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Class: 9th
Subject: Biology
Chapter 4: Cells and Tissues
Exercise: Short & long questions

1. What proposed the cell theory and what are the main points of the cell
theory?
The cell theory proposed that the cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all
living organisms and that the new cells are formed from the existing cells.
Robert Hook in 1665 coined the term cell while observing the plant cell under a
microscope.
In 1838 Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a botanist proposed that all plant tissues are made
from cells.
One year later, Theodor Schwann proposed that all animal tissues also are made from
cells and that eggs are also cells as well.
Rudolf Virchow in 1858 concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, thus
completing the classical cell theory.
Main points of cell theory:
• All living organism (animal s and plants) are made up of one or more cells.
• Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
• New cells are produced by cell division from pre-existing cells.

2. Differentiate between simple and compound tissues.

Difference between simple and compound tissues:

Simple tissues Compound tissues
• It is composed of single cell. • They are composed of more
than one cell.
• Having ability to divide. • Does not having ability to
divide.
• Cells are thin walled. • Cells are thick walled.
• Having large nucleus. • Give support to the plant
body.
• They are responsible for • Responsible for the
primary and secondary growth of plant. conduction of food between different
parts of plant.
• It is also called embryonic • They are also called
tissues. permanent tissues.

• Example: meristematic tissues • Example: xylem and phloem

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3. How cell membrane helps in maintaining equilibrium while exchanging

materials with environment?
Each cell of plant and animal are surrounded by cell membrane, that cell membrane is
semi-permeable.
Cell needs regular supplies of oxygen, water and nutrients (glucose) from the
surrounding and removes unwanted substances from the cell such as carbon dioxide
through the cell membrane.
In this way cell membrane maintain equilibrium inside the cell as well as outside the cell.
The movement of substances in and out of cell takes place by diffusion, osmosis and
active transport.

4. Differentiate between endocytosis and exocytosis.

Difference between endocytosis and exocytosis:

Endocytosis Exocytosis
• Bulky materials move into the • Bulky materials move out
cell. from the cell.
• Vesicle is formed and move • Vesicle is formed, which
freely in cytoplasm. containing the waste is fused with plasma
membrane for elimination.
• Occurs by both phagocytosis • Occurs by constitutive
and pinocytosis. regulated secretory pathways.
• Example: engulfing bacteria • Releasing of hormones out of
by phagocytes is example of endocytosis. the cell is an example of exocytosis.

5. How does turgor pressure develop in a plant cell?

When a plant cell is surrounded by enough water then water moves into the vacuole of
the cell by osmosis.
Due to strong cell wall, plant cell does not rapture, but the cells become hard and tough.
This condition is called turgidity and the cell is said to be turgid.
Thus, internal pressure exerted on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.
Turgidity makes the stem and leaves to be tough and hard.

Long questions:

I. Root hairs are adopted to absorption and xylem to support relate their
function to their structure.
Root hairs:
Basically, the root hair is adapted for absorption as it has a large surface area which
speeds up the process of the diffusion of water and minerals from the root to the rest
of the plant.
Xylem:
The xylem vessels are adapted to support because, The Xylem vessels have thick
walls made of lignin, which is a very hard and strong material, hence providing support
for plants.
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II. Discuss different types of tissues found in plants. Elaborate your answer
with relevant diagrams.

Plant Tissue:
Definition:
Plant tissue is a collection of similar cells performing an organized function for the plant.
Plant tissues may be divided into two major groups.
Simple tissues.
Compound tissues.
Types of Tissue Plants:
Plant tissues may be divided into two major groups.
• Simple tissues.
• Compound tissues.
1) Simple tissues:
They are composed of only one type o cells.
They are further classified into:
• Meristematic tissues or embryonic tissues.
• Permanent tissues.
A. Meristematic Tissue:
These are made up of those cells which can divide and produce new cells at the
growing points of plant.
The cells of meristematic tissues have dense cytoplasm, a large central nucleus with
small or no vacuole.
B. Permanent tissues:
The cells of these tissues lack the ability to divide.
They originate from the primary meristem.
The permanent tissues consist of, epidermal, ground, supporting and mechanical
tissues.
a. Epidermal tissues:
These tissues are present as outer most protective covering of leaf, stem and roots.
Cells of epidermal tissues are flattened and irregular in shape. They are thick walled
with no intercellular spaces.
In stem, the walls of these cells are covered with waxy material which prevents loss of
water.
In leaves, the epidermal tissues have small guarded opening called stomata, for
gaseous exchange.
b. Ground tissues:
This tissues are present in all parts of plants except epidermal tissues and vascular
tissues.
Ground tissues is composed of thin-walled cells with very large central

vacuoles, called parenchyma tissues.

• These cells are oval, polygonal or spherical in shape.

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• They store food.

• In leaves, ground tissues contain chlorophyll and called mesophyll

tissues. It prepares food.

c. Supporting or mechanical tissues:

Plants needs support to maintain their shape and remain stable. Supporting tissues
provide strength and flexibility to the plant.

These are of two types.

a) Sclerenchyma plant tissue:

It is a structural tissue which dies, but the cell wall and structure remain. The walls of
these cells are heavily filled with lignin which provide strength and hardness to the cell.
This plant tissue is commonly found in stems, bark, and in the hard shells of some fruits
and nuts, such as pears.

b) Collenchyma plant tissue:

It is like sclerenchyma that it provides support. As such, only a portion of the cell wall in
these cells will be thickened for support. The cells of this tissues are living, elongated,
polygonal with tapering ends.

2). Compound tissues:

These are the tissues which are composed of more than one type of cells, performing a
common function.
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Xylem and phloem tissues are found in vascular bundles are an examples of compound
tissues.

Xylem

It is a plant tissue specially designed for transporting water and nutrients. This plant
tissue can come in several forms, depending on the species. Sometimes, the xylem
plant tissue is made up of a long chain of small tubes, called vessels, which
interconnect and allow water to travel through tubes. This main tube is supported by
other cells, which help pull nutrients from the water and transport it to the cells within the
leaves.

Phloem:

The phloem consists of a variety of different cell types which work together to produce
an interconnected passageway connecting cells of the plant. The phloem, rather than
bringing water up from the roots, needs to carry sugar down to the roots and stems.
With a little water from the xylem, it can complete this process.

It is further aided by companion cells, which surround the actual sieve-tube. The whole
structure is then supported by phloem fibers, which give the tube shape and structure.

III. describe the nervous, muscular and epithelial tissues.

Nervous tissues:

These tissues are composed of nerves cells or neurons. Neurons are the functional
units of nervous system. Each neurons consists of cell body, axon and dendrites. They
are connected to various parts of the body. They transmit message or information in the
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form of nerve impulses to the brain. Nerve tissues are found in brain, spinal cord and
nerves.

Epithelial tissues:

Epithelial tissues cover outside lining of the organs. These cells are elongated and
flattened in shape. These cells are very close to each other and there are no
intercellular spaces between them. They are found in lining of air sacs in the lungs,
kidney tubules, the gut and the urinary tract.

Muscular tissue:

Muscular tissues consist of contractile cells or fibers. Each muscle fiber is an elongated
cell which can contract and relax.

Muscles tissues are further divided into three types.

i. Skeleton muscles:

These muscles are in form of striped fibers or straited muscles.

These muscles are attached tp bones and cartilage with the help of connective tissues
called tendons.

They are responsible for the movements of bones.

Under microscope, these cells ae appear as striped fibers thus also called as straited
muscles.
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ii. Smooth muscles;

These muscles are smooth.

They are found around digestive tract, blood vessels and urinary bladder. They are
responsible for the movement of substances like food stuff and urine.

iii. Cardiac muscles:

They are present in the walls of heart. Their movement is involuntary and not in
our control. These cardiac muscle cells are straited and has a single nucleus.
They produce heartbeat and pumps blood to all parts of the body.

IV. Write a note on the structures of cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria
and chloroplast of a plant cell.

Cell wall:

A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell
membrane.
It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid.

History:
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by Robert Hooke in
1665.
Presence:
Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes (except bacteria),
in algae, fungi and eukaryotes including plants but are absent in animals.
Composition:
The composition of cell walls varies between species and may depend on cell type and
developmental stage.
• The primary cell wall of land plants is composed of the
polysaccharides cellulose and pectin.
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• Algae possess cell walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In bacteria,

the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan.
• Fungi possess cell walls made of the chitin.
• Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.
Layers
Cell wall in multicellular plants – its different layers and their placement with respect to
protoplasm.

primary cell wall:

The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell
is growing.

secondary cell wall:

The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is
fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells
in xylem, possess a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and
waterproofs the wall.

Middle lamella:

The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectin’s. This outermost layer forms the interface
between adjacent plant cells and glues them.
Function:
It provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and acts as a filtering
mechanism.
A major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion of the cell
when water enters.
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Cell membrane:
The cell membrane also known as the plasma membrane (PM) or cytoplasmic
membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from
the outside environment (the extracellular space) which protects the cell from its
environment.
The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and
organelles.
Composition:
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, lipids and proteins.
Function:
The function of cell membrane are as follows:
• It protects the cell by acting as a barrier.
• It regulates the transport of substances in and out of the cell.
• It receives chemical messengers from another cell.
• It acts as a receptor.
• It helps in cell mobility, secretions, and absorptions of substances.
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular), found in
eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm² in area but vary
considerably in size and structure. The outer membrane of mitochondria controls the
exchange of chemicals. The inner membrane has many folding called cristae. It is filled
with matrix, a fluid that contains DNA and enzymes.
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Mitochondria are also called powerhouse of the cell because it generates most of the
chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Chloroplast:
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and
carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the plant.
Discovery:
This origin of chloroplasts was first suggested by the Russian biologist Konstantin
Mereschkowski in 1905 after Andreas Schimper observed in 1883 that chloroplasts
closely resemble cyanobacteria.

Location:
The chloroplast is located throughout the cytoplasm of the cells of plant leaves and
other parts depending on the type of plant.
The organelles are only found in plant cells and some protists such as algae.
Structure:
Green leaves contain chloroplast.
Chloroplast contain chlorophyll, the green pigment, necessary for photosynthesis.
Each chloroplast is bounded by double membrane.
Inside is a semi fluid colorless, gelatinous matrix called stroma.
The inner membrane give rise to membranous stack, called granum.
Each granum has flattened sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll pigments are present in
thylakoids.
Function:
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Chloroplasts work to convert light energy of the Sun into sugars that can be used by
cells. The entire process is called photosynthesis and it all depends on the little green
chlorophyll molecules in each chloroplast.

Thanks