player and published a comprehensive treatise
on the cello based on the Paris Conservatoire method. In 1846,
Alfredo Piatti took up residence in London and, as professor at the
RAM, influenced the next generation of English cellists, which
included Edward Howell, W.E. Whitehouse and Leo Stern.
Whitehouse and Howell were also very active as teachers at the
RAM, the English pedagogical line from Whitehouse being
particularly strong into the 20th century.
(e) The Russian school.
The patronage of the Russian Counts Saltïkov and Mateusz
Wielhorski, and of Prince N.B. Golitsïn (the latter two of whom were
amateur cellists), was an important factor in generating a rich
Russian musical life in the 19th century, and helped to stimulate
interest in the cello. The sojourn of Romberg in Russia, where he fled
following the invasion of Prussia by Napoleon in 1806, and his close
association with Wielhorski in particular, laid the foundation for the
Russian school.
K.Y. Davïdov (1838–89), a pupil of Carl Schuberth, is particularly
associated with the Russian school, being the first Russian cellist to
gain a professorship at the St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. His
training was based on the teaching of Grützmacher, and his high
level of technical skill, purity of intonation and expressive playing set
a new standard in his native Russia and abroad. Davïdov adopted a
new system of fingering on the cello (documented in his
unfinished Violoncell-Schule Leipzig, 1888), in which the left hand
has complete mobility over the entire compass of the fingerboard,
without reference to fixed positions. Davïdov composed many
attractive pieces for the instrument in the German Romantic style.
Wilhelm Fitzenhagen (1848–90), a pupil of Grützmacher, was a
soloist and chamber musician, and was also very influential as the
teacher of many Russian cellists in the latter part of the century.
(f) The Czechs and Hungarians.
Along with Davïdov, David Popper (1843–1913) was among the most
influential cello virtuosos of the later 19th century. Born and educated
in Prague, Popper was a prolific composer of advanced studies for
the cello, as well as light showpieces, concertos and chamber works,
all still very popular with modern performers. He was appointed
professor at the National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music in
Budapest in 1886, establishing the Hungarian school of cello playing.
According to his contemporaries, Popper’s mastery of the cello was
unsurpassed, and his playing was characterized by musical
refinement and rich tone, as well as faultless virtuosity, even in the
highest register of the instrument. Popper, along with Piatti, was
among the first 19th century cellists to revive interest in older
masterpieces, by playing works such as the Haydn Concerto in D
and the Schumann Concerto.
Popper’s Hohe Schule des Violoncello-Spiels op.73 (Leipzig, 1901–
5) is still among the most important pedagogical works for the cello,
using advanced virtuoso techniques, such as double stopping and
octaves, position changes in thumb position, trills, and bowing
techniques such as slurred staccato, sautillé, spiccato, piqué, and
rapid string crossings. The dazzling virtuoso salon pieces he wrote
were innovative in their departure from the characteristically soulful
quality of the cantilena style that was traditionally associated with the
cello in the 19th century.
Violoncello
III. 20th century
1. History.
2. Repertory.
3. Jazz.
Violoncello, §III: The 20th century
1. History.
With the proliferation of cellists the world over, the extraordinary
development in the technique of the instrument under the guidance
of the great teacher-performers and the way in which composers
have accepted the challenges these developments offer, extending
and enriching the repertory, the cello' identity as a solo instrument
has been confirmed in the 20th century.
The endpin or spike was regarded as an accepted part of the
instrument and revolutionized technique. It also allowed women to
play the cello in a dignified manner. Before the 20th century, few
women played the instrument owing to the way in which it was held,
although a handful of women compromised by playing ‘side-saddle’.
The invention of the endpin brought about the liberation of women
cellists, and the pioneers included May Mukle (1880–1963),
Guilhermina Suggia (1888–1950; fig.8) and Beatrice Harrison (1892–
1965). Paul Tortelier later devised the longer, angled spike which
was also adopted by Mstislav Rostropovich (fig.9). By raising the
point at which the bow touches the strings and the incline of the
strings towards the horizontal it is said to be easier for the left hand
to negotiate the upper part of the fingerboard. However, most cellists
today employ the shorter, straight endpin.
During the 20th century many large concert halls were built;
consequently there arose a need for a larger sound. Players began
experimenting with steel or steel-covered gut strings, replacing the
gut strings in use until this time. Although steel strings are the most
widely used today, some cellists have reverted to gut for some if not
all of their strings.
In other respects, the construction of the instrument itself has not
changed, having reached a standard form in the previous century.
However, the proliferation of cellists throughout the world has called
for more instruments to be available. The old Italian and German
instruments still fetch high prices for those who can afford to pay, but
there is a constant demand for good new instruments, and good
makers are now emerging from all over the world who are
responding to this demand.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the German school of cello
playing was leading the field with many distinguished soloists and
chamber music players, many of whom were also teachers. The two
most influential figures were Julius Klengel (1859–1933) and Hugo
Becker (1864–1941). Although both stemmed from the Dresden
school, in their approach they were poles apart. Becker concentrated
on the scientific aspect, having made researches into anatomy and
physiology, whereas Klengel favoured an empirical approach.
Klengel was a fine soloist and a respected composer. He also wrote
a number of teaching works, some of which are still in use. He taught
at the Leipzing Conservatory, and many of his students achieved
international reputations; these included Emanuel Feuermann,
Guilhermina Suggia, Edmund Kurtz, Gregor Piatigorsky and William
Pleeth. Piatigorsky said that he ‘taught without teaching’ and always
allowed a student to play a piece to the end. Pleeth confirmed this
view: ‘he had no whims, no sophistication and never encouraged us
to copy. We were all different’.
Becker was also a fine performer in his earlier days, but latterly he
concentrated upon teaching. In complete contrast to Klengel, he
made explorations into the physiological aspects of performance and
attempted to align these to the most natural way of playing. Many
cellists criticized his dogmatic and logical approach; Raya
Garbousova said that he was ‘obsessed with anatomy, but never
took into consideration the fact that no two people are identical in this
respect’.
But it was Pablo Casals (1876–1973) who brought the cello into
equal popularity with the violin as a solo instrument. For him,
technique was a means, not an end: ‘The purpose of technique is to
transmit the inner meaning, the message of the music. The most
perfect technique is that which is not noticed at all’. Casals
popularized chamber music and, in particular, brought the Bach solo
suites into the regular cello recital repertory.
Ever since the publication of Duport's Essai (C1806), the left-hand
technique has been based on a series of positions, together with the
use of the thumb. While acknowledging the notion of positions,
Casals favoured giving weight and freedom to every finger, allowing
the centre of gravity to shift from one finger to another. By using
extension of the left hand undesirable glissandos, which were in
common use before this time, could be avoided and portamento used
only for special effect. The use of the first and second fingers to
encompass a tone in the lower position required a different lay of the
hand: the traditional ‘square’ lay of the hand had militated against a
smooth flow of position changing and portamentos. These
developments in cello playing released energy in the service of
expression.
When Casals described his method as ‘Freedom with Order’, he was
referring to his overall approach to playing the instrument. He taught
the importance of relaxation and how to train the left hand to create a
balance between tension and relaxation. Casals' principles are
explained by his disciple, Diran Alexanian, in the Traité théorique et
pratique du violoncelle (Paris, 1922). It covers half-step shifts with
the same finger, shifting in repeated finger patterns, minimum shifting
within phrases, contractions and extensions, as well as plucking the
string with the left hand to ensure precise articulation in descending
passages and percussive finger-falls in ascending passages.
Casals' pupil and close friend Maurice Eisenberg (with M.B.
Stanfield) gave a full exposition of Casals' left-hand technique in
his Cello Playing of Today (D1957). Eisenberg had previously
studied with Klengel, Alexanian and Willeke; in his preface he states
that working with cellists of different ‘schools’ enabled him to ‘see the
changing outlook of our epoch in a clear perspective’. He also notes
that Casals' more natural way of holding the instrument serves
interpretative ends. Eisenberg's manual includes thumb-position
drills, studies of unisons, tenths, fingered octaves and fingerings for
major and minor scales and arpeggios on all strings, and for double
stops, chords and harmonics. Eisenberg spoke of ‘vocalization’ and
‘the living hand’: ‘the hand must be trained to be so vital and flexible
that as soon as a finger strikes its note, the preparation for the
following note begins’ and, according to Eisenberg, ‘the hand shifting
must never be audible. When the hand moves backwards across the
strings to a lower position, the thumb should act as a pivot over
which the extended fingers are shifted swiftly and smoothly’.
The Hungarian-born cellist Janos Starker systemized this by
introducing position control: discarding the idea of seven positions
and the thumb-position he developed a unique system of the same
control for every half tone all over the cello, which represented a
minor revolution in cello playing. In An Organized Method of String
Playing: Violoncello Exercises for the Left Hand (1961), he offered
examples from the repertory. More recently, Christopher
Bunting's Essay on the Craft of ‘Cello-Playing (C1982) covered
aspects of technique and also of mental attitude.
Many other 20th-century cellists have contributed to the development
of the instrument. They include Alexander Baillie, Christopher
Bunting, Gaspar Cassado, Orlando Cole, Rohan da Saram, Joan
Dickson, Emanuel Feuermann, Amaryllis Fleming, Jacqueline du
Pré, Pierre Fournier, Raya Garbousova, Maurice Gendron, Karine
Georgian, Natalia Gutman, Lynn Harrell, Florence Hooton, Steven
Isserlis, Antonio Janigro, Ralph Kirshbaum, Julian Lloyd Webber, Yo-
Yo Ma, Enrico Mainardi, Mischa Maisky, Zara Nelsova, Siegfried
Palm, Gregor Piatigorsky, William Pleeth, Gabor Reijto, Leonard
Rose, Miloš Sadlo, Felix Salmond, Eleanore Schoenfeld, Luigi Silva,
Daniil Shafran, Frances Marie Uiti, Raphael Wallfisch and Phyllis
Young. Many are or were also great teachers.
In the latter part of the 20th century teachers such as Joan Dickson
(1921–94) and William Pleeth (1916–99) became less bound to
‘schools’, and there was a great deal more individuality in the way
they attempted to understand their students, not only as musicians
but psychologically. Some, following Pleeth, are of the opinion that
too much emphasis is placed on technical perfection and would like
to see a better marriage between technique and creative musicality.
Casals himself said: ‘Two things are essential – method and instinct’.
He also maintained that, since his pupils had so many different
opinions about his approach, it was proof that he never treated any
two the same way.
Violoncello, §III: The 20th century
2. Repertory.
In the 20th century an enormous amount of music was written for the
cello by composers from all over the world. Early in the century,
cellists relied on the legacy of the late 19th-century repertory, and the
early writing of the new century was in a lush, post-Romantic style:
Rachmaninoff's Sonata in G minor (1901),
Dohnányi's Konzertstück in D (1904), Bloch's Schelomo (1915–16),
Fauré's two Sonatas (1918 and 1922) and Elgar's Concerto (1919)
are but a few examples. Webern, in his atonal Drei kleine
Stücke (1914), and Debussy, in his Sonata (1915), were among the
first to break with Romantic tradition. The composers who followed
include: in the UK, Bax, Benjamin, Bridge, Britten, Delius, Finzi,
Holst, Ireland, Rubbra and Walton; in France, Caplet, d'Indy,
Françaix, Honegger, Ibert, Milhaud, Poulenc and Tortelier; in
Russia/former USSR, Denisov, Glazunov, Glière, Grechaninov,
Gubaydulina, Kabalevsky, Khachaturian, Myaskovsky, Prokofiev,
Shostakovich, Tishchenko and Ustvol'skaya; in the USA, Barber,
Carter and Piston, and US citizens born elsewhere: Bloch,
Hindemith, Krenek, Schoenberg and Stravinsky; Wellesz (Austria);
the Czech Martinů; Henze (Germany); Pijper (Holland); Bartók,
Kodály (Hungary), Casella, Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Dallapiccola
(Italy), Chávez (Mexico), Enescu (Romania), Villa-Lobos and
Ginastera (S. America), Casals and Cassadó (Spain), Larsson
(Sweden), Sallinen and Kokkonen (Finland).
Frank Bridge's Oration, Concerto elegiaco (1930) is, among English
cello concertos, an early but important forward-looking work.
Prokofiev wrote three concertos for cello, the first Symphony-
Concerto (1950–51, rev. 1952), was published posthumously in
1955, completed by Rostropovich and orchestrated by Kabalevsky.
Walton's Concerto (1955–6, rev. 1975), commissioned by
Piatigorsky, exuding Mediterranean warmth and sensuality, came at
the time when Romanticism became distinctly unfashionable and
serialism was all the vogue. Written only six years later, Britten's
Cello Symphony (1963, rev.1964) is dark, disturbing and highly
innovative and incorporates many new ideas such as the clever use
of trilled, stopped harmonics in the Scherzo.
Shostakovich's Cello Concerto no.1, op.107 (1959), brings several
novel features such as a long passage where the cello is in dialogue
with the celesta, playing harmonics and a cadenza which lasts for the
entire third movement. Lutosławski's aleatory Cello Concerto (1969–
70) is also a colourful and innovative work which is now firmly in the
repertory; it uses quarter tones and employs rapid groups of notes to
achieve percussive effects. Schnittke's First Cello Concerto (1986),
written for Natalia Gutman, is an exceedingly difficult work and
expressive on an epic scale. In the final apotheosis the cello leads a
hymn-like processional, and in order to avoid being drowned by the
orchestral crescendo, the cello is amplified, creating a very beautiful
and unearthly effect.
Samuel Barber's concerto (1945) is one of the most challenging
works known for the cello (Leonard Rose once proclaimed it to be the
most difficult piece he had ever encountered). Rostropovich, one of
the major musical figures of the latter half of the 20th century,
commissioned over 100 works for his instrument from composers
such as Britten, Lutosławski, Penderecki, Prokofiev and
Shostakovich. Dutilleux's concerto Tout un monde lointain … (1967–
70) was one of these: it is a carefully crafted work which is free in
thought, and follows Debussy and Ravel in its colourful and evocative
scoring.
Following the revival of the Bach solo suites by Casals, there was a
rush of compositions for solo cello: from 1900 to 1960 there were
over 160 composed. One of the most popular is the Sonata op.8
(1915), by Kodály, who was a cellist himself. The sonata uses left
hand pizzicato extensively to accompany the melodic line, and
scordatura in a daring and original manner (the two bottom strings
are tuned to B ' and F , which together with the D string give an
unusually resonant and evocative chord of B minor). Hindemith's
Sonata op.25, no.3 (1923), in five linked movements, is one of his
best compositions for cello. Iannis Xenakis in his Nomos alpha for
solo cello (1965–6), wrote the wide ranging chords on three staves
and in three clefs – two bass and one treble. His Kottos (1977) is
even more challenging. Franco Donatoni's Lame (1982), two pieces
for unaccompanied cello, are innovative and show influences of the
composer's previous essay into 12-note serialism, Quartetto II
(1958). Luigi Dallapiccola's Ciaccona, intermezzo e adagio (1945),
which uses large spread chords across the cello to resemble a gutar,
and Ernst Krenek's Suite op.84 (1939) have many original features.
Britten's three Suites for Solo Cello (1964, 1967, 1972) are firmly
established in the repertory. The Sacher Variations came about as a
result of Rostropovich commissioning 12 composers including
Britten, Lutosławski and Dutilleux to write short solo pieces based on
the letters of the name SACHER, to celebrate in 1976 the Swiss
conductor Paul Sacher's 70th birthday and the 50th anniversary of
the founding of the Basle Chamber Orchestra. Dutilleux later added
two more movements to the original, calling it Trois strophes sur le
nom de Sacher (1982); in it he employs scordatura, with the C string
being tuned down to B ' and the G string to F . George Crumb, who
was influenced by Debussy and Bartók, uses some vivid sonorities
and instrumental effects in his Sonata for solo cello (1955).
Most of the composers mentioned above, and many others including
Poulenc, Janáček and Alexander Goehr, have written works for cello
and piano. Elliot Carter's Cello Sonata (1948) is the first example of
the composer's experimentation in ‘metric modulation’, involving
complex contrasting polyrhythms between the cello and the piano,
and proportional tempo changes. In Britten's Sonata (1961) a whole
movement is played pizzicato. Julius Klengel was one of the first to
compose for massed cellos, with his Hymnus for 12 cellos (c1922).
The Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra subsequently formed their own
12-cello ensemble, for which Jean Françaix wrote his Aubade (1975).
Villa-Lobos wrote for at least eight cellos in Bachianas
Brasileiras nos.1 and 5 (1930–45), no.5 (with soprano soloist) being
the most popular.
Composers for the cello have experimented in ways hitherto
unknown. James Dillon's Parjanya-Vata (1981) employs streams of
double stops covering all the registers of the instrument (the score
has the appearance of piano writing). Jonathan Harvey, in his Curve
with Plateaux (1982), uses the sixth and seventh octaves of the cello,
multiphonics with mute, clashing quarter-tones, glissandos over four
strings with sul ponticello and sul tasto bow strokes. Karlheinz
Stockhausen's Spiral (1969), for amplified cello and short-wave
radio, requires the performer to improvise within specifications
marked on impulses from the radio. Tavener's The Protecting Veil for
cello and orchestra (1987) captured the public imagination as a
spiritual minimalist composition on a religious theme, and exploits to
the full the composer's exuberant lyricism. Other composers whose
works employ quarter-tone and multi-stave writing, amplified cello
and graphic effects, include Roger Redgate, Michael Finnissy,
Mauricio Kagel, Brian Ferneyhough, Morton Feldman, James
MacMillan, Colin Matthews and Arvo Pärt.
There is now a fresh conception of what can be achieved on the
cello: two-bow technique, microtones, harmonics (both natural and
artificial), variations in vibrato speed, extreme finger-extensions,
extended tessitura etc. The 20th century has revolutionized almost
every aspect of the cello and its literature, but time alone will assess
the real influence of the current writing for the cello.
Violoncello, §III: The 20th century
3. Jazz.
The cello was used in a jazz-related context as early as 1916–17
when Walter Kildare, cellist from the Clef Club, recorded in London
with his brother Dan’s string band, Ciro’s Club Coon Orchestra. In
1926 it appeared in recordings by singer Ethel Waters with Will
Marion Cook. However, the cello was not used with any frequency in
jazz until the bop era of the late 1940s and the 50s, when it was
taken up by a number of double bass players, some of whom gained
significant reputations on the smaller instrument. Harry Babasin
recorded pizzicato cello solos with Dodo Marmarosa (Bopmatism,
1947, Dial). Oscar Pettiford recorded on the instrument in a quintet
with Duke Ellington and in a quartet with Charles Mingus (Cello
Again, 1952, Roost). The following year Pettiford and Brabison
recorded on cello together. George Koutzen also recorded on cello
with Mingus in 1952. Chico Hamilton’s band featured cello between
1955 and 1962, played at first by Fred Katz and then by Nat
Gershman. Another important jazz cellist was Calo Scott (Vinnie
Burke’s String Jazz Quartet, 1957, ABC-Paramount). Other bass
players who adopted the cello included Ray Brown, Ron Carter and
Sam Jones, but with Carter’s introduction of the piccolo bass (tuned
an octave higher than the double bass) this practice lost impetus.
From the late 1960s the cello once again found use as a solo
instrument in styles derived from bop, in fusions of jazz with ethnic
and classical music and in free jazz. Exponents include Irène Aebi,
David Baker, Diedre Murray and, in the 1990s, Matt Turner, Michelle
Kinney and saxophonist Ivo Perelman. Three pre-eminent cellists
since the late 1970s are Ernst Reijseger, Tristan Honsinger, who
performs ferocious free improvisations, and Abdul Wadud who
combines a virtuoso classical technique with heartfelt, incisive
improvisations (e.g. By Myself, 1977, Bisharra).
Violoncello
BIBLIOGRAPHY