Module in IDRAW 1
Introduction
History of Drawing
Definition of Terms
Major Types of Drawing
Division of Drawing
Objectives
Drawing and its Specified Branches
Use and Care of Drafting Instruments
Sketching and Shape Description
Lettering
Geometrical Construction
Introduction
The purpose of this module is to present the grammar and composition of drawing so that those
who conscientiously study the basic principles will be able to execute satisfactory drawings and
after some practical experience capable of making applicable drawings. To facilitate study, the
subject matter has been separated into its various component parts. The major portion of the
material presented leads up to the preparation of machine accuracy, exactness and positiveness
with regard to the information necessary for the production of a non-existing structure. Finally, it
develops the engineering imagination so essential to the creation of successful design.
HISTORY OF DRAWING
In ancient times, men draw pictures to show others their ideas. Some of these drawing from
ancient civilizations were crude sketches made of clay tablets. Early builders probably made
detailed plans of their buildings on parchment or papyrus. The people of Mesopotamia used
drawing materials as early as 2200 BC. Ancient Egyptian stone masons made plans for the
pyramid and other structures on papyrus, slabs of limestone. However, it was the Romans who
probably made the best mechanical drawing of the classic period. They draw highly detailed
pictures and plans for their buildings, aqueducts, temples and roadways.
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A giant step forward was made by that genius of the 15 century Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519).
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He was the master of art and technical drawing. The 18 century ushered in the industrial
revolution. In this age, drawing was identified as the “Language of Industry” and standard
symbols were becoming a part of the universal language.
Today, drawing is the most precise method of graphically recording and communicating man’s
ideas.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
What is DRAWING?
- “is considered the principal means of expression of ideas in a technical world…a
graphic language which has its own alphabet, grammar and penmanship”. The grammar of
drawing is its fundamental principle and the reasonable skill for its execution is its penmanship. It
is a process of thinking, planning and setting the thoughts down on a piece of paper in graphic
form.
Drawing is the ability of a person to put facts and truths in graphic form, that is, by means of lines
and tools.
Drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing, an idea or a proposed design for construction
later. (Spencer)
Drawing is the oldest type of written expression and is understood throughout the world.
Drawing is a valuable means of expression to anyone, an effective way to get an idea across
when the words fail.
Drawing is a universal language of industry.
Engineering drawing is otherwise known as Mechanical or instrument drawing. It is widely used
to describe industrial drawings. It is a universal picture language that provides a means by which
ideas and information may be recorded and made readily available to others. Each line and
symbol of this universal language has a definite meaning. Mechanical drawing is done with the
aid of drawing instruments.
MAJOR TYPES OF DRAWING
Technical Drawing
Technical drawing is the universal language of industry. It is concerned with the actual object and
the drawing shows not only how they appear but how they are made. It provides an exact and
complete description of objects. It is a special type of language that is used by the industry to
describe things that must be constructed or manufactured. Technical drawing is a graphic
language that is used universally by engineers/designers to describe the shape and size of
structures and mechanisms.
Artistic Drawing
In artistic drawing, the artist expresses philosophic or aesthetic ideas or emotion. When he draws
things, he draws them as they appear to him emotionally, and every artist sees things in his own
peculiar way. Examples of this are the paintings of famous artists.
DIVISION OF DRAWING
Instrumental or Mechanical Drawing
This type of Drawing is done with the aid of drawing instruments. Mechanical Drawing is widely
used to describe industrial drawing. Most technical drawings are mechanical drawings.
Technical Sketching or Freehand Drawing
This is a technique used in making drawings without the use or aid of mechanical drawing
instruments. It is the freehand expression of the graphic language. It is the most valuable tool for
engineers and others engaged in technical fields were ideas can be expressed quickly and
effectively without the use of special tools.
OBJECTIVES OF DRAWING
To be a successful draftsman, specific objectives have to be followed. These objectives can only
be achieved through constant correct practice.
Accuracy – no drawing is of maximum usefulness if it is not accurate. A student must learn from
the beginning that he cannot be successful in his studies and in his later employment if he does
not acquire the habit of accuracy in his work. The ability to acquire precision in the work must be
observed, thus it must be free from error.
Speed – “Time is Money”. In industry, there is no demand for a slow worker. However, speed is
not attained by hurrying; it is a product of intellect and continuous work. It comes with study and
constant practice. Although a worker is fast in his work but creates too many errors, his type will
not have a place in the industry.
Legibility – the draftsman should remember that his drawing is a means of communication to
others and that it must be clear and legible in order to serve its purpose well. Care should be
done in a manner that it can be read easily.
Neatness - If the drawing is to be accurate and legible it must be clean, therefore, the student
should constantly strive to acquire the habit of neatness. Untidy drawings are the result of sloppy
and careless methods. It is therefore a good practice to have a clean hands and instruments
before a drawing is to be made.
TECHNICAL DRAWING AND ITS SPECIFIED BRANCHES
Architectural Drawing – That branch of technical drawing which is devoted to their
representation of buildings and similar structures. The drawing for an architectural structure
includes plans, elevations, sections and details sufficient to define adequately in graphic form the
construction, so that it can be executed in complete accord with the architect’s ideas.
Machine Drawing – That branch of technical drawing which is used in machine industries. A
machine shop drawing omits all information concerning the pattern of the forging process and
conveys only those needed for machining.
Structural Drawing - That branch of technical drawing which includes all layouts and details
drawings in connection with the design and construction of buildings, bridges, viaducts and other
similar structures in which structural steel, timber, concrete and other building materials are used.
Sheet metal Drawing – That branch of technical drawing used in heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning industries. It includes problems involved in finding the intersection of surfaces and in
developing surfaces of various kind into flat patterns and templates which have many applications
in industries mentioned.
Electrical Drawing – the branch of technical drawing which is used in electrical industries. This
drawing includes diagrammatic drawing with conventional symbols for electrical equipment and
connections which form an important part of an electrical drawing.
Aeronautical Drawing – A composite of mechanical, structural, electrical and sheet metal
drafting in which some deviations are made from each other in order to establish uniformity as a
single basic system. It is used in aircraft manufacturing.
Marine Drawing – Deals with the making of drawings or plans of boats, ships and other sea-
going vessels.
Furniture Drawing – Includes the planning of piece furniture like cabinets, tables, chairs, beds,
and other furnishing found in office, home hotel, etc.
Map Drawing – A drawing which represents a portion of the earth’s surface area.
Use and Care of Drawing Instruments
Drawing instruments and equipment though how durable they may be, are capable of giving their
best and accurate service only when kept in good condition and not abused. The instruments and
equipments dealt within this chapter include most of the basic drafting tools and are sufficient for
the initial phases of a technical drawing course.
THE DIFFERENT DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS
T-SQUARE
The T-square is one of the oldest drawing instruments. Although it has been replaced in many
instances by drafting machines and parallel rules, it find wide spread use both in industry and in
school. For beginners in drawing an 18 or 24 inches T-square is adequate. The size of the T-
square is determined by its blade length. It metric system, blade lengths of 60, 90, and 120 cm
are common.
Fixed head 2. Adjustable head
The T-square is used primarily as a guide for drawing horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles
when drawing vertical and inclined lines. Horizontal lines are drawn from left to right along upper
edge of the T-square. (Exception: left-handed persons should use the T-square head at the right
of the board and draw from right to left.)
The T-square is composed of a long strip called the blade, fastened rigidly at the right angles to a
shorter piece called head. The upper edge of the blade and the inner edge of the head are the
working edge and must be straight.
T-squares are made of various materials but most are made of wood with plastic edge. Care
should be taken to preserve the working edge of the T-square. It should never be used to guide
for knife and blade for cutting.
TRIANGLES OR SET SQUARES
Triangles or set squares are transparent, triangular-shaped drawing instruments used together
with either a T-square or a parallel rule for drawing vertical or inclined lines. Most inclined lines in
mechanical drawings are drawn at standard angles using a 45 degree and 30X60 degree
triangles. By combining the two triangles, lines may be drawn from 15 to 75 degrees to the right
or left with the horizontal.
Two kinds of Triangles
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1. 45ºx45º triangle 2. 30ºx60º triangle
PENCILS
Drawing pencils are the most important tool of a draftsman. They are commonly made in a
hexagonal shape to fit the thumb, forefinger, and to prevent them from rolling off the table.
Ordinary writing pencils are numbered 1, 2 & 3. Number 1 has the softest lead, 2 is medium and
3 is the hardest.
Drawing pencils are classified into 3 groups
Hard – 4H – 9H
These pencils are used where extreme accuracy is required as in graphical computations, charts
and diagrams.
Medium – B – 3H ( B, HB, F H, 2H, 3H)
These pencils are for general purpose work in technical drawing. F, HB & B are used for technical
sketching, lettering, arrow heads and other freehand work or mechanical drawing.
Soft – 2B-7B
These pencils are used for such works that require shading in artworks of various kinds and for
full size details in architectural drawings. Care must be observed in using these pencils because it
could result in smudge rough lines which are hard to erase.
CASE INSTRUMENTS
The case instruments contain the following:
.
1 – divider
1 – bow pen
1 – bow pencil
1 – ruling pen handle
1 – ruling pen
1 – bow divider
1 – case lead compass
The Compass
The compass is an instrument used primarily for drawing circles and arcs.
When using the compass to draw construction lines, use 4H to 6H lead so that the lines will be
very light.
The Divider
The divider is used primarily for dividing curve and straight lines into any number of parts, and for
transferring measurements.
SCALES
The scale is a measuring instrument and should not be used to draw lines. Scales are available in
flat and triangular form. The triangular scale is the one most commonly used in schools. The
triangular scale can be used to prepare technical drawings full size or to variety of reduced or
enlarged sizes.
Scales are made of different materials such as boxwood, plastic and metal.
Scales are classified as follows:
Metric Scale - when meter is used as the unit of measurement.
English Scale- when inches/ feet are used as unit of measure
PROTRACTOR
A protractor is used to measure and lay-out angles that cannot be measured with 45º or 30ºx60º
triangle. It is semi-circular scale divided into 180 equal parts. Each of which is called a degree (º).
FRENCH CURVES
A french curve is used for drawing irregular curves which are not circle arcs and also used for
drawing many non-circular curves, ( Example: Volutes, spirals, ellipses, etc.) curves of graphic
chart, for plotting motions, forces and some engineering and scientific graphs. The best French
curve is made of highly transparent plastic.
ERASERS
Erasers are made of gum/rubber and are available in a variety of shapes, sizes and degree of
hardness. A clean pencil eraser sharpened to wedge or an erasing shield is a handy tool to erase
mistakes. Never use gritty ink erasers, razor blade or knife for erasing mistakes in a drawing.
PEN HOLDERS AND PEN POINTS
The pen holder is used to hold the speedball pens and other letter pens while making freehand
drawing. It should have a grip of medium size, small enough to enter the mouth of a drawing ink
bottle easily, yet not so small as to cramp the finger while in use. A size slightly larger than the
diameter of a pencil is good enough.
TECHNICAL PENS- are used to ink lines and letterings in a technical drawing. They are
commonly available in sizes from .01 to 1.2mm. They are more handy and convenient to use.
LONG SIZE BONDPAPERS(8.5”x 13”)- The recommended paper to be used in drawing plates.
FASTENERS
Drafting tape – drafting papers are attached by a short piece of drafting cellophane tape stuck
across each corner of the drawing paper or with the tape along the entire edge of the paper.
Drafting tape is not the same as masking tape. The later has the heavier coating of adhesive and
does not come off the drafting paper so easily as the former. This has a smooth surface which
allows the T-square and the triangle to slide easily and eliminate punching holes on the drawing
board.
Sketching and Shape Description
Freehand sketching is the simplest form of drawing and one of the quickest way to express ideas.
A sketch can help simplify a technical discussion. A freehand sketch will often explain verbal
expressions which are not immediately clear or are too complicated to describe in words. Many
engineers consider the ability to render serviceable sketches of even greater value to them than
skill in instrument drafting. The term “freehand sketch” is too often understood to mean a crude or
sloppy freehand drawing in which no particular effort has been made.
Type of Sketches
Any image drawn on paper done in freehand may be called a sketch.
Rough Sketch is the preliminary layout of a design and illustrates several possible design
choices.
Refined Sketch (neat and finished work) may be carefully drawn showing good proportion and
excellent line values in an attempt to be more persuasive than a rough sketch. Many refined
sketches are developed after a rough sketch has captured the general idea has been illustrated.
The Overlay
Sketches are often drawn on a paper which can be seen through. This paper is called translucent
or tracing paper. The best part of the sketch which is to be kept may be quickly traced by placing
a new piece of this paper on the top (overlay) of the previous sketch.
Sketching Materials
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires only pencil, paper and eraser – items that
everyone has for ready use. When sketches are made on the field, where an accurate record is
required, a small notebook or sketching pad is frequently used. Often clip boards are employed to
hold the paper. Bond papers of various sizes are readily available.
Sketching Techniques
Straight Lines
FREELY SKETCHED
DASH TO DASH
SERIES OF SEPARATE
STOKES
SERIES OF SEPARATE
STROKES
Sketching Slanted lines on Specified Angles
Sketching Small Circles
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Marking off Radial distances
PAPER
Sketching Large Circles
Step 1
Step 2 Step 3
Concentric Circles
Step 4
Step 1 Step 2
Conical Shapes
Arcs and circles are made by first drawing squares.
Major
Diameter
1 2
3 4
Conical Shapes
LETTERING
-the act of making letters by hand with the aid of lettering instruments.
History of the Alphabet and Lettering
Before men could write he provided himself with the means by which he could leave behind
permanent records important to him. He had no alphabet to use then, so he made crude pictures
on the walls of the cave. These pictures were man’s first toward an alphabet. Later on, these
pictures become symbols or signs of everyday objects and could tell stories. These became
known as hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics as a form of writing was adopted by the early Egyptians.
Cuneiform writing originated Babylonia. This form of writing was developed from a crude form of
picture writing. Semitic Babylonia adopted this form of writing and this in turn was later adopted
by the Assyrians and parts of Western Asia.
In Egypt, reed pens were used on wood tablets, on leather and later on papyrus. Modifications in
forms resulted cursive hieroglyphics known as hieratic and demotic script were developed. After
this, the alphabet, which eventually supplemented picture-writing, was born. Three forms of
writing were used by the Egyptians.
Hieroglyphic – which was used for public and official monuments
Hieratic- a cursive handwriting
Demotic – Script which was the flowing popular style.
Both the hieratic and demotic script were used for private and business correspondence.
The Semites who were real inventors of the alphabet had no symbols for vowels. The
Phoenicians made the next great step in the development of the alphabet. They gave each sound
a fixed symbol. There were only twenty two (22) consonant letters, though actually were
consonant-vowel combinations.
The Greeks developed the first true alphabet of twenty four (24) signs. Their great contribution
was the addition of vowels. The direction of the signs and lines in the Phoenicians were from left
to right while in the Greek’s writing direction, it was either from the left to right or right to left.
During the first century of the Christian era, the Romans developed an alphabet of capital letters
or the “majucules” that we still use at present.
The Roman alphabet became known as the Roman Inscription Alphabet or Roman Classical
lettering, mainly, because it was used on public buildings and monuments.
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During the reign of Charlemagne in the 14 century A.D., a lowercase alphabet called the
Carolinian letters was invented. Roman letters were used extensively until the Gothic alphabet
was introduced.
The Gothic alphabet reflected the style of architecture basically the Roman letters. Because
Gothic letters or “uncial letters” (inch-high letters) were large, bulky and squarish in shape, the
Block letters were developed. Last of all, the Old English alphabet was introduced in England
after the invention of the printing press.
The numerals that are used today are of the Arabic form. Historically, the development of script
lettering or handwriting is attributed to the Anglo-Saxons.
Basic Styles ( FONT) of Letters
Gothic – Gothic letters are letters having the elementary strokes of even width. It is considered
to be the plainest and the most legible style of letters. Gothic letters are widely used for
commercial purposes because of its appearance.
Roman – Roman letters are letters having their elementary strokes “accented” or consisting
of heavy and light lines. The ends of the strokes are terminated with spurs called serifs. Roman
letters have been diversified. Modern Roman is extensively used for names and titles of maps
and in printed materials.
Text or Old English- Text letters include all Types of Old English letters. Text letters are
too illegible for commercial purposes but it is the most artistic and elaborate style of letters and is
commonly used in certificates and diplomas.
All of these letters when inclines in position, regardless of their styles are called Italic. Hence,
they may be called Roman Italic, Gothic Italic or Text Italic. In any of these styles of lettering,
stability and uniformity is very important.
Uniformity in height, proportion, strength of lines, spacing of letters, words and sentences insures
a pleasing appearance.
Stability – letters having their upper and lower portions almost equal, their central or middle
strokes slightly above the center to look more stable.
General Division of Letters
Drawn Letters of Built-up Letters
These are large letters for titles, posters and so forth. They are made by drawing their outlines
and filled-in. the thickness of the stems may vary from one-tenth to one-eight of the height of the
letter.
Single Stroke or Written Letters
The term “single-stroke” or “one-stroke” does not mean that the letters is made without lifting the
pencil, pen or brush, but that the width of the stroke of the pencil is equal to the width of the stem
of the letter.
This is generally used on architectural working drawings.
PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS
Regular or Normal Letters – are letters having their stem made regularly and used when the
space is neither wide nor small.
Compressed or Condensed Letters – are letters having their stems narrower in their proportions of
width and height. These letters are used when space is limited.
Extended – these letters are wider than normal letters. The smaller the letters, the more
extended should be the width. They are used when wide space is to be filled.
Classification of Letters According to:
Size
UPPERCASE LETTERS – These are called “majuscules” or commonly called capital letters.
lowercase letters – These are the “minuscules “or commonly called small letters.
j) Position
(1) Vertical letters – are upright letters perpendicular to their guidelines
(2) Italics – are inclined or slanting letters ;their standard inclination is 67.5 degrees
k) Shape
1. straight line letters – letters with stems all in straight lines
2. curve line letters – letters with curved stems
Guidelines- are lines used to make letters straight and uniform. Guidelines should be: light,
fine, straight and parallel.
Direction lines- are vertical or slanting guidelines used to control spacing between letters or
words.
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
Definition of Terms:
Point - according to Spencer, “a point represents a location in space or on a drawing, and has no
width, height or depth.” A point may be represented with two intersecting lines (A) a short bar in a
line (B) or by a small cross lines (C). It is not advisable to represent a point by a simple dot in a
drawing.
POINT POINT
A. B. C.
Line – a path of a moving point. A line has only one dimension – length. If the line has no definite
length, the end points are not fixed. If the end points are definite the end points are marked by
means of small cross bars.
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St r
Kinds of lines
Straight line – the shortest distance between two points. It is a line with no part of which is
curved. Kinds of straight lines are: vertical, horizontal and slanting lines
Curved line – a line no part of which is straight. It is a line which constantly changes its direction.
Examples of curve lines: slight curve, abrupt curve, close curve, and infinite curves.
Mixed line - lines composed of straight and curved lines.
Mixed Line
Parallel lines – straight or curved lines are parallel if the distance between them remains
constant.
Perpendicular lines – lines that make right angles with another line. Perpendicular lines form an
angle of 90º.
90º
90º
Angles – an angle is a figure formed by two intersecting lines. The point of intersection is called
the vertex of the angle and the lines that form the angle are called the sides of the angle.
Kinds of Angles
Right angle – one of the angles formed by a line meeting another line so as 90º
to form two equal angles. Each angle is equal to 90º degrees.
Straight angle – is an angle formed by two sides extending in opposite
direction from the vertex so as to form a straight line. A straight angle 180º
is equal to 180 degrees.
Acute angle – and angle less than 90 degrees.
45º
Obtuse angle – an angle greater than 90 degrees but smaller than a
straight angle.
135º
Complimentary angles – are two angles whose sum when added is equal to 90
degrees. 90º
A
B
A+B=90 º
Supplementary angles – are two angles whose sum is equal to 180 180º
degrees.
A
B
A+B=180º
Oblique angle – an angle which is neither a right angle nor a straight angle. All acute and obtuse
angles are also oblique angles.
Triangles - a closed plane bounded by three straight lines not on the same direction, and the
sum of the interior angles is 180 degrees. These three lines are the side of the triangle. The
vertex of the triangle is the vertex of the angle formed by the legs.
Kinds of Triangles by Sides:
Equilateral triangle – a triangle with three sides equal.
Isosceles triangle – a triangle with two sides equal and two angles equal.
Scalene triangle – no sides nor angle is equal
Equilateral Triangle Isosceles Triangle Scalene Triangle
Kinds of Triangles by angles:
Right triangle – a triangle with one right angle.
Obtuse Triangle – a triangle with one obtuse angle.
Acute Triangle – all its angle are acute
Equiangular Triangle – all three angels are equal.
Less than 90º
90º More than 90 º
Right Triangle Obtuse Triangle Acute Triangle
Quadrilaterals – are polygons bounded by four sides. If the opposite sides are parallel, the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Parallelogram – a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
Square- a rectangle having four sides equal and having four right angles.
Rectangle – a parallelogram having opposite sides equal and have right angles.
Rhombus – a parallelogram having four equal sides but no right angle.
Rhomboid – a parallelogram with opposite sides parallel but no right angle.
Equal Opposite Opposite
Equal Sides
Sides Sides Sides
Equal Parallel
Square Rectangle Rhombus Rhomboid
The above four quadrilaterals are classified as parallelograms.
Trapezoid – a quadrilateral with only one pair of side parallel. The legs of a trapezoid are the
non-parallel sides. An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid with equal legs.
Trapezium – a quadrilateral with no sides parallel.
Trapezoid Trapezium
Polygons – a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines. If the sides and angles of the
polygons are equal, they are called regular polygons and they can be inscribed in or
circumscribed around a circle. A polygon inscribed in a circle is a polygon whose vertices lie on
the circle. A polygon circumscribed about a circle is a polygon all of whose sides are tangent to
the circle.
8 SIDES
5 SIDES 6 SIDES 7 SIDES
Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon
10 11 12
9 SIDES SIDES SIDES SIDES
Nonagon Decagon Undecagon Dodecagon
Circle – a closed plane curve containing all points of which have the same distance from a fixed
point within what is called the center.
Parts of a Circle
Circumference – distance around the circle
Arc – any part of the circle between two of its points
Radius – a straight line drawn or the distance from the center to any point on the circle.
Diameter - a straight line drawn or distance through the center with its endpoints on the circle. It
is the longest chord.
Segment – an area bounded by an ark and its chord.
Chord – a straight line drawn with its end points on the circle.
Secant – a chord extended so that it intersects the circle.
Central Angel – an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle and whose sides are the
radii.
Tangent – a straight line having one point in common with the circle
Semi-circle – an arc equal to one half of the circle. It has 180 degrees angle.
Quadrant – an arc of 90 degrees. It is equal to one forth of the circle.
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Concentric Circles Eccentric Circles
Concentric Circles – circles which have the same centers.
Eccentric Circles – circles not having the same centers.
Solids – a geometric figure having three dimensions. It is bounded by plane surfaces, some are
curved surfaces. If it is bounded by plane surfaces, it is called polyhedron.
Kinds of Geometric Solids
Prism – has two bases which are parallel equal polygons and three or more lateral surfaces
which are parallelograms.
Triangular prism – has triangular base.
Rectangular Prism – has rectangular base.
If the bases are parallelograms, the prism is a parallelepiped. A right prism has faces and lateral
edges perpendicular to the bases; an oblique prism has faces and lateral edges oblique to the
bases. Truncated prism has its end cut off to form an end not parallel to the base.
Pyramid – has a polygon for the base and triangular surfaces intersecting at a common point
called the vertex. The center line from the center of the base to the vertex is the axis. If the axis is
perpendicular to the base of the pyramid, it is a right pyramid; otherwise it is an oblique pyramid.
A triangular pyramid has a triangular base; a square pyramid has a square base. If an end is cut
so that it produces an end not parallel to the base, it is said to be truncated, however, if the cut is
parallel to the base, it is called a frustum.
VERTEX
BASE
Right Triangular Right Square Oblique Pentagonal
Cylinder – a solid generated by a straight line, called the generatrix, moving in contact with a
curved line and always remaining parallel to its previous position or to the axis.
BASE
ALTITUDE
AXIS
AX IS
Cone – a solid generated by a straight line moving in contact with a curved line, and passing
through a fixed point, the vertex of a cone.
The four conic sections as produced by planes intersecting a right circular
cone.
Circle – Plane cuts cone perpendicular to the axis.
Ellipse – a curved line of intersection formed by a plane obliquely cutting a cone
or cylinder. The long axis of the ellipse is the major axis, and the short axis is the
minor axis.
Parabola – Plane cuts oblique to axis and making same angle with the axis.
Hyperbola – Plane cuts cone making smaller angle with the axis.
Sphere – a solid generated by a circle revolving about one of its diameters.
Torus – a solid generated by a circle ( or other curve) revolving about an axis which is eccentric
to the curve.
ACTIVITIES TO PERFORM FOR THE MIDTERM:
Plate No. 1 – Straight Line Exercises
Plate No. 2 – Curve Line Exercises
Plate No, 3 – Single-Stroke Gothic Letters
Plate No. 4 – Regular Polygons
